Fitness-Dependent Effect of Acute Aerobic Exercise on Executive Function

The neural correlates of physical exercise-induced general cognitive gains: A systematic review and meta-analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging studies

The general-domain effect of physical exercise-induced cognitive gains in behavioral outcomes is well-documented, but a consensus on the neural correlates remains elusive. This meta-analysis aims to identify the neural correlates of physical exercise-induced general cognitive gains by examining task-related brain activation consistently modulated by physical exercise and its relationship to those gains. Our analysis of 52 studies with 1503 participants shows that physical exercise enhances cognitive task performance (Hedges' g = 0.271) and consistently increases task-related brain activation primarily in the bilateral precuneus. These increases in task-related brain activation correlate positively with cognitive task performance improvements improvements. Notably, physical exercise intensity, adherence, and social environment significantly modulate task-related brain activation changes induced by physical exercise. This meta-analysis offers an unprecedented comprehensive assessment of how physical exercise modulates task-related brain activation changes, providing neural evidence to support the general-domain effects on cognitive function induced by physical exercise.

Acute Effects of Cadence-Controlled Walking on Cognition and Vascular Function in Physically Inactive Older Adults: A Randomized Crossover Study

BACKGROUND

Cadence-controlled walking may be a desirable approach for older adults to self-monitor exercise intensity and achieve physical activity guidelines. We examined the acute effects of cadence-controlled walking on cognition and vascular function in physically inactive older adults.

METHODS

In a randomized crossover design, 26 participants (65% females, 67.8 ± 11.3 years) underwent 30-min acute exercise (walking at 100 steps/min) and control (sitting) conditions. We measured cognition, central blood pressure (BP), and arterial stiffness before, and immediately, after each condition.

RESULTS

We observed significant Time × Condition interactions in the Flanker Inhibitory Control and Attention (Flanker) test and Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS) test scores, and in central systolic BP, central pulse pressure, and carotid to femoral pulse wave velocity (p < .05). The Flanker and DCCS scores significantly increased after walking (d = 0.4 and 0.5, respectively), but not after sitting. Central systolic BP, central pulse pressure, and carotid to femoral pulse wave velocity significantly increased after sitting but remained unchanged after acute walking (d = 0.4-0.2), with p-values < .05. After walking, significant correlations were observed between DCCS and diastolic BP and central pulse pressure change scores and change scores in central pulse wave velocity, Flanker, and DCCS (rs = -0.45 to -0.52).

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that a single bout of cadence-controlled walking elicited an immediate improvement in cognition and might have mitigated increases in arterial stiffness and central BP observed in the seated control condition. Further research is needed to examine the association between cognition and vascular function following acute exercise compared to control conditions.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our findings may have practical implications for developing daily physical activity recommendations for improving the cognitive health for successful aging.

Role of Cardiorespiratory Fitness, Aerobic, Exercise and Sports Participation in Female Cognition: A Scoping Review : Sports, Fitness, and Cognition

BACKGROUND

The impact of cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) on cognition is thought to be mediated by brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Aerobic exercise can increase CRF through various activities, including sports participation. The relationship between these factors in females has yet to be elucidated.

OBJECTIVE

This review aims to map the current literature on the effects of aerobic exercise, sports participation, and CRF in healthy adult females, with sub-topics of pregnancy and menstrual cycle periodicity.

METHODS

A scoping review of the literature was conducted following PRISMA guidelines and the PCC mnemonic (population, concept, and context). The following five databases were screened: CINAHL, Medline, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, and Scopus. Eligible articles included healthy adult females, investigated aerobic exercise, sports participation or CRF, and linked outcomes to cognition. Data from included manuscripts was extracted and analyzed. Two sub-population groupings (pregnant individuals and menstrual cycle) were established to further aid the interpretation of the findings.

RESULTS

Of the 300 titles and abstracts screened, 74 were eligible for full-text screening, and 28 were included in the scoping review. Of the 28 included, 14 did not control for or report on menstrual cycle phase or sex hormones.

CONCLUSION

This scoping review found an inverse 'U' relationship between aerobic exercise and cognition, demonstrating an optimal dose of aerobic exercise to benefit cognitive functions. As estrogen may impact the relationship between CRF and neural growth factors, more research is needed on this pathway, independent of the menstrual cycle, to determine potential beneficial effects. It is currently unknown whether sports participation can independently impact cognition.

