CNS-Draining Meningeal Lymphatic Vasculature: Roles, Conundrums and Future Challenges

Neuroimmunology of Cardiovascular Disease

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a leading cause of death and chronic disability worldwide. Yet, despite extensive intervention strategies the number of persons affected by CVD continues to rise. Thus, there is great interest in unveiling novel mechanisms that may lead to new treatments. Considering this dilemma, recent focus has turned to the neuroimmune mechanisms involved in CVD pathology leading to a deeper understanding of the brain's involvement in disease pathology. This review provides an overview of new and salient findings regarding the neuroimmune mechanisms that contribute to CVD.

RECENT FINDINGS

The brain contains neuroimmune niches comprised of glia in the parenchyma and immune cells at the brain's borders, and there is strong evidence that these neuroimmune niches are important in both health and disease. Mechanistic studies suggest that the activation of glia and immune cells in these niches modulates CVD progression in hypertension and heart failure and contributes to the inevitable end-organ damage to the brain. This review provides evidence supporting the role of neuroimmune niches in CVD progression. However, additional research is needed to understand the effects of prolonged neuroimmune activation on brain function.

Piezo1 regulates meningeal lymphatic vessel drainage and alleviates excessive CSF accumulation

Piezo1 regulates multiple aspects of the vascular system by converting mechanical signals generated by fluid flow into biological processes. Here, we find that Piezo1 is necessary for the proper development and function of meningeal lymphatic vessels and that activating Piezo1 through transgenic overexpression or treatment with the chemical agonist Yoda1 is sufficient to increase cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) outflow by improving lymphatic absorption and transport. The abnormal accumulation of CSF, which often leads to hydrocephalus and ventriculomegaly, currently lacks effective treatments. We discovered that meningeal lymphatics in mouse models of Down syndrome were incompletely developed and abnormally formed. Selective overexpression of Piezo1 in lymphatics or systemic administration of Yoda1 in mice with hydrocephalus or Down syndrome resulted in a notable decrease in pathological CSF accumulation, ventricular enlargement and other associated disease symptoms. Together, our study highlights the importance of Piezo1-mediated lymphatic mechanotransduction in maintaining brain fluid drainage and identifies Piezo1 as a promising therapeutic target for treating excessive CSF accumulation and ventricular enlargement.

IQGAP2 regulates blood-brain barrier immune dynamics

Brain endothelial cells (BECs) play an important role in maintaining central nervous system (CNS) homeostasis through blood-brain barrier (BBB) functions. BECs express low baseline levels of adhesion receptors, which limits entry of leukocytes. However, the molecular mediators governing this phenotype remain mostly unclear. Here, we explored how infiltration of immune cells across the BBB is influenced by the scaffold protein IQ motif containing GTPase activating protein 2 (IQGAP2). In mice and zebrafish, we demonstrate that loss of Iqgap2 increases infiltration of peripheral leukocytes into the CNS under homeostatic and inflammatory conditions. Using single-cell RNA sequencing and immunohistology, we further show that BECs from mice lacking Iqgap2 exhibit a profound inflammatory signature, including extensive upregulation of adhesion receptors and antigen-processing machinery. Human tissue analyses also reveal that Alzheimer's disease is associated with reduced hippocampal IQGAP2. Overall, our results implicate IQGAP2 as an essential regulator of BBB immune privilege and immune cell entry into the CNS.

Regulation of autoimmune-mediated neuroinflammation by endothelial cells

The CNS has traditionally been considered an immune-privileged organ, but recent studies have identified a plethora of immune cells in the choroid plexus, meninges, perivascular spaces, and cribriform plate. Although those immune cells are crucial for the maintenance of CNS homeostasis and for neural protection against infections, they can lead to neuroinflammation in some circumstances. The blood and the lymphatic vasculatures exhibit distinct structural and molecular features depending on their location in the CNS, greatly influencing the compartmentalization and the nature of CNS immune responses. In this review, we discuss how endothelial cells regulate the migration and the functions of T cells in the CNS both at steady-state and in murine models of neuroinflammation, with a special focus on the anatomical, cellular, and molecular mechanisms implicated in EAE.

Glymphatic and lymphatic communication with systemic responses during physiological and pathological conditions in the central nervous system

Crosstalk between central nervous system (CNS) and systemic responses is important in many pathological conditions, including stroke, neurodegeneration, schizophrenia, epilepsy, etc. Accumulating evidence suggest that signals for central-systemic crosstalk may utilize glymphatic and lymphatic pathways. The glymphatic system is functionally connected to the meningeal lymphatic system, and together these pathways may be involved in the distribution of soluble proteins and clearance of metabolites and waste products from the CNS. Lymphatic vessels in the dura and meninges transport cerebrospinal fluid, in part collected from the glymphatic system, to the cervical lymph nodes, where solutes coming from the brain (i.e., VEGFC, oligomeric α-syn, β-amyloid) might activate a systemic inflammatory response. There is also an element of time since the immune system is strongly regulated by circadian rhythms, and both glymphatic and lymphatic dynamics have been shown to change during the day and night. Understanding the mechanisms regulating the brain-cervical lymph node (CLN) signaling and how it might be affected by diurnal or circadian rhythms is fundamental to find specific targets and timing for therapeutic interventions.

