Garlic, from Remedy to Stimulant: Evaluation of Antifungal Potential Reveals Diversity in Phytoalexin Allicin Content among Garlic Cultivars; Allicin Containing Aqueous Garlic Extracts Trigger Antioxidants in Cucumber

Pathological Characterization and Management of Lasiodiplodia theobromae, a Hemibiotroph with an Interkingdom Host Range

Heart rot disease, caused by Lasiodiplodia theobromae, is destructive for date palms and other woody plants. The disease was reported in several oases in Egypt, and the pathogen was found in association with infected trees suffering dieback and rachis blight. Seven phylogenetically distinct fungal isolates were selected, and their pathogenicity was confirmed on date palms. The isolates exhibited variable degrees of virulence on inoculated leaves, which confirms the variation. We examined the antifungal effect of microbial bioagents and plant extracts on heart rot disease. The isolates of Trichoderma spp. gave moderate reduction of the pathogen's linear growth (40 to 60%), whereas their exudates were ultimately ineffective. Bacillus spp. isolates, except for B. megaterium, were more effective against spore germination, giving 80 to 90% reduction on average. Among the examined plant extracts, garlic sap gave 98.67% reduction of linear growth followed by artemisia (15.5%) and camphor (24.8%). The extraction methods greatly influenced the antifungal efficiency of each extract because exposure to organic solvents significantly decreased the efficiency of all extracts, whereas hot water extraction negatively affected garlic sap only. Successful bioagents and plant extracts were further assayed for the suppression of heart rot disease on date palms. Both T. album and T. harzianum gave comparable degrees of suppression as by commercial fungicides. In addition, treatment before or during pathogen inoculation was the most effective because it significantly enhanced the expression of defense-related enzymes. Our findings suggest biopesticides possess a dual role in disease suppression and defense boosters for date palms suffering heart rot disease.

Dietary effects of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Allium sativum on growth, antioxidant status, hepatic and intestinal histoarchitecture, expression of growth- and immune-related genes, and resistance of Oreochromis niloticus to Aeromonas sobria

This study investigated the benefits of yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and/or garlic, Allium sativum supplementation in diets of Nile tilapia with regard to growth, antioxidant status, hepatic and intestinal histoarchitecture, expression of growth- and immune-related genes, and resistance to Aeromonas sobria infection. Fish (with an initial weight of 9.43 ± 0.08 g) were allocated to twelve hapas, organized into four triplicate treatment groups defined as control (no supplementation), yeast (4 g/kg diet), garlic (30 g/kg diet), and a mixture of both. This trial continued over a 60-day feeding period. Results revealed that combined treatment (yeast + garlic) demonstrated the most promising outcomes regarding growth, with significantly higher final body weights, weight gains, and specific growth rates compared to other groups. Moreover, this combination enhanced hepatic antioxidant status, as evidenced by elevated levels of reduced glutathione and activities of catalase and superoxide dismutase enzymes, reflecting improved defense against oxidative stress. Histological assessments of the livers and intestines demonstrated structural enhancements in yeast and garlic treatments, suggesting improvements in organ health. In comparison to the control, the gene expression analyses unveiled increased expression of growth-related (igf-1 and ghr1) and immune-related (il-10, lyz, and hep) genes in the test groups, indicating a possible reinforcement of the growth and immune responses. The combined treatment also showed the highest resistance to A. sobria infection, as evidenced by improved survival rates and lower mortality compared with the other groups. These findings highlight the benefits of a combination of both yeast and garlic as a dietary supplementation regimen. In conclusion, this study suggests that the combined treatment regimen could be considered an effective strategy to promote the health and productivity of Nile tilapia under production conditions.

Evaluation of apple (Malus domestica) cider vinegar and garlic (Allium sativum) extract as phytogenic substitutes for growth-promoting dietary antibiotics in sexed broiler chickens

Tightening global regulations on the use of subclinical dietary antibiotics to enhance broiler growth are in response to increasing concern about the risk of resistance and their residues in animal products. The study evaluated the potential of apple cider vinegar (ACV) and garlic extract (GAE) as safer, phytogenic alternatives. A batch of 390 mixed-sex Ross 308-d-old broiler chicks was received into an open, deep litter house, and feather sexed in the second week into 30 experimental units of 13 birds per 2.03 m2 pen. From days 1 to 22, all chicks were on a 200 g/kg crude protein, coccidiostat-treated commercial starter diet. During the grower (16 to 28 days) and finisher (29 to 42 days) phases, chick pens were assigned treatments in a 2 (sex) × 5 (additives) factorial experiment replicated three times. The GAE was a pure extract, while ACV was produced by fermenting 1,000 g fresh apple and 80 g supplementary brown cane sugar in 1.3 liters of water for 4 wk. The five treatments comprised antibiotic (15% granular zinc bacitracin and 12% valinomycin sodium, each at 500 g/tonne) grower (190 g/kg crude protein, 13.0 MJ ME/kg) and finisher (165 g/kg crude protein, 13.2 MJ ME/kg) commercial diets with untreated drinking water as positive controls (PC), antibiotic-free duplicates of the PC diets with untreated drinking water as the negative controls (NC), with 3 mL/L filtered ACV in drinking water (T1), 2 mL/L filtered GAE-treated drinking water (T2), or mixed (3 mL/L ACV + 2mL/L GAE) additive drinking water (T3). Males had higher (P < 0.05) feed intake than females in both growth phases. Birds on the PC gained more (P < 0.05) weight than others. Birds on the PC consumed more feed (P < 0.05) during the finisher phase than T1, T2, and the NC. Birds on the PC had a lower (P < 0.05) grower-phase feed convesion (feed:gain) ratio (FCR) than others, and lower (P < 0.05) FCR during the finisher phase than birds on T1 and T3. Birds on the PC had higher (P < 0.05) percent spleen weight than birds on T1, with smaller proventriculi (P < 0.05) than on NC, T1, T2, and T3, and smaller gizzard weight than birds on the T2 and T3. Birds on the NC exhibited less dressing percentage (P < 0.05) than all other treatments. Meat pH was higher (P < 0.05) in males. In conclusion, in contrast to dietary antibiotics, except for improved dressing percentage, the ACV and GAE did not express phytogenic benefit at the experimental dosage.

Allicin protects against LPS-induced cardiomyocyte injury by activating Nrf2-HO-1 and inhibiting NLRP3 pathways

BACKGROUND

Allicin is a bioactive compound with potent antioxidative activity and plays a protective effect in myocardial damage and fibrosis. The role and mechanism of Allicin in septic cardiomyopathy are unclear. In this study, we investigated the effects and underlying mechanisms of Allicin on lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced injury in H9c2 cardiomyocytes.

