Hydroxysafflor Yellow A and Anhydrosafflor Yellow B Protect Against Cerebral Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury by Attenuating Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis via the Silent Information Regulator 1 Signaling Pathway

Carthamus tinctorius L. inhibits hepatic fibrosis and hepatic stellate cell activation by targeting the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway

Hepatic fibrosis (HF) is a process that occurs during the progression of several chronic liver diseases, for which there is a lack of effective treatment options. Carthamus tinctorius L. (CTL) is often used in Chinese or Mongolian medicine to treat liver diseases. However, its mechanism of action remains unclear. In the present study, CTL was used to treat rats with CCl4‑induced HF. The histopathological, biochemical and HF markers of the livers of the rats were analyzed, and CTL‑infused serum was used to treat hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) in order to detect the relevant markers of HSC activation. Protein expression pathways were detected both in vitro and in vivo. Histopathological results showed that CTL significantly improved CCl4‑induced liver injury, reduced aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase levels, promoted E‑cadherin expression, and decreased α‑smooth muscle actin (SMA), SOX9, collagen I and hydroxyproline expression. Moreover, CTL‑infused serum was found to decrease α‑SMA and collagen I expression in HSCs. Further studies showed that CTL inhibited the activity of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway in the rat livers. Following the administration of the PI3K agonist 740Y‑P to HSCs, the inhibitory effect of CTL on the PI3K/Akt//mTOR pathway was blocked. These results suggested that CTL can inhibit HF and HSC activation by inhibiting the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway.

A Combination of Astragaloside IV and Hydroxysafflor Yellow A Attenuates Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury via NF-κB/NLRP3/Caspase-1/GSDMD Pathway

Cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI), occurring after blood supply restoration, contributes significantly to stroke-related deaths. This study explored the combined impact and mechanisms of astragaloside IV (AS-IV), hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA), and their combination in mitigating IRI. Male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were randomized to the Sham, MCAO, MCAO+AS-IV, MCAO+HSYA, and MCAO+AS-IV+HSYA groups. Neurological deficits and cerebral infarction were examined after restoring the blood supply to the brain. Pathomorphological changes in the cerebral cortex were observed via HE staining. IL-1β and IL-18 were quantified using ELISA. The expression of NF-κB and GSDMD in the ischemic cerebrum was analyzed using immunohistochemistry. The expression levels of NLRP3, ASC, IL-1β, Caspase-1, and GSDMD in the ischemic cerebrum were evaluated using Western blot. The MCAO+AS-IV, MCAO+HSYA, and MCAO+AS-IV+HSYA groups exhibited notably better neurological function and cerebral infarction compared with the MCAO group. The combined treatment demonstrated superior brain tissue injury alleviation. Reductions in NF-κB, GSDMD positive cells, and NLRP3/ASC/IL-1β/Caspase-1/GSDMD protein expression in the ischemic brain were significantly more pronounced with the combined therapy, indicating a synergistic effect in countering cerebral IRI via the NF-κB/NLRP3/Caspase-1/GSDMD pathway inhibition of cell pyroptosis-induced injury.

Genetic diversity, clinical uses, and phytochemical and pharmacological properties of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.): an important medicinal plant

Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.), a member of the Asteraceae family, is widely used in traditional herbal medicine. This review summarized agronomic conditions, genetic diversity, clinical application, and phytochemicals and pharmacological properties of safflower. The genetic diversity of the plant is rich. Abundant in secondary metabolites like flavonoids, phenols, alkaloids, polysaccharides, fatty acids, polyacetylene, and other bioactive components, the medicinal plant is effective for treating cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, and respiratory diseases. Especially, Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HYSA) has a variety of pharmacological effects. In terms of treatment and prevention of some space sickness in space travel, safflower could be a potential therapeutic agent. Further studies are still required to support the development of safflower in medicine. Our review indicates that safflower is an important medicinal plant and research prospects regarding safflower are very broad and worthy of further investigation.