Connecting the Dots: The Cerebral Lymphatic System as a Bridge Between the Central Nervous System and Peripheral System in Health and Disease

As a recently discovered waste removal system in the brain, cerebral lymphatic system is thought to play an important role in regulating the homeostasis of the central nervous system. Currently, more and more attention is being focused on the cerebral lymphatic system. Further understanding of the structural and functional characteristics of cerebral lymphatic system is essential to better understand the pathogenesis of diseases and to explore therapeutic approaches. In this review, we summarize the structural components and functional characteristics of cerebral lymphatic system. More importantly, it is closely associated with peripheral system diseases in the gastrointestinal tract, liver, and kidney. However, there is still a gap in the study of the cerebral lymphatic system. However, we believe that it is a critical mediator of the interactions between the central nervous system and the peripheral system.

Enhanced meningeal lymphatic drainage ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced brain injury in aged mice

BACKGROUND

Sepsis-associated encephalopathy (SAE) is an acute cerebral dysfunction caused by sepsis. Neuroinflammation induced by sepsis is considered a potential mechanism of SAE; however, very little is known about the role of the meningeal lymphatic system in SAE.

METHODS

Sepsis was established in male C57BL/6J mice by intraperitoneal injection of 5 mg/kg lipopolysaccharide, and the function of meningeal lymphatic drainage was assessed. Adeno-associated virus 1-vascular endothelial growth factor C (AAV1-VEGF-C) was injected into the cisterna magna to induce meningeal lymphangiogenesis. Ligation of deep cervical lymph nodes (dCLNs) was performed to induce pre-existing meningeal lymphatic dysfunction. Cognitive function was evaluated by a fear conditioning test, and inflammatory factors were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

RESULTS

The aged mice with SAE showed a significant decrease in the drainage of OVA-647 into the dCLNs and the coverage of the Lyve-1 in the meningeal lymphatic, indicating that sepsis impaired meningeal lymphatic drainage and morphology. The meningeal lymphatic function of aged mice was more vulnerable to sepsis in comparison to young mice. Sepsis also decreased the protein levels of caspase-3 and PSD95, which was accompanied by reductions in the activity of hippocampal neurons. Microglia were significantly activated in the hippocampus of SAE mice, which was accompanied by an increase in neuroinflammation, as indicated by increases in interleukin-1 beta, interleukin-6 and Iba1 expression. Cognitive function was impaired in aged mice with SAE. However, the injection of AAV1-VEGF-C significantly increased coverage in the lymphatic system and tracer dye uptake in dCLNs, suggesting that AAV1-VEGF-C promotes meningeal lymphangiogenesis and drainage. Furthermore, AAV1-VEGF-C reduced microglial activation and neuroinflammation and improved cognitive dysfunction. Improvement of meningeal lymphatics also reduced sepsis-induced expression of disease-associated genes in aged mice. Pre-existing lymphatic dysfunction by ligating bilateral dCLNs aggravated sepsis-induced neuroinflammation and cognitive impairment.

CONCLUSION

The meningeal lymphatic drainage is damaged in sepsis, and pre-existing defects in this drainage system exacerbate SAE-induced neuroinflammation and cognitive dysfunction. Promoting meningeal lymphatic drainage improves SAE. Manipulation of meningeal lymphangiogenesis could be a new strategy for the treatment of SAE.

Blood pressure lowering enhances cerebrospinal fluid efflux to the systemic circulation primarily via the lymphatic vasculature

BACKGROUND

Inside the incompressible cranium, the volume of cerebrospinal fluid is directly linked to blood volume: a change in either will induce a compensatory change in the other. Vasodilatory lowering of blood pressure has been shown to result in an increase of intracranial pressure, which, in normal circumstances should return to equilibrium by increased fluid efflux. In this study, we investigated the effect of blood pressure lowering on fluorescent cerebrospinal fluid tracer absorption into the systemic blood circulation.

METHODS

Blood pressure lowering was performed by an i.v. administration of nitric oxide donor (sodium nitroprusside, 5 µg kg-1 min-1) or the Ca2+-channel blocker (nicardipine hydrochloride, 0.5 µg kg-1 min-1) for 10, and 15 to 40 min, respectively. The effect of blood pressure lowering on cerebrospinal fluid clearance was investigated by measuring the efflux of fluorescent tracers (40 kDa FITC-dextran, 45 kDa Texas Red-conjugated ovalbumin) into blood and deep cervical lymph nodes. The effect of nicardipine on cerebral hemodynamics was investigated by near-infrared spectroscopy. The distribution of cerebrospinal fluid tracers (40 kDa horse radish peroxidase,160 kDa nanogold-conjugated IgG) in exit pathways was also analyzed at an ultrastructural level using electron microscopy.