METHODS

H9c2 cardiomyocyte cells were pretreated with Allicin (0, 25, 50, and 100 µM) for 2 h, followed by incubation with LPS (10 µg/mL) for 24 h at 37 °C. Cell viability (cell counting kit-8 [CCK-8]), apoptosis (TUNEL staining), oxidative stress (malondialdehyde [MDA] and superoxide dismutase [SOD]), and cytokines release (Interleukin beta [IL-β], Interleukin 6 [IL-6], and tumor necrosis factor-alpha [TNF-α]) were determined. The mRNA and protein expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), and NLR family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) signaling pathway molecules were quantified by real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) and western blot, respectively.

RESULTS

Allicin had no effect on H9c2 cell viability but attenuated LPS-induced injury, with increased cell viability, reduction in inflammatory cytokines release, apoptosis, reduced MDA, and increased SOD (P < 0.05). Additionally, Allicin increased Nrf2 and cellular HO-1 expressions in LPS-treated H9c2 cells. Moreover, Allicin modulated the NLRP3 inflammasome, increased the cleaved caspase-1 (p10) protein, and attenuated the LPS-induced increase in NLRP3, pro-IL-1β, and IL-1β proteins. Silencing of Nrf2 by siRNA (siNrf2) significantly attenuated Allicin-induced increase in cell viability and HO-1 and decrease in NLRP3 protein in LPS-stimulated H9c2 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Allicin protects cardiomyocytes against LPS‑induced injury through activation of Nrf2/HO-1 and inhibition of NLRP3 signaling pathways.

Identification of Potential Phytochemical/Antimicrobial Agents against Pseudoperonospora cubensis Causing Downy Mildew in Cucumber through In-Silico Docking

Compatibility interactions between the host and the fungal proteins are necessary to successfully establish a disease in plants by fungi or other diseases. Photochemical and antimicrobial substances are generally known to increase plant resilience, which is essential for eradicating fungus infections. Through homology modeling and in silico docking analysis, we assessed 50 phytochemicals from cucumber (Cucumis sativus), 15 antimicrobial compounds from botanical sources, and six compounds from chemical sources against two proteins of Pseudoperonospora cubensis linked to cucumber downy mildew. Alpha and beta sheets made up the 3D structures of the two protein models. According to Ramachandran plot analysis, the QNE 4 effector protein model was considered high quality because it had 86.8% of its residues in the preferred region. The results of the molecular docking analysis showed that the QNE4 and cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 proteins of P. cubensis showed good binding affinities with glucosyl flavones, terpenoids and flavonoids from phytochemicals, antimicrobial compounds from botanicals (garlic and clove), and chemically synthesized compounds, indicating the potential for antifungal activity.

'Garlic-lipo'4Plants: Liposome-Encapsulated Garlic Extract Stimulates ABA Pathway and PR Genes in Wheat (Triticum aestivum)

Recently, environmentally friendly crop improvements using next-generation plant biostimulants (PBs) come to the forefront in agriculture, regardless of whether they are used by scientists, farmers, or industries. Various organic and inorganic solutions have been investigated by researchers and producers, focusing on tolerance to abiotic and biotic stresses, crop quality, or nutritional deficiency. Garlic has been considered a universal remedy ever since antiquity. A supercritical carbon dioxide garlic extract encapsulated in nanoscale liposomes composed of plant-derived lipids was examined as a possible PB agent. The present study focused on the characterization of the genes associated with the pathways involved in defense response triggered by the liposome nanoparticles that were loaded with supercritical garlic extracts. This material was applied to Triticum aestivum in greenhouse experiments using foliar spraying. The effects were examined in a large-scale genome-wide transcriptional profiling experiment by collecting the samples four times (0 min, used as a control, and 15 min, 24 h, and 48 h after spraying). Based on a time-course expression analysis, the dynamics of the cellular response were determined by examining differentially expressed genes and applying a cluster analysis. The results suggested an enhanced expression of abscisic acid (ABA) pathway and pathogenesis-related (PR) genes, of which positive regulation was found for the AP2-, C2H2-, HD-ZIP-, and MYB-related transcription factor families.

The protective roles of allicin on type 1 diabetes mellitus through AMPK/mTOR mediated autophagy pathway

Background: Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is one of the most common endocrine and metabolic diseases in children. Pancreatic β cells are thought to be critical cells involved in the progression of T1DM, and their injury would directly lead to impaired insulin secretion. Purpose: To investigate the protective effects of allicin on pancreatic β cell injury and elucidate the underlying mechanism. Methods: The streptozotocin (STZ)-induced mouse T1DM model in vivo and STZ-induced pancreatic β cell Min6 model in vitro were used to explore the effects of allicin on T1DM. The experiments include fasting blood glucose test, oral glucose tolerance detection, HE staining, immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence, TUNEL staining, western blot, real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR), and flow cytometry. Results: Allicin could significantly decrease blood glucose level, improve islet structure and insulin expression, and inhibit apoptosis to reduce STZ-induced pancreatic β cell injury and loss through activating AMPK/mTOR mediated autophagy pathway. Conclusion: Allicin treatment significantly reduced STZ-induced T1DM progression, suggesting that allicin may be a potential therapy option for T1DM patients.

Evaluation of Pretreatments and Extraction Conditions on the Antifungal and Antioxidant Effects of Garlic (Allium sativum) Peel Extracts

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of pretreatments and extraction conditions on the antioxidant and antifungal characteristics of garlic peel extracts. The effect of pretreatments (fermentation and steam cooking) on the yield, antifungal (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and Botrytis cinerea), and antioxidant (total phenolic compounds, total flavonoids, and antioxidant capacity) properties of garlic peel extracts were evaluated. A selected pretreatment was applied to evaluate the extraction conditions (solvent, solvent concentration, temperature, and time) on the antifungal activity of garlic peel extracts. At last, garlic peel extracts obtained under specific conditions was applied to papaya and strawberry fruits as preventive and curative treatments against Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and Botrytis cinerea, respectively. Steam cooking pretreatment significantly increased the antifungal and antioxidant capacities of garlic peel extracts compared to the fermentation process. Garlic peel extracts obtained with methanol (60%) for 18 h (25 °C) showed the highest antifungal activity against both microorganisms assessed (57.57% and 75.76% for B. cinerea and C. gloeosporioides, respectively,) on in vitro assays. Moreover, in vivo results indicated that preventive treatment significantly reduced rot disease in papaya (88.95%) and strawberry (54.13%) fruits. Although more studies about the antifungal mechanisms of garlic peel extracts are needed, these results indicated that garlic peel extracts could be used as an antifungal agent.