Neuroprotective effect of, a flavonoid, sudachitin in mice stroke model

A flavonoid, sudachitin, has been reported to show some beneficial health effects, including as an anti-inflammatory in LPS-stimulated macrophages, as well as improving glucose and lipid metabolism in mice fed a high-fat diet. In this study, we investigated the neuroprotective effect of sudachitin in the transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) mouse model. After daily pre-treatment of vehicle or sudachitin (5 or 50 mg/kg) for 14 days, mice (n = 76) were subjected to a sham operation or tMCAO for 45 min, and on the following days, they were treated daily with vehicle or sudachitin. The administration of sudachitin significantly reduced (p < 0.05) cerebral infarct volume and attenuated apoptosis, 5 days after tMCAO. Neurological impairment improved, the expression of an oxidative stress marker, 4-HNE, decreased, and the Sirt1/PGC-1α pathway was activated 5 days after tMCAO in the sudachitin-treated group. This is the first report to demonstrate the neuroprotective effect of sudachitin in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury mice model, probably by activating the Sirt1/PGC-1α axis. Sudachitin may be a promising supplement or therapeutic agent for reducing injury caused by ischemic strokes.

Optimized Separation of Carthamin from Safflower by Macroporous Adsorption Resins and Its Protective Effects on PC12 Cells Injured by OGD/R via Nrf2 Signaling Pathway

The growing demand for safe natural products has reignited people's interest in natural food pigments. Here, we proposed the use of macroporous adsorption resins (MARs) to separate and purify carthamin from safflower. The optimal parameters for carthamin purification with HPD400 MAR were determined as follows: a mass ratio of crude carthamin in sample solution to wet resin of 0.3, a crude carthamin solution concentration of 0.125 g·mL-1, a pH of 6.00, a sample volume flow rate of 0.5 mL·min-1, an ethanol volume fraction of 58%, an elution volume of 4 BV, and an elution volume flow rate of 1.0 mL·min-1. Under the above purification conditions, the recovery rate of carthamin was above 96%. Carthamin dramatically improved the survival rate of PC12 cells damaged by oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation and protected them from oxidative stress by inhibiting the generation of reactive oxygen species and increasing the total antioxidant capacity and glutathione (GSH) levels. Carthamin promoted extracellularly regulated protein kinase phosphorylation into the nucleus, permitting Nrf2 nuclear translocation and upregulating the gene expression of the rate-limiting enzymes glutamate-cysteine ligase catalytic subunit and glutamate-cysteine ligase regulatory subunit of GSH synthesis to obliterate free radicals and exert antioxidant effects. This study revealed the purification method of carthamin and its antioxidant protective effects, providing important insights into the application of carthamin in functional foods.

Metabolomics: A useful tool for ischemic stroke research

Ischemic stroke (IS) is a multifactorial and heterogeneous disease. Despite years of studies, effective strategies for the diagnosis, management and treatment of stroke are still lacking in clinical practice. Metabolomics is a growing field in systems biology. It is starting to show promise in the identification of biomarkers and in the use of pharmacometabolomics to help patients with certain disorders choose their course of treatment. The development of metabolomics has enabled further and more biological applications. Particularly, metabolomics is increasingly being used to diagnose diseases, discover new drug targets, elucidate mechanisms, and monitor therapeutic outcomes and its potential effect on precision medicine. In this review, we reviewed some recent advances in the study of metabolomics as well as how metabolomics might be used to identify novel biomarkers and understand the mechanisms of IS. Then, the use of metabolomics approaches to investigate the molecular processes and active ingredients of Chinese herbal formulations with anti-IS capabilities is summarized. We finally summarized recent developments in single cell metabolomics for exploring the metabolic profiles of single cells. Although the field is relatively young, the development of single cell metabolomics promises to provide a powerful tool for unraveling the pathogenesis of IS.

Anti-cerebral ischemic neuronal injury mechanism of Zhenlong Xingnao capsules: role of the Notch/NF-κB signaling pathway

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the anti-cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury (CIRI) effect and mechanism of Zhenlong Xingnao capsules based on Notch/NF-κB signaling pathway.