RESULTS

Nicardipine and sodium nitroprusside reduced blood pressure by 32.0 ± 19.6% and 24.0 ± 13.3%, while temporarily elevating intracranial pressure by 14.0 ± 7.0% and 18.2 ± 15.0%, respectively. Blood pressure lowering significantly increased tracer accumulation into dorsal dura, deep cervical lymph nodes and systemic circulation, but reduced perivascular inflow along penetrating arteries in the brain. The enhanced tracer efflux by blood pressure lowering into the systemic circulation was markedly reduced (- 66.7%) by ligation of lymphatic vessels draining into deep cervical lymph nodes.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study showing that cerebrospinal fluid clearance can be improved with acute hypotensive treatment and that the effect of the treatment is reduced by ligation of a lymphatic drainage pathway. Enhanced cerebrospinal fluid clearance by blood pressure lowering may have therapeutic potential in diseases with dysregulated cerebrospinal fluid  flow.

Nasopharyngeal lymphatic plexus is a hub for cerebrospinal fluid drainage

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the subarachnoid space around the brain has long been known to drain through the lymphatics to cervical lymph nodes1-17, but the connections and regulation have been challenging to identify. Here, using fluorescent CSF tracers in Prox1-GFP lymphatic reporter mice18, we found that the nasopharyngeal lymphatic plexus is a major hub for CSF outflow to deep cervical lymph nodes. This plexus had unusual valves and short lymphangions but no smooth-muscle coverage, whereas downstream deep cervical lymphatics had typical semilunar valves, long lymphangions and smooth muscle coverage that transported CSF to the deep cervical lymph nodes. α-Adrenergic and nitric oxide signalling in the smooth muscle cells regulated CSF drainage through the transport properties of deep cervical lymphatics. During ageing, the nasopharyngeal lymphatic plexus atrophied, but deep cervical lymphatics were not similarly altered, and CSF outflow could still be increased by adrenergic or nitric oxide signalling. Single-cell analysis of gene expression in lymphatic endothelial cells of the nasopharyngeal plexus of aged mice revealed increased type I interferon signalling and other inflammatory cytokines. The importance of evidence for the nasopharyngeal lymphatic plexus functioning as a CSF outflow hub is highlighted by its regression during ageing. Yet, the ageing-resistant pharmacological activation of deep cervical lymphatic transport towards lymph nodes can still increase CSF outflow, offering an approach for augmenting CSF clearance in age-related neurological conditions in which greater efflux would be beneficial.

The Interplay between Meningeal Lymphatic Vessels and Neuroinflammation in Neurodegenerative Diseases

Meningeal lymphatic vessels (MLVs) are essential for the drainage of cerebrospinal fluid, macromolecules, and immune cells in the central nervous system. They play critical roles in modulating neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative diseases. Dysfunctional MLVs have been demonstrated to increase neuroinflammation by horizontally blocking the drainage of neurotoxic proteins to the peripheral lymph nodes. Conversely, MLVs protect against neuroinflammation by preventing immune cells from becoming fully encephalitogenic. Furthermore, evidence suggests that neuroinflammation affects the structure and function of MLVs, causing vascular anomalies and angiogenesis. Although this field is still in its infancy, the strong link between MLVs and neuroinflammation has emerged as a potential target for slowing the progression of neurodegenerative diseases. This review provides a brief history of the discovery of MLVs, introduces in vivo and in vitro MLV models, highlights the molecular mechanisms through which MLVs contribute to and protect against neuroinflammation, and discusses the potential impact of neuroinflammation on MLVs, focusing on recent progress in neurodegenerative diseases.

Disturbed meningeal lymphatic function associated with malignancy and progression in patients with intracranial malignant tumors

BACKGROUND

Meningeal lymphatic vessels (mLVs) have proven to bear a relationship with tumor immunity and therapeutic efficacy of intracranial malignant tumors in pre-clinical animal studies. We aimed to explore the association between mLV function and intracranial malignant tumors in clinical participants.

METHODS

The participants were allocated to a control group or a group of patients with intracranial tumors. Dynamic enhanced magnetic resonance was used to evaluate the wash-in and wash-out functions of mLVs around the superior sagittal sinus and the sigmoid sinus.