Aerobic fitness as a moderator of acute aerobic exercise effects on executive function

This study aimed to investigate the moderating role of aerobic fitness on the effect of acute exercise on improving executive function from both behavioral and cerebral aspects. Thirty-four young individuals with motor skills were divided into high- and low-fitness groups based on their maximal oxygen uptake. Both groups completed 30 min of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise on a power bike. Executive function tests (Flanker, N-back, More-odd-shifting) were performed before and after exercise and functional near-infrared spectroscopy was used to monitor prefrontal cerebral blood flow changes during the tasks. The results indicated significant differences between the two groups regarding executive function. Participants with lower aerobic fitness performed better than their higher fitness counterparts in inhibitory control and working memory, but not in cognitive flexibility. This finding suggests that the aerobic fitness may moderate the extent of cognitive benefits gained from acute aerobic exercise. Furthermore, the neuroimaging data indicated negative activation in the frontopolar area and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in response to three complex tasks. These findings underscore the importance of considering individual aerobic fitness when assessing the cognitive benefits of exercise and could have significant implications for tailoring fitness programs to enhance cognitive performance.

Increased neural differentiation after a single session of aerobic exercise in older adults

Aging is associated with decreased cognitive function. One theory posits that this decline is in part due to multiple neural systems becoming dedifferentiated in older adults. Exercise is known to improve cognition in older adults, even after only a single session. We hypothesized that one mechanism of improvement is a redifferentiation of neural systems. We used a within-participant, cross-over design involving 2 sessions: either 30 minutes of aerobic exercise or 30 minutes of seated rest (n = 32; ages 55-81 years). Both functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) and Stroop performance were acquired soon after exercise and rest. We quantified neural differentiation via general heterogeneity regression. There were 3 prominent findings following the exercise. First, participants were better at reducing Stroop interference. Second, while there was greater neural differentiation within the hippocampal formation and cerebellum, there was lower neural differentiation within frontal cortices. Third, this greater neural differentiation in the cerebellum and temporal lobe was more pronounced in the older ages. These data suggest that exercise can induce greater neural differentiation in healthy aging.

Time course efficiency of MICE and HIIE on inhibitory control and HRV in adolescents with obesity and different cardiorespiratory fitness

Background

Adolescent obesity is associated with impaired inhibitory control. Acute exercise can improve executive function. However, due to the influence of exercise intensity, cognitive test timing, and cardiorespiratory fitness (CF) level, the most effective exercise program remains controversial.

Methods

The current study investigated the time-course effects of moderate-intensity continuous exercise (MICE) and high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) on inhibitory control (Stroop) and task-related heart rate variability (HRV) in adolescents with different CF. A mixed experimental design of 2 CF levels (high CF, HCF; low CF, LCF) × 3 exercise methods (MICE, HIIE, CON) × 3 test timing (pre, post-0, post-20) was adopted. Heart rate variability (HRV) and Stroop task tests were conducted before exercise (pre), immediately after exercise (post-0), and 20 min after exercise (post-20).

Results

Individuals with HCF exhibited a positive decrease in Stroop response time immediately and 20 min after MICE and HIIE, compared to pretest response times (RT). Conversely, individuals with LCF showed a slight increase in Stroop task (RT) only immediately after HIIE. All individuals had a slight increase in ACC after MICE and HIIE compared to before exercise. In addition, compared with the control group, the time-domain index (the square root of the mean squared differences of successive NN intervals, RMSSD) of HRV was significantly decreased, the frequency-domain index (the absolute power of the Low-Frequency band/the absolute power of the High-Frequency band ratio, LF/HF) was significantly increased after MICE and HIIE, and the effect of HIIE on RMSSD and LF/HF was significantly greater than that of MICE.

Conclusion

The current study found that the acute effects of MICE and HIIE on inhibitory control in obese adolescents were influenced by the interaction of cognitive test timing and cardiorespiratory fitness. Individuals with high cardiorespiratory fitness performed better on the Stroop task than individuals with low cardiorespiratory fitness. The inhibitory control of HIIE in high-cardiorespiratory obese adolescents produced positive effects similar to those in MICE but more lasting, suggesting that HIIE is more beneficial for high-cardiorespiratory obese adolescents. MICE promoted inhibitory control in obese adolescents with low cardiorespiratory fitness, but HIIE impaired inhibitory control in obese adolescents with low cardiorespiratory fitness immediately after exercise, suggesting that low cardiopulmonary fitness obese adolescents may be suitable for MICE rather than HIIE exercise intervention. The shift from balanced HRV to sympathetic dominance after acute exercise reflects increased arousal levels and may be one of the underlying mechanisms by which acute exercise brings benefits to executive function.