METHODS

The rat model of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) was established using the Longa suture occlusion method, and 70 rats were divided into sham-operated, model, low dose Zhenlong Xingnao capsule group (125 mg/kg Zhenlong Xingnao capsule solution) and high dose Zhenlong Xingnao capsule group (250 mg/kg Zhenlong Xingnao capsule solution), low dose Zhenlong Xingnao capsule + neurogenic site notch homologous protein 1 (Notch1) antibody (Jagged1 group, 125 mg/kg capsule solution + 25 mg/kg Jagged1 solution), high dose Zhenlong Xingnao capsule + Jagged1 group (250 mg/kg capsule solution + 25 mg/kg Jagged1 solution), and Jagged1 group (25 mg/kg Jagged1 solution). The learning and memory abilities (behavioral score, spontaneous movement, and rotarod test), neurological function score, inflammatory factors and oxidative stress levels [interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), superoxide dismutase (SOD)] in hippocampal tissue, and Bcl-2, Bax, and Caspase-3 mRNA levels were measured by reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction, and Notch1/NF-κB signaling pathway-related protein expression was assessed by Western blot.

RESULTS

The low and high dose interventions of Zhenlong Xingnao capsules significantly improved the learning and memory abilities of MCAO rats, reduced the neurological impairment scores, improved the levels of IL-6, TNF-α, MDA, GSH-Px, SOD, and inhibited the expression levels of Notch1, p-NF-κB p65, and Hes-1 proteins. However, the protective effect of Zhenlong Xingnao capsules on neurons in rat brain tissue could be reduced after treatment with Jagged1.

CONCLUSIONS

Zhenlong Xingnao capsules can promote neuronal repair during ischemia-reperfusion, and its mechanism may be related to inhibiting the activation of Notch/NF-κB signaling pathway and reducing inflammation and oxidative stress response.

Hydroxysafflor Yellow A Exerts Neuroprotective Effect by Reducing Aβ Toxicity Through Inhibiting Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress in Oxygen-Glucose Deprivation/Reperfusion Cell Model

Ischemia stroke is thought to be one of the vascular risks associated with neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) has been reported to protect against stroke and AD, while the underlying mechanism remains unclear. In this study, SH-SY5Y cell model treated with oxygen-glucose deprivation/reperfusion (OGD/R) was used to explore the potential mechanism of HSYA. Results from cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) showed that 10 μM HSYA restored the cell viability after OGD 2 hours/R 24 hours. HSYA reduced the levels of malondialdehyde and reactive oxygen species, while improved the levels of superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase. Furthermore, apoptosis was inhibited, and the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor was improved after HSYA treatment. In addition, the expression levels of amyloid-β peptides (Aβ) and BACE1 were decreased by HSYA, as well as the expression levels of binding immunoglobulin heavy chain protein, PKR-like endoplasmic reticulum (ER) kinase pathway, and activating transcription factor 6 pathway, whereas the expression level of protein disulfide isomerase was increased. Based on these results, HSYA might reduce Aβ toxicity after OGD/R by interfering with apoptosis, oxidation, and neurotrophic factors, as well as relieving ER stress.

Guhong injection mitigates myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury by activating GST P to inhibit ASK1-JNK/p38 pathway

BACKGROUND

Guhong injection (GHI), a novel compound preparation that is composed of a chemical drug, namely aceglutamide, and the aqueous extract of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.), exhibits extreme antioxidative, antiapoptotic, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects. Since oxidative stress, apoptosis, and inflammatory response are all the dominant mechanisms of myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (MI/R) injury, we probe into the protective mechanism of GHI on MI/R injury for the first time.

METHODS

In this research, we first employed molecular docking to determine whether three active ingredients in GHI, acetylglutamine (NAG), hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA), and syringin, possessed the potential activity to modulate the protein, glutathione S-transferase P (GST P). We further identified the protective effect of GHI on myocardial tissue with TTC staining, HE staining, TUNEL staining, and ELISA, and on H9c2 with flow cytometry and ELISA. We next explored whether the cardioprotective effect of GHI on left anterior descending ligation-reperfusion in rats and hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) in H9c2 cells was related to activate GST P to inhibit ASK1-JNK/p38 pathway via approaches of qRT-PCR and Western blot.