FINDINGS

A total of 246 individuals were recruited for our study. The area under curve and wash-in rate of mLVs in the intracranial tumor group were higher than in the control group (2,749 vs. 2,110, p < 0.001 and 3.72 vs. 2.87, p < 0.001, respectively). The wash-out ratio of mLVs was lower in the intracranial tumor group than in the control group (0.65 vs. 0.73, p < 0.001). Decreased wash-out of mLVs was associated with tumor progression (β = -0.118; p < 0.001). High-grade glioma and isocitrate dehydrogenase wild type were associated with a lower mLV wash-out function (β = -0.057, p = 0.044 and β = -0.069, p = 0.047, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Intracranial malignant tumors were associated with elevated wash-in function and decreased wash-out function of mLVs. High-grade glioma and isocitrate dehydrogenase wild type were associated with low mLV wash-out function, and long-term decreased mLV wash-out function was a risk factor for tumor progression.

FUNDING

There was no funding.

Diffusion along the perivascular space as a potential biomarker for glioma grading and isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 mutation status prediction

Background

The diffusion tensor image analysis along the perivascular space (DTI-ALPS) may have the potential to reflect glymphatic dysfunction in patients with glioma. The study aimed to determine the correlation of DTI-ALPS with glioma grade and isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1) genotype and to then compare the ALPS index with other diffusion metrics.

Methods

In this study, 81 patients with glioma and 31 healthy controls underwent magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) examination. The ALPS-index, fractional anisotropy (FA), mean diffusivity (MD), and mean kurtosis (MK) were calculated. Comparisons were made between the left and right hemispheres and between patients and controls. IDH1 status was compared after age adjustment. The diagnostic performance of each metric was assessed via receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis.

Results

In patients with glioma, the ALPS-index of the hemisphere ipsilateral to glioma was significantly lower than that of the hemisphere contralateral to glioma (1.417±0.177 vs. 1.478±0.165; P=0.002), and the bilateral ALPS-index values in patients were significantly decreased compared with those in healthy controls. The ALPS-index was significantly higher in lower-grade gliomas (LrGGs) than that in glioblastomas (GBMs) (1.495±0.151 vs. 1.320±0.159; P<0.001) and was significantly lower in IDH1-wild-type LrGGs than in IDH1-mutant LrGGs (1.400±0.185 vs. 1.530±0.123; P=0.036). FA, MD, and MK also showed significant differences between LrGGs and GBMs and between IDH1-mutant and IDH1-wild-type LrGGs (P<0.05). Furthermore, the combination of the ALPS-index with FA, MD, or MK, exhibited superior discrimination ability compared to each metric used alone. The ALPS-index combined with MD had the highest area under the curve (AUC) of 0.854 as compared to that of 0.614-0.807 for a single metric in glioma grading, while for IDH1 mutation prediction, this combination had the highest AUC of 0.861 as compared to that of 0.707-0.778 for a single metric.

Conclusions

The reduced ALPS-index may reflect tumor-induced glymphatic system impairment, and the ALPS-index may be able to complement conventional diffusion metrics in glioma grading and IDH1 genotyping.

Piezo1 agonist restores meningeal lymphatic vessels, drainage, and brain-CSF perfusion in craniosynostosis and aged mice

Skull development coincides with the onset of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) circulation, brain-CSF perfusion, and meningeal lymphangiogenesis, processes essential for brain waste clearance. How these processes are affected by craniofacial disorders such as craniosynostosis are poorly understood. We report that raised intracranial pressure and diminished CSF flow in craniosynostosis mouse models associate with pathological changes to meningeal lymphatic vessels that affect their sprouting, expansion, and long-term maintenance. We also show that craniosynostosis affects CSF circulatory pathways and perfusion into the brain. Further, craniosynostosis exacerbates amyloid pathology and plaque buildup in Twist1+/-:5xFAD transgenic Alzheimer's disease models. Treating craniosynostosis mice with Yoda1, a small molecule agonist for Piezo1, reduces intracranial pressure and improves CSF flow, in addition to restoring meningeal lymphangiogenesis, drainage to the deep cervical lymph nodes, and brain-CSF perfusion. Leveraging these findings, we show that Yoda1 treatments in aged mice with reduced CSF flow and turnover improve lymphatic networks, drainage, and brain-CSF perfusion. Our results suggest that CSF provides mechanical force to facilitate meningeal lymphatic growth and maintenance. Additionally, applying Yoda1 agonist in conditions with raised intracranial pressure and/or diminished CSF flow, as seen in craniosynostosis or with ageing, is a possible therapeutic option to help restore meningeal lymphatic networks and brain-CSF perfusion.