Functional study of CYP90A1 and ALDH3F1 gene obtained by transcriptome sequencing analysis of Brassica napus seedlings treated with brassinolide

Sclerotinia disease and weeds of Brassica napus greatly reduce crop yields. However, brassinolides can improve the resistance of plants to sclerotinia diseases and herbicides. In this study, we investigated the effects of brassinolide on the occurrence, physiological indices, yield, and gene expression of Fanming No. 1 seeds under sclerotinia and glufosinate stress. The results showed that soaking of the seeds in 0.015% brassinolide for 6 h reduced the incidence of sclerotinia by 10%. Additionally, in response to glufosinate stress at the seedling stage, the enzyme activities of catalase and superoxide dismutase increased by 9.6 and 19.0 U/gFW/min, respectively, and the soluble sugar content increased by 9.4 mg/g, increasing the stress resistance of plants and yield by 2.4%. LHCB1, fabF, psbW, CYP90A1, ALDH3F1, ACOX1, petF, and ACSL were screened by transcriptome analysis. ALDH3F1 and CYP90A1 were identified as key genes. Following glufosinate treatment, transgenic plants overexpressing ALDH3F1 and CYP90A1 were found to be resistant to glufosinate, and the expression levels of the ALDH3F1 and CYP90A1 were 1.03-2.37-fold as high as those in the control. The expression level of ATG3, which is an antibacterial gene related to sclerotinia disease, in transgenic plants was 2.40-2.37-fold as high as that in the control. Our results indicate that these two key genes promote plant resistance to sclerotinia and glufosinate. Our study provides a foundation for further studies on the molecular mechanisms of rapeseed resistance breeding and selection of new resistant varieties.

Antimicrobial activity, chemical composition and mechanism of action of Chinese chive (Allium tuberosum Rottler) extracts

Chinese chive (Allium tuberosum Rottler) is a popular food from Allium species in East and Southeast Asia. Most Allium species possess characteristic aromas and have antimicrobial activity. In this study, the antimicrobial activities of root, leaf, and scape extracts of Chinese chive at different pH levels (3.0, 5.0, 7.0, 9.0, and 10.7) were compared. The most pronounced activity was produced by the scape extract, and the greatest activity was obtained at pH 5.0. HPLC and GC-MS analysis showed that the major active ingredient was 2-amino-5-methylbenzoic acid. The mechanism of action of Chinese chive scape extracts may involve the depression or disruption of cell membrane integrity, according to our results of the leakage of electrolytes and protein, as well as scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy observations.

ICP-MS based metallomics and GC-MS based metabolomics reveals the physiological and metabolic responses of Dendrobium huoshanense plants exposed to Fe3O4 nanoparticles

It is found that the growth of Dendrobium huoshanense was dependent on Fe3O4, while the bioavailability of plants to ordinary Fe3O4 was low on the earth. In order to improve the growth, quality and yield of D. huoshanense, we used Fe3O4 NPs (100 or 200 mg/L) that was easily absorbed by plants as nano-fertilizer to hydroponically treat seedlings of D. huoshanense for 3 weeks. Fe3O4 NPs induced not only earlier flowering and increased sugar content and photosynthesis, but also stressed to plants, increased MDA content and related antioxidant enzymes activities. Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) revealed that Fe3O4 NPs caused a significant accumulation of Fe and some other nutrient elements (Mn, Co, B, Mo) in stems of D. huoshanense. Metabolomics revealed that the metabolites were reprogrammed in D. huoshanense when under Fe3O4 NPs exposure. Fe3O4 NPs inhibited antioxidant defense-related pathways, demonstrating that Fe3O4 NPs have antioxidant capacity to protect D. huoshanense from damage. As the first study associating Fe3O4 NPs with the quality of D. huoshanense, it provided vital insights into the molecular mechanisms of how D. huoshanense responds to Fe3O4 NPs, ensuring the reasonable use of Fe3O4 NPs as nano-fertilizer.

Plant cell responses to allelopathy: from oxidative stress to programmed cell death

Allelopathy is a plant-plant interaction in which one plant releases biologically active compounds that have negative effects on the fitness of the target plant. The most pronounced effects are inhibition of seed germination and growth of neighboring plants. The roots of these plants are in contact with the allelochemicals released into the soil, as the primary target of the allelopathic action. To date, the best documented allelopathic activities relate to some weeds and invasive alien plants that show rapid spread and successful growth. A better understanding of the mechanisms of allelopathy will help to improve crop production and to manage and prevent plant invasions. At the cellular level, allelochemicals induce a burst of reactive oxygen species in the target plants, which leads to oxidative stress, and can promote programmed cell death. Lipid peroxidation and cell membrane changes, protein modifications, and increased protease activities are the early signs of cell damage. When enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidants cannot scavenge reactive oxidants, this can result in hydrolytic or necrotic degradation of the protoplast. Cell organelles then lose their integrity and function. In roots, the structure and activity of the apical meristem are changed, which affects root growth and water absorption. Such allelopathically active compounds might thus be applied to control and manage weeds and invasive plants in a more sustainable way, to reduce chemical pollution.

Methods of Isolation of Active Substances from Garlic (Allium sativum L.) and Its Impact on the Composition and Biological Properties of Garlic Extracts

Garlic (Allium sativum L.) is widely used in the human diet and in scientific research due to its biological properties. Various factors, e.g., temperature, pressure, extraction method, type of solvent, size, and territorial origin of garlic, affect the amount and type of bioactive compounds obtained from garlic extracts. In turn, the content of bioactive compounds correlates with the biological activity of the extracts. Therefore, the aim of this review was to summarize the current state of knowledge of the methods and effectiveness of isolation of active substances from garlic and their impact on the garlic extract composition and, consequently, biological properties. According to the literature, extracts obtained using water as a solvent are mainly responsible for antimicrobial properties, which is related to, inter alia, the high content of allicin. The use of alcohols, such as methanol or ethanol, is associated with the outstanding antioxidant power of extracts resulting from the presence of phenolic compounds. In turn, due to the presence of diallyl disulfide and disulfide trisulfide, garlic oil has anticancer potential. Acetone is the most effective organic solvent; however, it is not suitable for immediate consumption.

Time-course gene expression profiling data of Triticum aestivum treated by supercritical CO2 garlic extract encapsulated in nanoscale liposomes

The biostimulant phytochemicals as alternatives to synthetic chemicals are gaining ground in sustainable agricultural production nowadays. The medicinal herb, garlic (Allium sativum) has a spectacular therapeutic reputation due to its antimicrobial properties. The effectiveness of supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO₂) extraction of A. sativum could help preserve bioactive compounds and be used as a biostimulant agent. The SC-CO₂ garlic was formulated in liposomes and used as a nanoscale drug delivery system to reach better efficiency of penetration and translocation. The SC-CO₂ garlic extracts were used in Triticum aestivum time-course experiments to monitor conditioning effects such as improving crop quality and priming its defense responses against different pathogens. Fresh leaves were collected after SC-CO₂ garlic exposure at 15 min, 24, and 48 hours for QuantSeq 3′ mRNA sequencing at Illumina NextSeq 550 platform. RNA quantification datasets are presented. Raw data such as Illumina 85bp single-end read sequences and reconstructed transcripts were deposited in the NCBI SRA and TSA databases under the BioProject PRJNA808851. Functional annotation of transcripts and time-course expression data are presented here to support gene expression analysis experiments.