RESULTS

Results of molecular docking indicated that all three compounds spontaneously docked to GST P, among them the binding affinities of both HSYA and syringin to GST P were higher than NAG. In vivo, GHI reduced myocardial infarction size and mitigated myocardial pathological injury. In vitro, GHI enhanced cell viability and extenuated depolarization of mitochondrial membrane potential. In addition, the results of in vivo and in vitro studies demonstrated that the cardioprotection of GHI was associated with improving the mRNA and protein expression levels of GST P to modulate oxidative stress, and inhibiting the levels of mRNA expression and protein phosphorylation of ASK1, JNK, and p38. However, the suppressed effect of GHI on ASK1-JNK/p38 pathway was reversed by ethacrynic acid (EA, a GST inhibitor), indicating that the regulation of GHI on ASK1-JNK/p38 was related to the activity of GST P. Besides, the in vitro results of qRT-PCR and western-blot also certified that the inhibited JNK and p38 further reduced Bax expression and elevated Bcl-2 expression to reduce the expression of caspase-3 to exert anti-apoptosis effects.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, the cardioprotection of GHI mainly incarnated in activating GST P to relieve oxidation properties, thereby inhibiting ASK1-JNK/p38 pathway to suppress apoptosis.

Protective potential of hydroxysafflor yellow A in cerebral ischemia and reperfusion injury: An overview of evidence from experimental studies

Ischemic stroke, mostly caused by thromboembolic or thrombotic arterial occlusions, is a primary leading cause of death worldwide with high morbidity and disability. Unfortunately, no specific medicine is available for the treatment of cerebral I/R injury due to its limitation of therapeutic window. Hydroxysafflor yellow A, a natural product extracted from Carthamus tinctorius, has been extensively investigated on its pharmacological properties in cerebrovascular diseases. However, review focusing on the beneficial role of HSYA against cerebral I/R injury is still lacking. In this paper, we reviewed the neuroprotective effect of HSYA in preclinical studies and the underlying mechanisms involved, as well as clinical data that support the pharmacological activities. Additionally, the sources, physicochemical properties, biosynthesis, safety and limitations of HSYA were also reviewed. As a result, HSYA possesses a wide range of beneficial effects against cerebral I/R injury, and its action mechanisms include anti-excitotoxicity, anti-oxidant stress, anti-apoptosis, anti-inflammation, attenuating BBB leakage and regulating autophagy. Collectively, HSYA might be applied as one of the promising alternatives in ischemic stroke treatment.

Emerging Treatment Strategies for Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury

Cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury (CI/RI) injury is a common feature of ischemic stroke which occurs when the blood supply is restored after a period of ischemia in the brain. Reduced blood-flow to the brain during CI/RI compromises neuronal cell health as a result of mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, cytokine production, inflammation and tissue damage. Reperfusion therapy during CI/RI can restore the blood flow to ischemic regions of brain which are not yet infarcted. The long-term goal of CI/RI therapy is to reduce stroke-related neuronal cell death, disability and mortality. A range of drug and interventional therapies have emerged that can alleviate CI/RI mediated oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis in the brain. Herein, we review recent studies on CI/RI interventions for which a mechanism of action has been described and the potential of these therapeutic modalities for future use in the clinic.

Salidroside inhibited cerebral ischemia/reperfusion-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis via Nrf2/Trx1 signaling pathway