Piezo1 agonist restores meningeal lymphatic vessels, drainage, and brain-CSF perfusion in craniosynostosis and aged mice

Skull development coincides with the onset of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) circulation, brain-CSF perfusion, and meningeal lymphangiogenesis, processes essential for brain waste clearance. How these processes are affected by craniofacial disorders such as craniosynostosis are poorly understood. We report that raised intracranial pressure and diminished CSF flow in craniosynostosis mouse models associates with pathological changes to meningeal lymphatic vessels that affect their sprouting, expansion, and long-term maintenance. We also show that craniosynostosis affects CSF circulatory pathways and perfusion into the brain. Further, craniosynostosis exacerbates amyloid pathology and plaque buildup in Twist1 +/- :5xFAD transgenic Alzheimer's disease models. Treating craniosynostosis mice with Yoda1, a small molecule agonist for Piezo1, reduces intracranial pressure and improves CSF flow, in addition to restoring meningeal lymphangiogenesis, drainage to the deep cervical lymph nodes, and brain-CSF perfusion. Leveraging these findings, we show Yoda1 treatments in aged mice with reduced CSF flow and turnover improve lymphatic networks, drainage, and brain-CSF perfusion. Our results suggest CSF provides mechanical force to facilitate meningeal lymphatic growth and maintenance. Additionally, applying Yoda1 agonist in conditions with raised intracranial pressure and/or diminished CSF flow, as seen in craniosynostosis or with ageing, is a possible therapeutic option to help restore meningeal lymphatic networks and brain-CSF perfusion.

Current views on meningeal lymphatics and immunity in aging and Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an aging-related form of dementia associated with the accumulation of pathological aggregates of amyloid beta and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain. These phenomena are accompanied by exacerbated inflammation and marked neuronal loss, which altogether contribute to accelerated cognitive decline. The multifactorial nature of AD, allied to our still limited knowledge of its etiology and pathophysiology, have lessened our capacity to develop effective treatments for AD patients. Over the last few decades, genome wide association studies and biomarker development, alongside mechanistic experiments involving animal models, have identified different immune components that play key roles in the modulation of brain pathology in AD, affecting its progression and severity. As we will relay in this review, much of the recent efforts have been directed to better understanding the role of brain innate immunity, and particularly of microglia. However, and despite the lack of diversity within brain resident immune cells, the brain border tissues, especially the meninges, harbour a considerable number of different types and subtypes of adaptive and innate immune cells. Alongside microglia, which have taken the centre stage as important players in AD research, there is new and exciting evidence pointing to adaptive immune cells, namely T and B cells found in the brain and its meninges, as important modulators of neuroinflammation and neuronal (dys)function in AD. Importantly, a genuine and functional lymphatic vascular network is present around the brain in the outermost meningeal layer, the dura. The meningeal lymphatics are directly connected to the peripheral lymphatic system in different mammalian species, including humans, and play a crucial role in preserving a "healthy" immune surveillance of the CNS, by shaping immune responses, not only locally at the meninges, but also at the level of the brain tissue. In this review, we will provide a comprehensive view on our current knowledge about the meningeal lymphatic vasculature, emphasizing its described roles in modulating CNS fluid and macromolecule drainage, meningeal and brain immunity, as well as glial and neuronal function in aging and in AD.

Traumatic brain injury induces an adaptive immune response in the meningeal transcriptome that is amplified by aging

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) is a major cause of disability and mortality, particularly among the elderly, yet our mechanistic understanding of how age renders the post-traumatic brain vulnerable to poor clinical outcomes and susceptible to neurological disease remains poorly understood. It is well established that dysregulated and sustained immune responses contribute to negative outcomes after TBI, however our understanding of the interactions between central and peripheral immune reservoirs is still unclear. The meninges serve as the interface between the brain and the immune system, facilitating important bi-directional roles in healthy and disease settings. It has been previously shown that disruption of this system exacerbates inflammation in age related neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, however we have an incomplete understanding of how the meningeal compartment influences immune responses after TBI. Here, we examine the meningeal tissue and its response to brain injury in young (3-months) and aged (18-months) mice. Utilizing a bioinformatic approach, high-throughput RNA sequencing demonstrates alterations in the meningeal transcriptome at sub-acute (7-days) and chronic (1 month) timepoints after injury. We find that age alone chronically exacerbates immunoglobulin production and B cell responses. After TBI, adaptive immune response genes are up-regulated in a temporal manner, with genes involved in T cell responses elevated sub-acutely, followed by increases in B cell related genes at chronic time points after injury. Pro-inflammatory cytokines are also implicated as contributing to the immune response in the meninges, with ingenuity pathway analysis identifying interferons as master regulators in aged mice compared to young mice following TBI. Collectively these data demonstrate the temporal series of meningeal specific signatures, providing insights into how age leads to worse neuroinflammatory outcomes in TBI.