Move Your Body, Boost Your Brain: The Positive Impact of Physical Activity on Cognition across All Age Groups

While the physical improvements from exercise have been well documented over the years, the impact of physical activity on mental health has recently become an object of interest. Physical exercise improves cognition, particularly attention, memory, and executive functions. However, the mechanisms underlying these effects have yet to be fully understood. Consequently, we conducted a narrative literature review concerning the association between acute and chronic physical activity and cognition to provide an overview of exercise-induced benefits during the lifetime of a person. Most previous papers mainly reported exercise-related greater expression of neurotransmitter and neurotrophic factors. Recently, structural and functional magnetic resonance imaging techniques allowed for the detection of increased grey matter volumes for specific brain regions and substantial modifications in the default mode, frontoparietal, and dorsal attention networks following exercise. Here, we highlighted that physical activity induced significant changes in functional brain activation and cognitive performance in every age group and could counteract psychological disorders and neural decline. No particular age group gained better benefits from exercise, and a specific exercise type could generate better cognitive improvements for a selected target subject. Further research should develop appropriate intervention programs concerning age and comorbidity to achieve the most significant cognitive outcomes.

Effect of 11 Weeks of Physical Exercise on Physical Fitness and Executive Functions in Children

Object: The aim of our study was to evaluate and compare the effects of physical exercise interventions on physical fitness and executive functions in children. Methods: Six-year-old children participated in the study and were randomly divided into physical exercise group (PE group, n = 43) and control group (C group, n = 46). The children in the PE group participated in a physical exercise program for 45 min daily, four days a week for 11 weeks. The children in the C group continued with their usual routines. Then, all the children were tested before and after the experiment for body composition (height, weight, BMI), physical fitness (20-m shuttle run test, standing long jump test, grip strength test, 4 × 10 m shuttle run test and sit and reach tests), and executive functions test (animal go/no-go task, working memory span task, simple reaction test and flexible item selection task) before and after the 11-week period. Results: The 11 weeks of physical exercise did not significantly affect the body composition of the children (p > 0.05). The physical fitness and executive functions test results showed that 11 weeks of physical exercise interventions improves physical fitness (cardiopulmonary fitness, muscle strength, speed sensitivity and flexibility quality) and executive functions parameters (inhibitory control, working memory, the reaction time, and cognitive flexibility) in children (p < 0.05, p < 0.01). Conclusion: 11 weeks of physical exercise can improve the physical fitness and executive functions of six-year-old children.

The effect of acute exercise on cognitive and motor inhibition - Does fitness moderate this effect?

BACKGROUND

Given the extensive evidence on improvements in cognitive inhibition immediately following exercise, and the literature indicating that cognitive and motor inhibitory functions are mediated by overlapping brain networks, the aim of this study was to assess, for the first time, the effect of moderate intensity acute aerobic exercise on multi-limb motor inhibition, as compared to cognitive inhibition.

METHOD

Participants were 36 healthy adults aged 40-60 years old (mean age 46.8 ± 5.7), who were randomly assigned to experimental or control groups. One-to-two weeks following baseline assessment, participants were asked to perform a three-limb (3-Limb) inhibition task and a vocal version of the Stroop before and after either acute moderate-intense aerobic exercise (experimental group) or rest (control).

RESULTS

Similar rates of improvement were observed among both groups from baseline to the pre-test. Conversely, a meaningful, yet non-significant trend was seen among the experimental group in their pretest to posttest improvement in both cognitive and motor tasks. In addition, exploratory analysis revealed significant group differences in favor of the experimental group among highly fit participants on the 3-Limb task. A significant correlation was indicated between the inhibition conditions, i.e., choice in the motor inhibition and color/word (incongruent) in the cognitive inhibition, especially in the improvement observed following the exercise.

DISCUSSION

Moderate-intensity acute aerobic exercise is a potential stimulator of both multi-limb motor inhibition and cognitive inhibition. It appears that high-fit participants benefit from exercise more than low-fit people. Additionally, performance on behavioral tasks that represent motor and cognitive inhibition is related. This observation suggests that fitness levels and acute exercise contribute to the coupling between cognitive and motor inhibition. Neuroimaging methods would allow examining brain-behavior associations of exercise-induced changes in the brain.

Effects of acute exercise with different modalities on working memory in men with high and low aerobic fitness

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to determine the effects of high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) and moderate-intensity continuous exercise (MICE) on working memory in individuals with high and low aerobic fitness.

DESIGN

The protocol adopted a between-subjects crossover design.