Cerebral ischemia reperfusion injury (CIRI) is still a serious problem threatening human health. Salidroside (SAL) is a natural phenylpropanoid glycoside compound with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-ischemic properties. This study investigated the protective mechanism of SAL on middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO)- and oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R) model-induced CIRI via regulating the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/thioredoxin 1 (Trx1) axis. The results indicated that SAL (50 mg/kg or 100 mg/kg, intraperitoneal injection) not only effectively alleviated infarction rate, improved histopathological changes, relieved apoptosis by strengthening the suppression of cleaved caspase-3 and Bax/Bcl-2 proteins and decreased malondialdehyde (MDA) formation, but also increased superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities and upregulated the expressions of Nrf2 and Trx1 on MCAO-induced CIRI rats. SAL also efficiently inhibited apoptosis and decreased oxidative stress in OGD/R-stimulated PC12 cells. Furthermore, blocking the Nrf2/Trx1 pathway using tretinoin, an Nrf2 inhibitor, significantly reversed the protective effect of SAL on OGD/R-induced oxidative stress. Moreover, SAL reduced the expression of apoptosis signal-regulating kinase-1 (ASK1) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family proteins. These results demonstrated that SAL inhibited oxidative stress through Nrf2/Trx1 signaling pathway, and subsequently reduced CIRI-induced apoptosis by inhibiting ASK1/MAPK.

Optimization of smashing tissue and ultrasonic extraction of tanshinones and their neuroprotective effect on cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury by inhibiting parthanatos

A green smashing tissue and ultrasonic (STU) extraction method, which combines smashing tissue and ultrasonic-assisted extraction, was developed for the first time. The extraction of tanshinones from Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge (SM) was taken as an example to discuss the practicability of this method. Taking the total yield of eight tanshinones as an evaluation index, response surface methodology (RSM) and artificial neural network (ANN) models were used to optimize the extraction parameters, and these two models were also compared by investigating the extract yield of tanshinones and the antioxidant activity of the obtained SM extract. The optimal STU conditions by ANN were as follows: an ethanol concentration of 73%, a liquid/solid ratio of 30 mL g^-1, a smashing tissue time of 97 s and an ultrasonic time of 40 min. Under these optimal conditions, the yield of the eight components was 0.30% ± 0.12, which was greater than 0.28% ± 0.03 optimized by RSM. The IC₅₀ values of 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2'-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) diammonium salt (ABTS) of the obtained extract were 55.25 ± 3.72 μg mL^-1 and 67.33 ± 2.62 μg mL^-1, respectively, which were better than those of 75.49 ± 4.33 μg mL^-1 and 112.10 ± 5.98 μg mL^-1, respectively, optimized by RSM. Furthermore, the SM extract was found to exert neuroprotective effects by inhibiting parthanatos in middle cerebral artery occlusion/reperfusion (MCAO/R)-induced rats. The results supported the use of the SM extract, which was obtained by STU, as a potential product in the cosmetics, medicine, and food industries.

Therapeutic targets by traditional Chinese medicine for ischemia-reperfusion injury induced apoptosis on cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has a significant role in treating and preventing human diseases. Ischemic heart and cerebrovascular injuries are two types of diseases with different clinical manifestations with high prevalence and incidence. In recent years, it has been reported that many TCM has beneficial effects on ischemic diseases through the inhibition of apoptosis, which is the key target to treat myocardial and cerebral ischemia. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the mechanisms of various TCMs in treating ischemic cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases through anti-apoptotic targets and pathways. However, clinical investigations into elucidating the pharmacodynamic ingredients of TCM are still lacking, which should be further demystified in the future. Overall, the inhibition of apoptosis by TCM may be an effective strategy for treating ischemic cardio-cerebrovascular diseases.

Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Hydroxyl Safflower Yellow a in Diabetic Nephropathy: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

Background: Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is a chronic progressive disorder which is a leading cause of chronic kidney disease (CKD). As an important pathogenesis of DKD, the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the inflammatory response have been considered central mediators in the progression of DKD. Herbal products are increasingly being applied as antioxidants and anti-inflammatory agents. Of those, the effect of hydroxyl safflower yellow A (HSYA) on oxidative stress and inflammatory reactions has gradually been investigated for DKD treatment, which may provide therapies for DKD with new insights and promote its application in clinical practice.

Methods: We searched CNKI, the Chinese Biomedical Literature Database, the Wanfang Database, PubMed, and Embase from the establishment date of the database to 22 April 2022. The included literature in our study was randomized controlled trials (RCTs) using HSYA to treat DKD. We performed a meta-analysis by calculating the standard mean difference (SMD) with a 95% confidence interval (CI). The inverse-variance method with a random effect was used in our meta-analysis using Stata software and RevMan software.