Non-invasive flow mapping of parasagittal meningeal lymphatics using 2D interslice flow saturation MRI

The clearance pathways of brain waste products in humans are still under debate in part due to the lack of noninvasive imaging techniques for meningeal lymphatic vessels (mLVs). In this study, we propose a new noninvasive mLVs imaging technique based on an inter-slice blood perfusion MRI called alternate ascending/descending directional navigation (ALADDIN). ALADDIN with inversion recovery (IR) at single inversion time of 2300 ms (single-TI IR-ALADDIN) clearly demonstrated parasagittal mLVs around the human superior sagittal sinus (SSS) with better detectability and specificity than the previously suggested noninvasive imaging techniques. While in many studies it has been difficult to detect mLVs and confirm their signal source noninvasively, the detection of mLVs in this study was confirmed by their posterior to anterior flow direction and their velocities and morphological features, which were consistent with those from the literature. In addition, IR-ALADDIN was compared with contrast-enhanced black blood imaging to confirm the detection of mLVs and its similarity. For the quantification of flow velocity of mLVs, IR-ALADDIN was performed at three inversion times of 2000, 2300, and 2600 ms (three-TI IR-ALADDIN) for both a flow phantom and humans. For this preliminary result, the flow velocity of the dorsal mLVs in humans ranged between 2.2 and 2.7 mm/s. Overall, (i) the single-TI IR-ALADDIN can be used as a novel non-invasive method to visualize mLVs in the whole brain with scan time of ~ 17 min and (ii) the multi-TI IR-ALADDIN can be used as a way to quantify the flow velocity of mLVs with a scan time of ~ 10 min (or shorter) in a limited coverage. Accordingly, the suggested approach can be applied to noninvasively studying meningeal lymphatic flows in general and also understanding the clearance pathways of waste production through mLVs in humans, which warrants further investigation.

Exosomal cargos-mediated metabolic reprogramming in tumor microenvironment

Metabolic reprogramming is one of the hallmarks of cancer. As nutrients are scarce in the tumor microenvironment (TME), tumor cells adopt multiple metabolic adaptations to meet their growth requirements. Metabolic reprogramming is not only present in tumor cells, but exosomal cargos mediates intercellular communication between tumor cells and non-tumor cells in the TME, inducing metabolic remodeling to create an outpost of microvascular enrichment and immune escape. Here, we highlight the composition and characteristics of TME, meanwhile summarize the components of exosomal cargos and their corresponding sorting mode. Functionally, these exosomal cargos-mediated metabolic reprogramming improves the "soil" for tumor growth and metastasis. Moreover, we discuss the abnormal tumor metabolism targeted by exosomal cargos and its potential antitumor therapy. In conclusion, this review updates the current role of exosomal cargos in TME metabolic reprogramming and enriches the future application scenarios of exosomes.

Neuroinvasive Onchocerca lupi Infection in a Ten-Year-Old Girl

The nematode Onchocerca lupi is an emerging human pathogen. Though its life cycle is not well studied, it likely infects humans after a bite from a black fly vector, which in turn acquires infective microfilariae from an infected canid. These microfilariae mature into an infective larval stage within the fly. Among six reported cases in the United States, five involved children, and all occurred in the southwest. In this report, we present a case of O. lupi infection with cervical spine invasion in a healthy 10-year-old girl. She presented with five months of neurological symptoms from a rural and medically underserved area, highlighting a need for clinical vigilance in such settings for this emerging infectious threat in the American southwest.

Physiology of Glymphatic Solute Transport and Waste Clearance from the Brain

This review focuses on the physiology of glymphatic solute transport and waste clearance, using evidence from experimental animal models as well as from human studies. Specific topics addressed include the biophysical characteristics of fluid and solute transport in the central nervous system, glymphatic-lymphatic coupling, as well as the role of cerebrospinal fluid movement for brain waste clearance. We also discuss the current understanding of mechanisms underlying increased waste clearance during sleep.

Migraine Pharmacological Treatment and Cognitive Impairment: Risks and Benefits

Migraine is a common neurological disorder impairing the quality of life of patients. The condition requires, as an acute or prophylactic line of intervention, the frequent use of drugs acting on the central nervous system (CNS). The long-term impact of these medications on cognition and neurodegeneration has never been consistently assessed. The paper reviews pharmacological migraine treatments and discusses their biological and clinical effects on the CNS. The different anti-migraine drugs show distinct profiles concerning neurodegeneration and the risk of cognitive deficits. These features should be carefully evaluated when prescribing a pharmacological treatment as many migraineurs are of scholar or working age and their performances may be affected by drug misuse. Thus, a reconsideration of therapy guidelines is warranted. Furthermore, since conflicting results have emerged in the relationship between migraine and dementia, future studies must consider present and past pharmacological regimens as potential confounding factors.

Significance of developmental meningeal lymphatic dysfunction in experimental post-traumatic injury

Understanding the pathological mechanisms unfolding after chronic traumatic brain injury (TBI) could reveal new therapeutic entry points. During the post-TBI sequel, the involvement of cerebrospinal fluid drainage through the meningeal lymphatic vessels was proposed. Here, we used K14-VEGFR3-Ig transgenic mice to analyze whether a developmental dysfunction of meningeal lymphatic vessels modifies post-TBI pathology. To this end, a moderate TBI was delivered by controlled cortical injury over the temporal lobe in male transgenic mice or their littermate controls. We performed MRI and a battery of behavioral tests over time to define the post-TBI trajectories. In vivo analyses were integrated by ex-vivo quantitative and morphometric examinations of the cortical lesion and glial cells.