METHODS

Forty healthy male college students (mean age = 19.59 ± 1.00 years) were assigned to high fitness (n = 20) or low fitness (n = 20) groups based on their estimated maximum oxygen consumption (VO_2max) in the 20 m shuttle run test. All participants were instructed to engage in three acute exercise interventions (10 min HIIE, 20 min HIIE, 20 min MICE) and a reading control intervention on separate days in a randomized order. A spatial 2-back task was performed before and after each intervention to assess working memory.

RESULTS

Analyses of the 2-back task performance revealed that the working memory of high and low fitness participants benefited from different modalities of acute exercise. Specifically, reaction time in the 2-back task was significantly shorter after 20 min HIIE compared to pre-exercise in high fitness participants, whereas low fitness participants had significantly faster reaction time in the 2-back task after 20 min MICE and 10 min HIIE relative to pre-exercise.

CONCLUSIONS

The effects of acute aerobic exercise on working memory are modulated by a combination of exercise modality and aerobic fitness. This finding has important implications for providing experimental evidence that participants choose appropriate exercise to undertake based on their level of aerobic fitness to improve cognitive performance.

The interrelationship between physical activity intensity, cardiorespiratory fitness, and executive function in middle-aged adults: An observational study of office workers

Background

Previous evidence supports a beneficial effect of physical activity on executive function across the whole lifespan. Yet, the interrelationships of the intensities of physical activity, cardiorespiratory fitness, and executive function require further investigation in adults.

Aim

Using unfiltered accelerometry data and high-resolution intensity classification, we sought to estimate the associations of physical activity with cardiorespiratory fitness and executive function in adult office workers.

Methods

We included 343 full-time office workers (mean age: 42.41 years, range of age: 36-49 years). Executive function was assessed using Stroop, Trail making tests (part-B), and 2-back tests, and a composite score was produced to reflect the general executive function performance. Physical activity was assessed using the Actigraph GT3X+-monitor, worn by each participant for seven days at the hip. Raw accelerometry data were processed by the 10 Hz frequency extended method and divided into 22 intensity bins and sleep time. Cardiorespiratory fitness was estimated using the submaximal Ekblom-Bak cycle ergometer test. Data were analyzed using partial least squares regressions.

Results

In adults, cardiorespiratory fitness was closely correlated with a wide range of absolute physical activity intensity patterns. A higher level of executive function in adults was associated with both higher absolute physical activity intensities and cardiorespiratory fitness, which was independent of age, sex, and education levels. A very weak association between intensities, fitness, and executive function was observed in high-fit adults. Among low-fit adults, although a positive association started already toward the upper end of moderate intensity, there still appeared to be an association between intensities, cardiorespiratory fitness, and executive function. That is, cardiorespiratory fitness may mediate the association between absolute physical activity intensities and executive function up to a certain level.

Conclusion

The maintenance of executive function in adulthood was related to both physical activity intensities and cardiorespiratory fitness, while their interrelationship was not equal across fitness levels. It is highly recommended to consider the cardiorespiratory fitness level in future studies that focus on executive functions in aging as well when designing individualized physical activity training programs.

Effect of cognitively engaging physical activity on executive functions in children

Purpose

Physical activity (PA) has been shown to enhance executive functions (EFs) in children, and PA involving a cognitive component may confer additional benefit. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether cognitively engaging PA impacts EF, and whether affect and fitness act as either mediators or moderators of this relationship.

Methods

A randomized controlled trial was utilized to assess changes in EFs between a 20-min Dual Task (intervention condition), a PA Task (control condition), and a Cognitive Task (control condition). Children were scheduled for two visits in the INfant and Child Health (INCH) Lab at the University of Toronto. Physical fitness was assessed using the 20 m shuttle run, standing long jump, and grip strength tests. EFs were assessed using the Stroop Task, Trail Making Task (TMT), and Forward Working Memory Task (FWMT).

Results

38 children (M_age = 11.95 years, SD = 0.49, 61% female) participated. Repeated measures ANOVA showed main interactions between time on inhibition scores (p < 0.05, η_p² = 0.489), and positive affect scores (p < 0.01, η_p² = 0.284). Interaction effects between condition and time were not significant (p = 0.787, η_p² = 0.014, p = .333, η_p² = 0.061, p = 0.799, η_p² = 0.013 for inhibition, switching, and passive working memory, respectively). Results showed no significant mediation effect of affect (95% CI = –0.5915, 2.147), or moderating effect between fitness and EF changes.

Conclusion

Possible explanations for these findings include inadequate cognitive engagement, lack of EF transfer, and statistical power. Results suggest any of these interventions may be beneficial for improving inhibition and positive affect in children.