A comparative study of in-vitro and in-silico anti-candidal activity and GC-MS profiles of snow mountain garlic vs. common garlic

AIM

The study aimed to profile the volatile phytocomposition of snow mountain garlic (SMG) compared to common garlic and investigate the anti-Candida efficacy against clinically relevant multi-drug resistant isolates of Candida species.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Herein, SMG has shown significantly superior fungicidal power at 2x-MIC dose against C. albicans and C. glabrata in killing kinetic evaluation unlike fungistatic effect of common garlic. GC-MS headspace-based profiling of SMG showed 5 unique volatile compounds and 5-fold higher content of saponins than common garlic. In an in-silico analysis, Cholesta-4,6-dien-3-ol,(3-beta) was uniquely identified in SMG as a potential inhibitor with high binding affinity to the active site of exo-1,3-betaglucan synthase, an established anti-candida drug target crucial for the biofilm matrix formation, thus suggesting a plausible antifungal mechanism.

CONCLUSION

The in-vitro and in-silico study established Candida-cidal and anti-biofilm activities of SMG that differentiate it from Candida-static efficacy of common garlic.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

This is the first report that identifies several phytochemical signatures of SMG along with a potential anti-fungal compound, i.e. Cholesta-4,6-dien-3-ol,(3-beta)-, which appears worthy of detailed studies in future to explore utility of SMG as a fungal phytotherapy agent, especially against drug resistant Candida sp.

Induce defense response of DADS in eggplants during the biotrophic phase of Verticillium dahliae

PURPOSE

Verticillium wilt is a destructive vascular disease in eggplants. The complex defensive mechanisms of eggplant against this disease are very limited.

METHODS

Our work examined the bioactive properties of garlic allelochemical diallyl disulfide (DADS) as potential biostimulants for defense against V. dahliae in eggplant seedlings. We, therefore, foliar sprayed DADS on eggplants to study the defense response during the early biotrophic phase of V. dahliae (a hemibiotroph).

RESULTS

DADS application significantly increased root peroxidase (POD), phenylalanine-ammonia lyase (PAL) enzyme activity, and reduced H₂O₂ levels after 24 h of fungal inoculation. Salicylic acid (SA) in leaves and roots was significantly increased while, the jasmonic acid (JA), indole acetic acid (IAA), and abscisic acid (ABA) levels were decreased. The microscopic examinations of V. dahliae infection in roots displayed that the progression of infection was restricted in DADS-treated plants. Depositions of lignin and phenolic compounds such as ferulic acid, p-coumaric acid, and caffeic acid content were significantly higher in DADS-treated plants at 48 h post-inoculation. Similarly, the DADS application up-regulated pathogenesis-related (PR1, PR2, and PR5), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MPK1), and lipoxygenase (LOX) genes. Furthermore, DADS-treated plants exhibited a lower disease severity index (23.3% vs. 57.0% in controls), indicating successful defense against V. dahliae.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings concluded that the biological function of garlic allelochemical DADS has a prominent role in the higher defense resistance of eggplants during the early infection of V. dahliae.

Obviation of dyslipidemia by garlic oil and its organosulfur compound, diallyl disulphide, in experimental animals

Background and objectives

Garlic and its number of preparations are known to be effective for treatment of dyslipidemia, but the data about the specific active constituents of the garlic on the possible therapeutic value is scarce. Therefore, the aim of this research was to evaluate the role of garlic oil (GO) and its active element, diallyl disulphide (DADS) for obviating dyslipidemia in animal model.

Methods

High fat diet (HFD) was given to animals to induce dyslipidemia. Animals of HFD groups were fed with atherogenic diet for 15 days prior to treatment. Animals in their respective groups received vehicle, GO (50 and 100 mg/kg), and DADS (4.47 and 8.94 mg/kg) for five consecutive days. Lipid profiles were estimated in serum, oxidant/antioxidant and liver profile were measured in liver tissue homogenate (LTH).

Results

Animals fed on HFD developed significant increase in the serum levels of triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol (TC), lactate dehydrogenase (LDL), malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione peroxidase (GSHPx), glutathione (GSH), and glutathione disulfide (GSSG) that reduced significantly in groups that received GO and DADS treatments. Additionally, significant elevation in serum high density lipoprotein (HDL) level was observed in animals that received GO and DADS. Moreover, hepatic markers such as alkaline phosphatase (ALP), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and alanine transferase (ALT), that were abnormally altered by high fat diet, were significantly restored to almost normal values with GO and DADS treatments. Also, antioxidants such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and total thiol (SH) levels in LTH were increased significantly in GO and DADS treated groups. When compared to DADS, GO showed better therapeutic effectiveness in terms of antihyperlipidemic and antioxidant properties.

Conclusion

In hyperlipidemic rats, garlic and its principal active component, diallyl disulphide, were effective in avoiding dyslipidemia and neutralizing reactive free radicals induced by a high fat diet. It's an intriguing observation that GO has a larger therapeutic influence than its active constituent, DADS. These findings suggest that other constituents, in addition to GO's DADS, are involved in the compound's synergistic antihyperlipidemic and antioxidant activities.

Antifungal Activity of Propyl-Propane-Thiosulfinate (PTS) and Propyl-Propane-Thiosulfonate (PTSO) from Allium cepa against Verticillium dahliae: In Vitro and in Planta Assays

Verticillium wilt, caused by Verticillium dahliae, is the most devastating soil-borne fungal disease of olive trees worldwide. Currently, there is no effective measure available to control the pathogen in diseased plants in open field conditions. Searching more effective and sustainable solutions are a priority for the olive sector. The existing alternatives for disease control include the use of biological control microorganisms and compounds of natural origin from plants, such as Alliaceae. Propyl propane thiosulfinate (PTS) and propyl propane thiosulfonate (PTSO) are two organosulfur compounds derived from Allium cepa with a widely documented antimicrobial activity. The aim of this study was to evaluate the antifungal activity of PTS and PTSO against the defoliating and non-defoliating V. dahliae pathotypes. Firstly, several in vitro tests were performed (Minimum Antifungal Concentration, susceptibility studies according to the Kirby–Bauer disk-diffusion method, antifungal activity through aerial diffusion and effect on mycelial growth). The ability of both compounds to sanitize soil was evaluated using a sterile substrate inoculated with V. dahliae. Finally, challenges in growth chambers were carried out. PTS and PTSO generated growth inhibition zones in agar diffusion and the gas phase, and the mycelial growth of all the V. dahliae strains was significantly altered. The V. dahliae population in soil was considerably reduced after the sanitization. Finally, in planta assays demonstrated the ability of these compounds to reduce disease related parameters and their contribution to control the phytopathogen. In conclusion, the results showed that the PTS and PTSO from Allium cepa display in vitro and in vivo antifungal activity against V. dahliae and suggested that both compounds could be used as natural and environmentally friendly tools for Verticillium wilt management.