In post-TBI K14-VEGFR3-Ig mice, the recovery from motor deficits was protracted compared to littermates. This outcome is coherent with the observed slower hematoma clearance in transgenic mice during the first two weeks post-TBI. No other genotype-related behavioral differences were observed, and the volume of cortical lesions imaged by MRI in vivo, and confirmed by histology ex-vivo, were comparable in both groups. However, at the cellular level, post-TBI K14-VEGFR3-Ig mice exhibited an increased percentage of activated Iba1 microglia in the hippocampus and auditory cortex, areas that are proximal to the lesion.

Although not impacting or modifying the structural brain damage and post-TBI behavior, a pre-existing dysfunction of meningeal lymphatic vessels is associated with morphological microglial activation over time, possibly representing a sub-clinical pathological imprint or a vulnerability factor. Our findings suggest that pre-existing mLV deficits could represent a possible risk factor for the overall outcome of TBI pathology.

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Developmental deficit in the meningeal lymphatic vessels contributes to sustain the chronic neuroinflammation and represent a susceptibility factor in TBI, despite the lack of a functional phenotype.

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Development and progression of TBI-related cortical lesion is not exacerbated by developmental deficit in meningeal lymphatics.

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Meningeal lymphatic developmental deficits result in increased neuroinflammation, suggesting a sub-clinical pathological imprint or a vulnerability factor.

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Congenital mLV deficit affects the interstitial fluid dynamics and the post-TBI hematoma resolution.

Immune-vascular mural cell interactions: consequences for immune cell trafficking, cerebral blood flow, and the blood-brain barrier

Brain barriers are crucial sites for cerebral energy supply, waste removal, immune cell migration, and solute exchange, all of which maintain an appropriate environment for neuronal activity. At the capillary level, where the largest area of brain-vascular interface occurs, pericytes adjust cerebral blood flow (CBF) by regulating capillary diameter and maintain the blood-brain barrier (BBB) by suppressing endothelial cell (EC) transcytosis and inducing tight junction expression between ECs. Pericytes also limit the infiltration of circulating leukocytes into the brain where resident microglia confine brain injury and provide the first line of defence against invading pathogens. Brain "waste" is cleared across the BBB into the blood, phagocytosed by microglia and astrocytes, or removed by the flow of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) through perivascular routes-a process driven by respiratory motion and the pulsation of the heart, arteriolar smooth muscle, and possibly pericytes. "Dirty" CSF exits the brain and is probably drained around olfactory nerve rootlets and via the dural meningeal lymphatic vessels and possibly the skull bone marrow. The brain is widely regarded as an immune-privileged organ because it is accessible to few antigen-primed leukocytes. Leukocytes enter the brain via the meninges, the BBB, and the blood-CSF barrier. Advances in genetic and imaging tools have revealed that neurological diseases significantly alter immune-brain barrier interactions in at least three ways: (1) the brain's immune-privileged status is compromised when pericytes are lost or lymphatic vessels are dysregulated; (2) immune cells release vasoactive molecules to regulate CBF, modulate arteriole stiffness, and can plug and eliminate capillaries which impairs CBF and possibly waste clearance; and (3) immune-vascular interactions can make the BBB leaky via multiple mechanisms, thus aggravating the influx of undesirable substances and cells. Here, we review developments in these three areas and briefly discuss potential therapeutic avenues for restoring brain barrier functions.

Reactive Oxygen Species in Regulating Lymphangiogenesis and Lymphatic Function

The lymphatic system is pivotal for immunosurveillance and the maintenance of tissue homeostasis. Lymphangiogenesis, the formation of new lymphatic vessels from pre-existing vessels, has both physiological and pathological roles. Recent advances in the molecular mechanisms regulating lymphangiogenesis have opened a new area of research on reparative lymphangiogenesis for the treatment of various pathological disorders comprising neurological disorders, cardiac repair, autoimmune disease, obesity, atherosclerosis, etc. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced by the various cell types serve as signaling molecules in several cellular mechanisms and regulate various aspects of growth-factor-mediated responses, including lymphangiogenesis. The ROS, including superoxide anion, hydrogen peroxide, and nitric oxide, play both beneficial and detrimental roles depending upon their levels and cellular microenvironment. Low ROS levels are essential for lymphangiogenesis. On the contrary, oxidative stress due to enhanced ROS generation and/or reduced levels of antioxidants suppresses lymphangiogenesis via promoting lymphatic endothelial cell apoptosis and death. In this review article, we provide an overview of types and sources of ROS, discuss the role of ROS in governing lymphangiogenesis and lymphatic function, and summarize the role of lymphatics in various diseases.

Effect of Probiotic Bifidobacterium breve in Improving Cognitive Function and Preventing Brain Atrophy in Older Patients with Suspected Mild Cognitive Impairment: Results of a 24-Week Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial

Background:

Probiotics have been reported to ameliorate cognitive impairment.