Effects of Acute Exercise on Cognitive Flexibility in Young Adults with Different Levels of Aerobic Fitness

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) and moderate-intensity continuous exercise (MICE) on cognitive flexibility in young adults with differing levels of aerobic fitness. Sixty-six young adults were grouped into high- and low-fit groups based on their final running distance on the 20 m Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER) test. Individuals participated in a 10 min HIIE, a 20 min HIIE, a 20 min MICE, and a control session (reading quietly in a chair) in a counterbalanced order. The more-odd shifting task was completed before and approximately 5 min after each intervention to assess cognitive flexibility. The results showed that young adults with a high fitness level gained greater benefits in terms of switch cost from the 20 min HIIE, while low-fitness participants benefited more from the 10 min HIIE and the 20 min MICE. These findings suggest that aerobic fitness may influence the effect of acute HIIE and MICE on cognitive flexibility. Young adults should consider individual fitness level when adopting time-effective and appropriate exercise routines to improve cognitive flexibility.

The Impact of Sprint Interval Exercise in Acute Severe Hypoxia on Executive Function

Kong, Zhaowei, Qian Yu, Shengyan Sun, On Kei Lei, Yu Tian, Qingde Shi, Jinlei Nie, and Martin Burtscher. The impact of sprint interval exercise in acute severe hypoxia on executive function. High Alt Med Biol. 23: 135-145, 2022. Objective: The present study evaluated executive performance responses to sprint interval exercise in normoxia and relatively severe hypoxia. Methods: Twenty-five physically active men (age 22 ± 2 years; maximal oxygen uptake 43 ± 2 ml/[kg·min]) performed four trials including two normoxic (F_IO₂ = 0.209) and two normobaric hypoxic trials (F_IO₂ = 0.112), at rest (control) and exercise at the same time on different days. The exercise scheme consisted of 20 sets of 6-seconds all-out cycling sprint interspersed with 15-seconds recovery. The Stroop task was conducted before, 10, 30, and 60 minutes after each trial, whereas peripheral oxygen saturation (SpO₂), heart rate, ratings of perceived exertion, and feelings of arousal were additionally recorded immediately after the interventions. Results: Despite the low SpO₂ levels, both resting and sprint interval exercise in hypoxia had no adverse effects on executive function. Exercise elicited executive improvements in normoxia (-5.3% and -3.4% at 10 and 30 minutes after exercise) and in hypoxia (-7.8% and -4.3%), which is reflected by ameliorating incongruent reaction time and its 30-minutes sustained effects (p = 0.018). Conclusions: The findings demonstrate that sprint interval exercise caused sustained executive benefits, and exercise in relatively severe hypoxia did not impair executive performance.

Acute Aerobic Exercise-Induced Motor Priming Improves Piano Performance and Alters Motor Cortex Activation

Acute aerobic exercise has been shown to improve fine motor skills and alter activation of the motor cortex (M1). The intensity of exercise may influence M1 activation, and further impact whole-body motor skill performance. The aims of the current study were to compare a whole-body motor skill via a piano task following moderate-intensity training (MIT) and high-intensity interval training (HIIT), and to determine if M1 activation is linked to any such changes in performance. Nine subjects (seven females and two males), aged 18 ± 1 years completed a control, MIT, and HIIT trial followed by administration of a piano performance task. M1 activation was evaluated by measuring oxyhemoglobin (O₂Hb) and hemoglobin difference (Hbdiff) changes during post-exercise piano performance using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). The results indicate that piano performance scores were higher after the MIT trial, but not HIIT trial, compared to the control trial. A negative relationship was detected between heart rate during HIIT and post-HIIT piano scores. M1 activation (as measured by Hbdiff) was significantly increased after the HIIT trial. M1 activation was also positively associated with piano performance when exercise trials (HIIT + MIT) and all trials (HIIT + MIT + Control) were combined. We found that acute moderate-intensity exercise led to an improvement in complex motor skill performance while higher-intensity exercise increased M1 activation. These results demonstrate that moderate-intensity exercise can prime the nervous system for the acquisition of whole-body motor skills, suggesting that similar exercise protocols may be effective in improving the outcomes of other motor tasks performed during regular routines of daily life (e.g., sporting tasks, activities of daily living or rehabilitation). In addition, it appears that improvements in motor task performance may be driven by M1 activation. Our findings provide new mechanistic insight into the complex relationship between exercise intensity, M1 activation, and whole-body motor skill performance.