Cardioprotective Potential of Garlic Oil and Its Active Constituent, Diallyl Disulphide, in Presence of Carvedilol during Chronic Isoprenaline Injection-Mediated Myocardial Necrosis in Rats

In isoprenaline (ISO)-induced myocardial infarcted rats, garlic oil (GO) and its main ingredient, diallyl disulfide (DADS), were examined for cardioprotective effects when used with carvedilol (CAR). GO, DADS and CAR were given to rats in their respective groups, either alone or together, with the addition of isoprenaline (3 mg/kg/day, subcutaneously) during the last 10 days of treatment. At the end of 14 days of treatment, blood samples were collected, the hearts were excised under anesthesia and weighed. Heart tissue homogenate was used to measure superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS). Furthermore, the serum activities of cardiac markers, including lactate dehydrogenase, creatine kinase, and cardiac troponin, were checked. Moreover, inflammatory markers including tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin one beta, interleukin six, and kappa bp65 subunit were assessed. Rats that received GO, DADS, and CAR exhibited a significant increase in the cardiac antioxidant enzyme activities with a simultaneous decrease in serum cardiac markers enzymes and inflammatory markers. The TBARS were significantly reduced in rats that received treatment. The addition of carvedilol to GO or DADS significantly elevated antioxidant activities and decreased the release of cardiac enzymes into blood circulation. Both DADS and GOl were almost similar in efficacy, indicating the potential role of DADS in garlic oil-mediated cardioprotection. Combining GO or DADS with CAR increased CAR’s cardioprotective impact and protected rats from developing ISO-induced myocardial infarction.

Application of garlic allelochemicals improves growth and induces defense responses in eggplant (Solanum melongena) against Verticillium dahliae

Aqueous garlic extracts (AGE) and garlic allelochemical diallyl disulfide (DADS) have been recently reported to bear bioactive properties to stimulate plant growth and development and alter defense-related physiology. We, therefore, performed a bioassay to study these chemicals as possible biostimulants for defense against Verticillium dahliae in eggplant seedlings. AGE and DADS were applied as a foliar application to the eggplants and samples were collected before and after pathogen inoculation at various intervals to analyze the defense mechanism. The obtained data revealed that with the application of AGE and DADS, the seedlings showed responses including activation of antioxidant enzymes, an abundance of chlorophyll contents, alteration of photosynthesis system, and accumulation of plant hormones compared to the control plants. Furthermore, the microscopic analysis of the AGE or DADS treated plants showed high variability in pathogen density within the root crown at 28 days post-inoculation. The low abundance of reactive oxygen species was noticed in AGE or DADS treated plants, which indicates that the plants were able to successfully encounter pathogen attacks. The AGE and DADS treated plants exhibited a lower disease severity index (32.4% and 24.8% vs 87.1% in controls), indicating successful defense against Verticillium infection. Our results were therefore among the first to address the biostimulatory effects of AGE or DADS to induce resistance in eggplant seedlings against V. dahliae and may be used to establish preparation for garlic-derived bioactive compounds to improve growth and defense responses of eggplants under-protected horticultural situations such as glasshouse or plastic tunnels system.

Allicin Attenuated Advanced Oxidation Protein Product-Induced Oxidative Stress and Mitochondrial Apoptosis in Human Nucleus Pulposus Cells

Intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD) is one of the most common chronic degenerative musculoskeletal disorders. Oxidative stress-induced apoptosis of the nucleus pulposus (NP) cells plays a key role during IDD progression. Advanced oxidation protein products (AOPP), novel biomarkers of oxidative stress, have been reported to function in various diseases due to their potential for disrupting the redox balance. The current study is aimed at investigating the function of AOPP in the oxidative stress-induced apoptosis of human NP cells and the alleviative effects of allicin during this process which was known for its antioxidant properties. AOPP were demonstrated to hamper the viability and proliferation of NP cells in a time- and concentration-dependent manner and cause cell apoptosis markedly. High levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid peroxidation product malondialdehyde (MDA) were detected in NP cells after AOPP stimulation, which resulted in depolarized mitochondrial transmembrane potential (MTP). Correspondingly, higher levels of AOPP were discovered in the human degenerative intervertebral discs (IVD). It was also found that allicin could protect NP cells against AOPP-mediated oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction via suppressing the p38-MAPK pathway. These results disclosed a significant role of AOPP in the oxidative stress-induced apoptosis of NP cells, which could be involved in the primary pathogenesis of IDD. It was also revealed that allicin could be a promising therapeutic approach against AOPP-mediated oxidative stress during IDD progression.

Garlic Allelochemical Diallyl Disulfide Alleviates Autotoxicity in the Root Exudates Caused by Long-Term Continuous Cropping of Tomato

Continuous cropping obstacles seriously affect the sustainable production of tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum L.). Researchers have found that intercropping with garlic (Allium sativum L.) could alleviate tomato continuous cropping obstacles. Diallyl disulfide (DADS) is the main allelochemical in garlic. However, the mechanism of DADS in alleviating tomato continuous cropping obstacles is still unknown. In this research, aqueous extracts of tomato continuous cropping soil were used to simulate the continuous cropping condition of tomato. Our results showed that DADS increased root activity and chlorophyll content and improved the activity of antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL)) and the metabolism of nonenzymatic antioxidants (glutathione (GSH) and oxidized glutathione (GSSG)) in tomato plants. DADS treatment reduced the content of fatty acid esters in tomato root exudates (e.g., palmitate methyl ester, palmitoleic acid methyl ester, oleic acid methyl ester) and increased the level of substances such as dibutyl phthalate and 2,2'-methylenebis(6-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol). The higher concentrations of palmitate methyl ester inhibited tomato hypocotyl growth, while oleic acid methyl ester inhibited tomato root growth. Moreover, the application of DADS significantly inhibited the secretion of these esters in the root exudates. Therefore, it suggests that DADS may increase tomato resistance and promote tomato plant growth by increasing root activity and photosynthetic capacity and development to reduce autotoxicity of tomato.