Results: A total of 31 articles with 31 groups containing a total of 2487 participants were included in this meta-analysis. The pooled results showed a statistical improvement in the following measurements: fasting blood glucose (FBG), postprandial blood glucose (PBG), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), urinary albumin excretion rates (UAER), serum creatinine (SCR), hypersensitive C-reactive protein (hsCRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), fasting insulin (FINS), total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TGs), hemoglobin A1c (HbA1C), homeostasis model assessment insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), and malondialdehyde (MDA).

Conclusion: HSYA can effectively treat DKD by inhibiting inflammatory reactions and oxidative stress, decreasing blood glucose and blood lipids, and improving renal function indices. However, more RCTs are still needed in the future to further demonstrate the effect of HSYA on biomarkers of oxidative stress and inflammatory reactions in patients with DKD due to the low quality and small sample size of the literature included in this study.

Systematic Review Registration: PROSPERO: CRD 42021235689

Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modeling analysis for hydroxysafflor yellow A-calycosin in compatibility in normal and cerebral ischemic rats: A comparative study

OBJECTIVE

Astragalus and Safflower are commonly used in the treatment of stroke. Studies have shown that their two active components, hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) and calycosin (CA), have protective effects on cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury (I/R). However, the pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PK-PD) modeling study of the combination of the two components has not been reported in rats. The study aimed to perform combined PK-PD modeling of HSYA and CA in normal and cerebral ischemia model rats to explain quantitatively their time-concentration-effect relationship.

METHODS

To make the middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model. SD rats were randomly divided into normal treated group (NTG) (n = 6), model group (MDG) (n = 6) and model treated group (MTG) (n = 6). Plasma was collected from the mandibular vein after 0, 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 120, 180, and 240 min after intravenous administration. Rats in NTG and MTG were administered the same dose of HSYA (5 mg/kg) and CA (8 mg/kg) by tail vein injection. HPLC-VWD method was used for detection and analysis. Simultaneously, ELISA was performed to detect the levels of IL-1β and caspase-9 in rat plasma at different time points. The improvement in the above indicators was compared after administration. Lastly, after combining the pharmacokinetic parameters and pharmacodynamic indicators in vivo, DAS 3.2.6 software was used to fit the PK-PD model.

RESULTS

The MCAO model was successfully established. Compared to NTG, there was a significant difference (P < 0.05) in t_1/2α, t_1/2β, V₁, V₂, CL₁, CL₂, AUC_(0-t), AUC _(0-∞), and K₁₂ of MTG for HSYA, and there was a significant difference (P < 0.05) in t_1/2α, V₁, CL₁, AUC_(0-t), AUC _(0-∞), and K₁₀ of MTG for CA_. Compared to NTG, the PK parameters of t_1/2α, V₁, V₂, CL₁, and K₁₀ were higher for HSYA in MTG, while AUC_(0-t), AUC _(0-∞), K₁₂, and K₂₁ were lower; the PK parameters of t_1/2α, V₁, V₂, AUC_(0-t), and AUC_(0-∞) were higher for CA in MTG, while CL₁, CL₂, K₁₀, K₁₂, and K₂₁ were lower. Also, the results of PD showed extremely significant differences in the levels of caspase-9 and IL-1β at the different time points in MTG (P < 0.01) compared with 0 min. The levels of caspase-9 and IL-1β in NTG rats showed little fluctuation and were relatively stable; however, their levels in MTG showed a downward trend with time. There were highly significant differences in the levels of each of the pharmacodynamic indicators at every time point between NTG and MTG (P < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

The PK-PD model of the combined administration of HSYA and CA was successfully established in rats, and the differences in pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties between the normal and cerebral ischemic rats were evaluated. Based on comprehensive data analysis, we found that the combination of HSYA and CA may exert protective effects against I/R injury in rats via anti-apoptotic and anti-inflammatory pathways. The study provided additional insights into the development of drugs for ischemic stroke as well as the design of appropriate dosing regimens.