How aerobic exercise improves executive function in ADHD children: a resting-state fMRI study

The aim of the study is to explore the functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) characteristics of the improvement in executive function by aerobic exercise in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Seventeen children with ADHD were selected for 8 weeks of rope skipping aerobic training, and fMRI findings and executive function were examined before and after training. Regional homogeneity (ReHo) and degree centrality (DC) indexes were used in fMRI analysis, while the flanker task was used to test executive function. A paired t-test was used to compare the fMRI indexes and response time of executive function before and after training. After aerobic exercise, the brain regions in which the ReHo value of ADHD children significantly increased included the left middle frontal gyrus and the right superior frontal gyrus; the brain region in which the DC value increased was the right posterior cingulate cortex. The flanker task response time decreased significantly (P<0.05, after correction) after aerobic exercise. The study findings support the hypothesis that aerobic exercise can improve the executive function of ADHD children, and the brain mechanism involved is mainly related to the enhancement of spontaneous pre-frontal lobe activity.

Comparative efficacy of various exercise interventions on cognitive function in patients with mild cognitive impairment or dementia: A systematic review and network meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Exercise is a promising nonpharmacological therapy for cognitive dysfunction, but it is unclear which type of exercise is most effective. The objective of this study was to compare and rank the effectiveness of various exercise interventions on cognitive function in patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or dementia and to examine the effects of exercise on the symptoms relevant to cognitive impairment.

METHODS

We searched PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, SPORTDiscus, and PsycInfo through September 2019 and included randomized controlled trials that examined the effectiveness of exercise interventions in patients with MCI or dementia. Primary outcomes included global cognition, executive cognition, and memory cognition. Secondary outcomes included activities of daily living, neuropsychiatric symptoms, and quality of life. Pairwise analyses and network meta-analyses were performed using a random effects model.

RESULTS

A total of 73 articles from 71 trials with 5606 participants were included. All types of exercise were effective in increasing or maintaining global cognition, and resistance exercise had the highest probability of being the most effective intervention in slowing the decrease in global cognition (standard mean difference (SMD) = 1.05, 95% confidence interval (95%CI): 0.56-1.54), executive function (SMD = 0.85, 95%CI: 0.21-1.49), and memory function (SMD = 0.32, 95%CI: 0.01-0.63) in patients with cognitive dysfunction. Subgroup analyses for patients with MCI revealed different effects, and multicomponent exercise was most likely to be the optimal exercise therapy for preventing the decline of global cognition (SMD = 0.99, 95%CI: 0.44-1.54) and executive function (SMD = 0.72, 95%CI: 0.06-1.38). However, only resistance exercise showed significant effects on memory function for patients with MCI (SMD = 0.35, 95%CI: 0.01-0.69). Exercise interventions also showed various effects on the secondary outcomes.

CONCLUSION

Resistance exercise has the highest probability of being the optimal exercise type for slowing cognitive decline in patients with cognitive dysfunction, especially in patients with dementia. Multicomponent exercise tends to be most effective in protecting global cognition and executive function in patients with MCI.

Causes and Consequences of Interindividual Response Variability: A Call to Apply a More Rigorous Research Design in Acute Exercise-Cognition Studies

The different responses of humans to an apparently equivalent stimulus are called interindividual response variability. This phenomenon has gained more and more attention in research in recent years. The research field of exercise-cognition has also taken up this topic, as shown by a growing number of studies published in the past decade. In this perspective article, we aim to prompt the progress of this research field by (i) discussing the causes and consequences of interindividual variability, (ii) critically examining published studies that have investigated interindividual variability of neurocognitive outcome parameters in response to acute physical exercises, and (iii) providing recommendations for future studies, based on our critical examination. The provided recommendations, which advocate for a more rigorous study design, are intended to help researchers in the field to design studies allowing them to draw robust conclusions. This, in turn, is very likely to foster the development of this research field and the practical application of the findings.

Effects of Marathon Running on Cognition and Retinal Vascularization: A Longitudinal Observational Study

INTRODUCTION

Physical activity has beneficial effects on both cardiovascular and neurocognitive parameters, and these 2 modalities are known to interact at rest. However, findings on their interaction during exercise are inconclusive.

PURPOSE

Therefore, this longitudinal study aimed to investigate the effects of different forms of exercise (training period, marathon race, recovery period) on both parameters and their interaction.

METHODS

We included 100 marathon runners (MA) (mean [SD] age: 43.6 [10.0] years, 80 male) and 46 age- and sex-matched sedentary controls (SC, for baseline comparison). Over the 6-month study period with 6 visits (12 and 2 weeks before the marathon; immediately, 24 hours, 72 hours and 12 weeks after the marathon), we assessed cognitive parameters by evaluating 1-to 3-back d prime, the d2 task, and the Trail Making Test A (TMTA) and B (TMTB); retinal vessel parameters by assessing arteriolar-to-venular ratio (AVR), central retinal arteriolar and venular equivalents (CRAE/CRVE).