Pennisetum giganteum: An emerging salt accumulating/tolerant non-conventional crop for sustainable saline agriculture and simultaneous phytoremediation

Soil salinity is a global threat to the environmental sustainability, in particular to the developing countries due to their limited resources for soil reclamation. In a greenhouse pot experiment, Pennisetum giganteum, was investigated for its tolerance to salt stress and simultaneous phytoremediation capability. 4 weeks post-germination, NaCl (10, 50, 150, 250, 350, 450 and 550 mM) and tap water (control) was applied after every 2 consecutive days for two weeks in a completely randomized design and their effects were established in the growth and physico-chemical aspects of these plants. Our results indicated that P. giganteum withstood high salt stress (with 550 mM NaCl tolerance threshold level). Interestingly, the plants grown under saline conditions had higher biomass yield when compared to the control. Furthermore, the antioxidant activity and proline content of plants under saline conditions were significantly (p < 0.05) higher than those of control plants, indicating their adaptability to high salt stress. Biochemical analysis such as chlorophyll contents, total soluble sugar, total phenol and protein contents revealed considerable differences between plants grown under higher NaCl stress compared to the control conditions. Additionally, significantly different ionic flux along with high K⁺/Na⁺ ratio was observed in plants grown under a range of saline conditions. The results obtained are therefore of value to indicate P. giganteum an eco-friendly alternate source for the phytoremediation of saline soils and may be used as base for future research on this plant. Effective strategies need to be adopted with this plant to reclaim saline-degraded as well as marginal soils.

Garlic Substrate Induces Cucumber Growth Development and Decreases Fusarium Wilt through Regulation of Soil Microbial Community Structure and Diversity in Replanted Disturbed Soil

Garlic substrate could influence plant growth through affecting soil microbiome structure. The relationship mechanism between changes in soil microbial communities, disease suppression and plant development, however, remains unclear, particularly in the degraded soil micro-ecological environment. In this study, garlic substrates as a soil amendment were incorporated with different ratios (1:100, 3:100 and 5:100 g/100 g of soil) in a replanted disturbed soil of long-term cucumber monoculture (annual double cropping system in a greenhouse). The results indicated that higher amount of C-amended garlic substrate significantly induced soil suppressiveness (35.9% greater than control (CK) against the foliar disease incidence rate. This inhibitory effect consequently improved the cucumber growth performance and fruit yield to 20% higher than the non-amended soil. Short-term garlic substrate addition modified the soil quality through an increase in soil organic matter (SOM), nutrient availability and enzymatic activities. Illumina MiSeq sequencing analysis revealed that soil bacterial and fungal communities in the garlic amendment were significantly different from the control. Species richness and diversity indices significantly increased under treated soil. The correlation-based heat map analysis suggested that soil OM, nutrient contents and biological activators were the primary drivers reshaping the microbial community structure. Furthermore, garlic substrate inhibited soil-borne pathogen taxa (Fusarium and Nematoda), and their reduced abundances, significantly affecting the crop yield. In addition, the host plant recruited certain plant-beneficial microbes due to substrate addition that could directly contribute to plant–pathogen inhibition and crop biomass production. For example, abundant Acidobacteria, Ascomycota and Glomeromycota taxa were significantly associated with cucumber yield promotion. Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Basidiomycota and Glomeromycota were the associated microbial taxa that possibly performed as antagonists of Fusarium wilt, with plant pathogen suppression potential in monocropped cucumber-planted soil.

Anti-biofilm efficacy of a medieval treatment for bacterial infection requires the combination of multiple ingredients

Novel antimicrobials are urgently needed to combat drug-resistant bacteria and to overcome the inherent difficulties in treating biofilm-associated infections. Studying plants and other natural materials used in historical infection remedies may enable further discoveries to help fill the antibiotic discovery gap. We previously reconstructed a 1,000-year-old remedy containing onion, garlic, wine, and bile salts, known as 'Bald's eyesalve', and showed it had promising antibacterial activity. In this current paper, we have found this bactericidal activity extends to a range of Gram-negative and Gram-positive wound pathogens in planktonic culture and, crucially, that this activity is maintained against Acinetobacter baumannii, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis and Streptococcus pyogenes in a soft-tissue wound biofilm model. While the presence of garlic in the mixture can explain the activity against planktonic cultures, garlic has no activity against biofilms. We have found the potent anti-biofilm activity of Bald's eyesalve cannot be attributed to a single ingredient and requires the combination of all ingredients to achieve full activity. Our work highlights the need to explore not only single compounds but also mixtures of natural products for treating biofilm infections and underlines the importance of working with biofilm models when exploring natural products for the anti-biofilm pipeline.

Some Physiological and Biochemical Mechanisms during Seed-to-Seedling Transition in Tomato as Influenced by Garlic Allelochemicals

The effects of aqueous garlic extracts (AGEs), diallyl disulfide (DADS), and allicin (AAS) were investigated during seed-to-seedling transition of tomato. Independent bioassays were performed including seed priming with AGE (0, 100, and 200 µg∙mL^-1), germination under the allelochemical influence of AGE, DADS, and AAS, and germination under volatile application of AGE. Noticeable differences in germination indices and seedling growth (particularly root growth and fresh weights) were observed in a dose-dependent manner. When germinated under 50 mM NaCl, seeds primed with AGE exhibited induced defense via antioxidant enzyme activities (superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), and catalase (CAT)), lipid peroxidation (malondialdehyde content (MDA)), and H₂O₂ scavenging. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent analysis (ELISA) of the endogenous phytohormones auxin (IAA), abscisic acid (ABA), cytokinin (ZR), and gibberellic acid (GA₃) in the roots and shoots of the obtained seedlings and the relative expression levels of auxin-responsive protein (IAA2), like-auxin (LAX5), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK7 and MPK2), respiratory burst oxidase homolog (RBOH1), CHI3 and SODCC1 suggested allelopathic functions in stimulating growth responses. Our findings suggest that garlic allelochemicals act as plant biostimulants to enhance auxin biosynthesis and transportation, resulting in root growth promotion. Additionally, the relative expressions of defense-related genes, antioxidant enzymes activities and phytohormonal regulations indicate activation of the defense responses in tomato seedlings resulting in better growth and development. These results, thus, provide a basis to understand the biological functions of garlic allelochemicals from the induced resistance perspective in plants.