Objective:

We investigated the effect of the probiotic strain Bifidobacterium breve MCC1274 (A1) in enhancing cognition and preventing brain atrophy of older patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI).

Methods:

In this RCT, 130 patients aged from 65 to 88 years old with suspected MCI received once daily either probiotic (B. breve MCC1274, 2×10¹⁰ CFU) or placebo for 24 weeks. Cognitive functions were assessed by ADAS-Jcog and MMSE tests. Participants underwent MRI to determine brain atrophy changes using Voxel-based Specific Regional Analysis System for Alzheimer’s disease (VSRAD). Fecal samples were collected for the analysis of gut microbiota composition.

Results:

Analysis was performed on 115 participants as the full analysis set (probiotic 55, placebo 60). ADAS-Jcog subscale “orientation” was significantly improved compared to placebo at 24 weeks. MMSE subscales “orientation in time” and “writing” were significantly improved compared to placebo in the lower baseline MMSE (< 25) subgroup at 24 weeks. VSRAD scores worsened in the placebo group; probiotic supplementation tended to suppress the progression, in particular among those subjects with progressed brain atrophy (VOI Z-score ≥1.0). There were no marked changes in the overall composition of the gut microbiota by the probiotic supplementation.

Conclusion:

Improvement of cognitive function was observed on some subscales scores only likely due to the lower sensitiveness of these tests for MCI subjects. Probiotics consumption for 24 weeks suppressed brain atrophy progression, suggesting that B. breve MCC1274 helps prevent cognitive impairment of MCI subjects.

Immune Pathways in Etiology, Acute Phase, and Chronic Sequelae of Ischemic Stroke

Inflammation and immune mechanisms are crucially involved in the pathophysiology of the development, acute damage cascades, and chronic course after ischemic stroke. Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory disease, and, in addition to classical risk factors, maladaptive immune mechanisms lead to an increased risk of stroke. Accordingly, individuals with signs of inflammation or corresponding biomarkers have an increased risk of stroke. Anti-inflammatory drugs, such as IL (interleukin)-1β blockers, methotrexate, or colchicine, represent attractive treatment strategies to prevent vascular events and stroke. Lately, the COVID-19 pandemic shows a clear association between SARS-CoV2 infections and increased risk of cerebrovascular events. Furthermore, mechanisms of both innate and adaptive immune systems influence cerebral damage cascades after ischemic stroke. Neutrophils, monocytes, and microglia, as well as T and B lymphocytes each play complex interdependent roles that synergize to remove dead tissue but also can cause bystander injury to intact brain cells and generate maladaptive chronic inflammation. Chronic systemic inflammation and comorbid infections may unfavorably influence both outcome after stroke and recurrence risk for further stroke. In addition, stroke triggers specific immune depression, which in turn can promote infections. Recent research is now increasingly addressing the question of the extent to which immune mechanisms may influence long-term outcome after stroke and, in particular, cause specific complications such as poststroke dementia or even poststroke depression.

Immune System Alterations and Postpartum Mental Illness: Evidence From Basic and Clinical Research

The postpartum period is a time associated with high rates of depression and anxiety as well as greater risk for psychosis in some women. A growing number of studies point to aberrations in immune system function as contributing to postpartum mental illness. Here we review evidence from both clinical and animal models suggesting an immune component to postpartum depression, postpartum anxiety, and postpartum psychosis. Thus far, clinical data primarily highlights changes in peripheral cytokine signaling in disease etiology, while animal models have begun to provide insight into the immune environment of the maternal brain and how central inflammation may also be contributing to postpartum mental illnesses. Further research investigating peripheral and central immune function, along with neural and endocrine interactions, will be important in successfully developing novel prevention and treatment strategies for these serious disorders that impact a large portion of new mothers.

Specificity of Adaptive Immune Responses in Central Nervous System Health, Aging and Diseases

The field of neuroimmunology endorses the involvement of the adaptive immune system in central nervous system (CNS) health, disease, and aging. While immune cell trafficking into the CNS is highly regulated, small numbers of antigen-experienced lymphocytes can still enter the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)-filled compartments for regular immune surveillance under homeostatic conditions. Meningeal lymphatics facilitate drainage of brain-derived antigens from the CSF to deep cervical lymph nodes to prime potential adaptive immune responses. During aging and CNS disorders, brain barriers and meningeal lymphatic functions are impaired, and immune cell trafficking and antigen efflux are altered. In this context, alterations in the immune cell repertoire of blood and CSF and T and B cells primed against CNS-derived autoantigens have been observed in various CNS disorders. However, for many diseases, a causal relationship between observed immune responses and neuropathological findings is lacking. Here, we review recent discoveries about the association between the adaptive immune system and CNS disorders such as autoimmune neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases. We focus on the current challenges in identifying specific T cell epitopes in CNS diseases and discuss the potential implications for future diagnostic and treatment options.