RESULTS

In the long-term analysis, 3-back d prime correlated positively with AVR (P = 0.024, B = 1.86,SE = 0.824) and negatively with CRVE (P = 0.05,B = -0.006,SE = 0.003) and TMTB correlated negatively with CRAE (P = 0.025,B = -0.155,SE = 0.069), even after correcting for age and systolic blood pressure as possible confounders. Acute effects were inconsistent with maximal cognitive improvement 24 hours after the marathon. AVR was significantly smaller in SC compared to MA.

CONCLUSION

Chronic exercise seems to prime the central nervous system for acute, intensive bouts of exercise. Our findings indicate a possible relationship between cognitive performance in high-demand tasks and retinal vasculature and support the idea of a neuroplastic effect of exercise.

Cognitive benefits of exercise interventions: an fMRI activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis

Despite a growing number of functional MRI studies reporting exercise-induced changes during cognitive processing, a systematic determination of the underlying neurobiological pathways is currently lacking. To this end, our neuroimaging meta-analysis included 20 studies and investigated the influence of physical exercise on cognition-related functional brain activation. The overall meta-analysis encompassing all experiments revealed physical exercise-induced changes in the left parietal lobe during cognitive processing. Subgroup analysis further revealed that in the younger-age group (< 35 years old) physical exercise induced more widespread changes in the right hemisphere, whereas in the older-age group (≥ 35 years old) exercise-induced changes were restricted to the left parietal lobe. Subgroup analysis for intervention duration showed that shorter exercise interventions induced changes in regions connected with frontoparietal and default mode networks, whereas regions exhibiting effects of longer interventions connected with frontoparietal and dorsal attention networks. Our findings suggest that physical exercise interventions lead to changes in functional activation patterns primarily located in precuneus and associated with frontoparietal, dorsal attention and default mode networks.

Examining the Acute Effects of Classroom-Based Physical Activity Breaks on Executive Functioning in 11- to 14-Year-Old Children: Single and Additive Moderation Effects of Physical Fitness

Objective: Research supports the efficacy of acute, classroom-based, physical activity breaks on executive functioning in children. However, research pertaining to the effect of physical fitness on the acute physical activity-executive functioning relationship remains limited. The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the acute effects of classroom-based, teacher-delivered, physical activity breaks on executive functioning in 11-14-year-old children. We also investigated the potential moderating effects of both aerobic and musculoskeletal fitness on the acute physical activity-executive functioning relationship. Method: Participants (N = 116) completed pre- and post-test assessments of executive functioning (i.e., inhibition, switching, and updating) separated by a classroom-based physical activity break or sedentary classroom work. We manipulated the dose (i.e., length) and type of physical activity breaks. With regards to dose, participants in the experimental conditions engaged in 5-, 10-, or 20-min of physical activity whereas controls completed sedentary classroom math work at their desk. With regards to type, one experimental condition completed traditional physical activity breaks whereas the other experimental condition completed academic physical activity breaks (i.e., performed mental math and physical activity). Participants' mood, motivation, and self-efficacy were also assessed following the experimental manipulations. Results: Overall, executive function scores improved across each assessment following the physical activity breaks when compared to sedentary classroom work regardless of dose and type. Participants also reported more positive mood states, higher motivation to complete the executive function tests, and higher self-efficacy to perform the executive functions tests following the physical activity breaks. Single moderation analyses showed that low-moderate levels of aerobic fitness moderated the acute physical activity-executive functioning relationship. Additive moderation analysis showed, collectively, that both aerobic and musculoskeletal fitness moderated the acute physical activity-executive functioning relationship. Conclusion: Findings from the present study provide evidence for the acute effects of short (i.e., 5-20 min) classroom-based physical activity breaks on executive functioning and psychological states in children. Results also suggest levels of both aerobic and musculoskeletal fitness moderate these effects, however future research is needed to further elucidate this complex relationship.

Does Cardiorespiratory Fitness Influence the Effect of Acute Aerobic Exercise on Executive Function?

Background

The beneficial effects of acute exercise on executive function have been well-documented, but the influence of cardiorespiratory fitness on this effect requires further investigations, especially using imaging technique. This study aimed to examine the effects of cardiorespiratory fitness on acute exercise-induced changes on behavioral performance and on functional brain activation.

Method

Based on their cardiorespiratory fitness level, 62 participants ranked in the top and bottom of the maximum oxygen consumption (VO₂ max) were finally selected and allocated to high-fit group or low-fit group. Both groups were asked to complete the Stroop task after 30 min of aerobic exercise and chair-seated rest (control session). Among them, 26 participants were randomly selected and asked to undergo the Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI).