The Possible Role of the Nitroso-Sulfide Signaling Pathway in the Vasomotoric Effect of Garlic Juice

The beneficial cardiovascular effects of garlic have been reported in numerous studies. The major bioactive properties of garlic are related to organic sulfides. This study aimed to investigate whether garlic juice works exclusively due to its sulfur compounds or rather via the formation of new products of the nitroso-sulfide signaling pathway. Changes in isometric tension were measured on the precontracted aortic rings of adult normotensive Wistar rats. We evaluated NO-donor (S-nitrosoglutathione, GSNO)-induced vasorelaxation and compare it with effects of hydrogen sulfide (H₂S)/GSNO and garlic/GSNO. Incubation with garlic juice increased the maximal GSNO-induced relaxation and markedly changed the character of the relaxant response. Although incubation with an H₂S donor enhanced the maximal vasorelaxant response of GSNO, neither the absolute nor the relative relaxation changed over time. The mixture of GSNO with an H₂S donor evoked a response similar to GSNO-induced relaxation after incubation with garlic juice. This relaxation of the H₂S and GSNO mixture was soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) dependent, partially reduced by HNO scavenger and it was adenosine triphosphate-sensitive potassium channels (K_ATP) independent. In this study, we demonstrate for the first time the suggestion that H₂S itself is probably not the crucial bioactive compound of garlic juice but rather potentiates the production of new signaling molecules during the GSNO-H₂S interaction.

An Allelopathic Role for Garlic Root Exudates in the Regulation of Carbohydrate Metabolism in Cucumber in a Hydroponic Co-Culture System

Garlic is considered to have a strong positive effect on the growth and yield of receptors under soil cultivation conditions. However, how this positive promotion is produced by changing the growth environment of the receptors or directly acting on the receptors is still not very clear. The direct influence of co-culturing with different quantities of garlic plants (the control 5, 10, 15, 20) on the growth and biochemical processes of cucumber plants was studied using a hydroponic co-culture system. Different numbers of garlic bulbs inhibited the growth of cucumber plants and increased the production and induction of reactive oxygen species, which accompanied the enhancement of lipid peroxidation and oxidative damage to cucumber. This allelopathic exposure further reduced the chlorophyll contents and photosynthesis rate, and consequently impaired the photosynthetic performance of photosystem II (PSII). Garlic root exudates increased the leaves' carbohydrates accumulation, such as soluble sugar contents and sucrose levels by regulating the activities of metabolismic enzymes; however, no such accumulation was observed in the roots. Our results suggested that garlic root exudates can mediate negative plant-plant interactions and its phytotoxic influence on cucumber plants may have occurred through the application of oxidative stress, which consequently imbalanced the source-to-sink photo-assimilate flow.

The Antifungal Effect of Garlic Essential Oil on Phytophthora nicotianae and the Inhibitory Component Involved

This study explored the chemical compositions of garlic essential oil, the inhibitory activity of garlic essential oil and diallyl disulfide (DADS) against Phytophthora nicotianae, and the effects on mycelial plasma membrane permeability and P. nicotianae inhibition. In total, 29 compounds were detected in garlic essential oil, of which 26 were detected by gas chromatography‒mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and 21 by headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) GC-MS. DADS (60.12% and 19.09%) and trisulfide di-2-propenyl (14.18% and 17.98%) were the major components identified by HS-SPME GC-MS and GC-MS analysis, respectively. Half-inhibitory concentration (Ec50, antagonism) and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC, fumigation) of DADS against P. nicotianae were 150.83 μL/L and 20 μL/L, respectively, while Ec50 of garlic essential oil was 1108.25 μL/L. Mycelial membrane permeability gradually increased in a concentration-dependent manner, and cell death increased at 450 μL/L DADS. Furthermore, DADS treatment significantly reduced the incidence of tobacco black shank and the number of P. nicotianae pathogens in rhizosphere soil. DADS also promoted root development of tobacco seedlings at low concentrations, which was inhibited at high concentrations. Therefore, DADS may play an important role in the antifungal effect against P. nicotianae by destroying mycelial cell membrane integrity, causing an increase in cell membrane permeability, and leading to cell death.

Bioactive Compounds and Biological Functions of Garlic (Allium sativum L.)

Garlic (Allium sativum L.) is a widely consumed spice in the world. Garlic contains diverse bioactive compounds, such as allicin, alliin, diallyl sulfide, diallyl disulfide, diallyl trisulfide, ajoene, and S-allyl-cysteine. Substantial studies have shown that garlic and its bioactive constituents exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, immunomodulatory, cardiovascular protective, anticancer, hepatoprotective, digestive system protective, anti-diabetic, anti-obesity, neuroprotective, and renal protective properties. In this review, the main bioactive compounds and important biological functions of garlic are summarized, highlighting and discussing the relevant mechanisms of actions. Overall, garlic is an excellent natural source of bioactive sulfur-containing compounds and has promising applications in the development of functional foods or nutraceuticals for the prevention and management of certain diseases.

Bioactive Compounds and Biological Functions of Garlic (Allium sativum L.)

Garlic (Allium sativum L.) is a widely consumed spice in the world. Garlic contains diverse bioactive compounds, such as allicin, alliin, diallyl sulfide, diallyl disulfide, diallyl trisulfide, ajoene, and S-allyl-cysteine. Substantial studies have shown that garlic and its bioactive constituents exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, immunomodulatory, cardiovascular protective, anticancer, hepatoprotective, digestive system protective, anti-diabetic, anti-obesity, neuroprotective, and renal protective properties. In this review, the main bioactive compounds and important biological functions of garlic are summarized, highlighting and discussing the relevant mechanisms of actions. Overall, garlic is an excellent natural source of bioactive sulfur-containing compounds and has promising applications in the development of functional foods or nutraceuticals for the prevention and management of certain diseases.

Priming of Solanum melongena L. Seeds Enhances Germination, Alters Antioxidant Enzymes, Modulates ROS, and Improves Early Seedling Growth: Indicating Aqueous Garlic Extract as Seed-Priming Bio-Stimulant for Eggplant Production

The current study was aimed to evaluate the seed priming potential of AGE (aqueous garlic extracts) to enhance seed germination and early seedling growth of eggplant. Different concentrations (100, 200, and 300 µg mL−1) of AGE were evaluated along with methyl jasmonate (MeJA) and salicylic acid (SA), plant growth regulators with reported seed priming potential whereas, water was taken as a control treatment. Eggplant seeds were primed for 4-, 8-, and 12-h and seed germination traits such germination rate index, germination percentage, mean germination time, and early seedling growth traits such as fresh and dry weights, root, and shoot lengths were observed. Moreover, plant antioxidant enzymes activities and lipid peroxidation levels, soluble protein contents and reactive oxygen species were monitored to establish the stimulatory/inhibitory effects of the treatments. Our results indicate priming potential of AGE, SA, and MeJA to enhance seed germination and early seedling growth in eggplant and the effects were obvious in various morphological and physiological traits. Seed priming significantly altered the antioxidant enzymes activities such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), and peroxidase (POD) with alteration in the reactive oxygen species (ROS). Interestingly, priming duration also affected the bioactivity of these chemicals because seed priming with 300 µg mL−1 AGE for 4 h had a positive influence, however, prolonged exposure to the same concentration inhibited the seed germination process and induced oxidative stress on the seedlings with elevated levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) content. We propose AGE seed priming as a bio-stimulant to enhance seed germination and early seedling growth in eggplant, and the results hence lay the foundation for the preparation of garlic-based compounds to improve vegetables production under plastic tunnels and greenhouse production units.

Allicin attenuates pathological cardiac hypertrophy by inhibiting autophagy via activation of PI3K/Akt/mTOR and MAPK/ERK/mTOR signaling pathways

BACKGROUND

Cardiac hypertrophy is an adaptive response of the myocardium to pressure or volume overload. Recent evidences indicate that allicin can prevent cardiac hypertrophy. However, it is not clear whether allicin alleviates cardiac hypertrophy by inhibiting autophagy.

PURPOSE

We aimed to investigate the effects of allicin on pressure overload-induced cardiac hypertrophy, and further to clarify the related mechanism.

STUDY DESIGN/METHODS

Cardiac hypertrophy was successfully established by abdominal aortic constriction (AAC) in rats, and cardiomyocytes hypertrophy was simulated by angiotensin II (Ang II) in vitro. Hemodynamic parameters were monitored by organism function experiment system in vivo. The changes of cell surface area were observed using HE and immunofluorescence staining in vivoand in vitro, respectively. The expressions of cardiac hypertrophy relative protein (BNP and β-MHC), autophagy marker protein (LC3-II and Beclin-1), Akt, PI3K and ERK were detected by western blot.

RESULTS

Allicin could improve cardiac function, and reduce cardiomyocytes size, and decrease BNP and β-MHC protein expressions. Further results showed that allicin could lower LC3-II and Beclin-1 protein expressions both in vivo and in vitro experiments. And pharmacological inhibitor of mTOR, rapamycin could antagonize the effects of allicin on Ang II-induced cardiac hypertrophy and autophagy. Simultaneously, allicin could promote the expressions of p-Akt, p-PI3K and p-ERK protein.

CONCLUSION

These findings reveal a novel mechanism of allicin attenuating cardiac hypertrophy which allicin could inhibit excessive autophagy via activating PI3K/Akt/mTOR and MAPK/ERK/mTOR signaling pathways.

The garlic allelochemical DADS influences cucumber root growth involved in regulating hormone levels and modulating cell cycling

Most allelochemicals are phytotoxic to the receiver plants and may influence the cell micro- and ultrastructure, cell division, phytohormone levels, and ultimately growth. In order to understand the allelopathic potential of garlic, the effects of its main bioactive allelochemical diallyl disulfide (DADS), experiments were carried out to observe the seed germination, root growth, and developmental responses in cucumber seedlings treated with various concentrations of DADS. The obtained data suggested active influence of DADS on cucumber root growth and development. Significant responses were observed in early root growth and elongation, mitotic cell division and elongation, and root architecture modulation. The effect, however, was dose dependent, and lower concentrations of DADS proved to be promotional whereas higher concentrations of DADS inhibited cucumber root growth and development. Relative root elongation (RRE) revealed that DADS could increase growth of cucumber roots in the early developmental days. Moreover, DADS application significantly influenced mitosis-related gene expression. Observed genes CYCA and CDKB were initially downregulated in the first 24 h but significantly upregulated after 48 h, while gene CDKA was upregulated in the first 24 h. Similarly, DADS application significantly altered primary plant hormones, such as IAA, ABA, GA₃, and ZR, in the cucumber roots. Taken together, low concentrations of DADS treatment could promote cucumber root growth and induce main root elongation by upregulating CDKA and CDKB gene expression and regulating hormone balance in root. The current findings offer insight into the allelopathic potential of garlic allelochemical DADS and can be considered vital for establishing plant allelopathic studies.

Aqueous Garlic Extract as a Plant Biostimulant Enhances Physiology, Improves Crop Quality and Metabolite Abundance, and Primes the Defense Responses of Receiver Plants

Biostimulants are the next-generation choice for sustainable agricultural production and are gradually becoming an alternative to synthetic chemicals. Various botanicals are proposed to exert stimulatory effects, and garlic allelochemicals are among such botanicals; however, a peer-reviewed scientific evaluation is required to understand garlic-derived substances such as biostimulants. Current studies were therefore performed to identify the bioactivity of garlic extract as a biostimulant to improve crop quality, alter its physiological potential, and prime its defense responses against pathogenic fungal infections. 100 µg mL−1 aqueous garlic extracts (AGE) in consort with 1 mM of acetyl salicylic acid (ASA) and distilled water as a control treatment were applied to eggplant and pepper seedlings as foliar application and fertigation methods. The results revealed stimulatory responses in the growth of the vegetables with improved plant height, number of leaves, root growth, fresh and dry weight, etc., due to AGE and ASA applications. Moreover, significant alterations were indicated in plant metabolites such as chlorophyll, carotenoids, and soluble sugars. Additionally, stimulation of the antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and peroxidase (POD), as well as the root activity of these plants, was observed after treatment. Application of AGE and ASA also exerted priming effects on pepper plants, inducing defense responses prior to Phytopthora capsici inoculation, and the treated plants therefore successfully resisted infection through activated antioxidant systems, and probably carotenoid and other protectory metabolites. Stress-induced H2O2 content was extremely low in the treated plants, indicating successful resistance against pathogenic infection.

Transcriptomic insights into the allelopathic effects of the garlic allelochemical diallyl disulfide on tomato roots

Garlic is an allelopathic crop that can alleviate the obstacles to continuous cropping of vegetable crops. Diallyl disulfide (DADS), one of the most important allelochemicals in garlic, promotes tomato root growth. Therefore, the global transcriptome profiles of DADS-treated tomato roots over time were investigated to reveal the potential growth-promoting mechanisms. We detected 1828, 1296 and 1190 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the 4, 24 and 48 h samples, respectively. Most DEGs involved in assimilatory sulfate reduction and glutathione metabolism were up-regulated after short-term (4 h) DADS treatment. In addition, increased activity of defensive enzymes and up-regulation of six peroxidase genes were observed, suggesting that DADS could induce tomato resistance. In plant-pathogen interactions, DEGs related to calcium signaling were primarily inhibited, while those encoding pathogenesis-related proteins were primarily up-regulated. Although plant hormone synthesis and signal transduction were both significantly affected by DADS, the expression trends of the genes in these two pathways were conflicting. This research provides comprehensive information concerning the changes in the tomato root transcriptome affected by DADS and may help direct further studies on DADS-responsive genes to enhance the current understanding of the mechanisms by which DADS alleviates the obstacles to continuous cropping.