Results

Behavioral results showed that individuals responded significantly faster after exercise than those in the control session. The fMRI results revealed a significant interaction effects of Group by Session in brain regions including anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and bilateral dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). For the ACC, activation in the high-fit group was significantly decreased after aerobic exercise compared to those in the control session; whereas an increased activation was noticed in the low-fit group. Regarding to the bilateral DLPFC, activation in high-fit group was significantly decreased after exercise compared to those in the control session, while no significant differences were found in the low-fit group. In addition, for the post-exercise session, a significant positive correlations between activation of the ACC and left DLPFC in the high-fit group was observed. There was a significant negative correlation between activation of the ACC and reaction time in the congruent condition after exercise in the low-fit group.

Conclusion

Findings further clarify the neurophysiological processes of acute exercise-induced changes in cognitive performance as they suggest that cardiorespiratory fitness is an important factor which influences changes in brain activation patterns in response to acute aerobic exercises.

The Contribution of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging to the Understanding of the Effects of Acute Physical Exercise on Cognition

The fact that a single bout of acute physical exercise has a positive impact on cognition is well-established in the literature, but the neural correlates that underlie these cognitive improvements are not well understood. Here, the use of neuroimaging techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), offers great potential, which is just starting to be recognized. This review aims at providing an overview of those studies that used fMRI to investigate the effects of acute physical exercises on cerebral hemodynamics and cognition. To this end, a systematic literature survey was conducted by two independent reviewers across five electronic databases. The search returned 668 studies, of which 14 studies met the inclusion criteria and were analyzed in this systematic review. Although the findings of the reviewed studies suggest that acute physical exercise (e.g., cycling) leads to profound changes in functional brain activation, the small number of available studies and the great variability in the study protocols limits the conclusions that can be drawn with certainty. In order to overcome these limitations, new, more well-designed trials are needed that (i) use a more rigorous study design, (ii) apply more sophisticated filter methods in fMRI data analysis, (iii) describe the applied processing steps of fMRI data analysis in more detail, and (iv) provide a more precise exercise prescription.

The Influence of a Health-Related Fitness Training Program on Motor Performance as Well as Hematological and Biochemical Parameters

The study was aimed at designing a health exercise program appealing to inactive young men, and then testing the men's metabolic responses to the program using common diagnostic markers of general health. Six men, aged 22-29 years, took a part in training program to increase their motor performance and improve general health conditions. Body composition parameters, clinical chemistry variables (metabolites, albumin, total protein, ferritin, C reactive protein, lipid profile, ions, and selected enzymes activities) and blood morphology parameters were determined. Motor performance measured before and after a 4-month-long macrocycle indicated an increase in endurance, pace, and agility of the participants. Significant differences were found in analyzed enzymes activities. There was a significant increase in C-reactive protein levels from pre- to post-training. Additionally, changes in hematological biomarkers were seen that suggest erythropoiesis might significantly increase, specifically during the last 2-month-long mesocycles. The proposed training program induced small improvements in endurance, pace, and agility. It was also confirmed that changes in aspartate (AST) and alanine (ALT) activities emerge before any increase in creatine kinase (CK) activity that is important in monitoring of the training loads. Observed changes in red blood cell-related parameters suggest increase in erythropoiesis in the second half of the training cycle.

Pythagorean 2-Tuple Linguistic Taxonomy Method for Supplier Selection in Medical Instrument Industries

Supplier selection in medical instrument industries is a classical multiple attribute group decision making (MAGDM) problem. The Pythagorean 2-tuple linguistic sets (P2TLSs) can reflect uncertain or fuzzy information well and solve the supplier selection in medical instrument industries, and the original Taxonomy is very appropriate for comparing different alternatives with respect to their advantages from studied attributes. In this study, we present an algorithm that combines Pythagorean 2-tuple linguistic numbers (P2TLNs) with the Taxonomy method, where P2TLNs are applied to express the evaluation of decision makers on alternatives. Relying on the Pythagorean 2-tuple linguistic weighted average (P2TLWA) operator or Pythagorean 2-tuple linguistic weighted geometric (P2TLWG) operator to fuse P2TLNs, the new general framework is established for Pythagorean 2-tuple linguistic multiple attribute group decision making (MAGDM) under the classical Taxonomy method. Ultimately, an application case for supplier selection in medical instrument industries is designed to test the novel method’s applicability and practicality and a comparative analysis with three other methods is used to elaborate further.