Positive affect versus reward: emotional and motivational influences on cognitive control

Differential effects of social versus monetary incentives on inhibitory control under acute inflammation

While the impact of chronic, low-grade inflammation on cognitive functioning is documented in the context of neurodegenerative disease, less is known about the association between acute increases in inflammation and cognitive functioning in daily life. This study investigated how changes in interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels were associated with performance on an inhibitory control task, the go/no-go task. We further examined whether the opportunity to earn different incentive types (social or monetary) and magnitudes (high or low) was associated with differential performance on the task, depending on IL-6 levels. Using a within-participant design, individuals completed an incentivized go/no-go task before and after receiving the annual influenza vaccine. Multilevel logistic regressions were performed on the trial-level data (Nobs = 30,528). For no-go trials, we did not find significant associations between IL and 6 reactivity between the sessions and changes in trial accuracy. For go trials, we found significant differences in the associations between IL and 6 reactivity and changes in accuracy from session 1 to session 2 as a function of the incentive condition. Notably, greater IL-6 reactivity was consistently associated with fewer omission errors (i.e., greater accuracy on go trials) on high-magnitude social incentives (i.e., viewing a picture of a close-other picture) when compared to both low-magnitude social and high-magnitude monetary incentives. Together, these results suggest that mild fluctuations in inflammation might alter the valuation of an incentive, and possibly a shift toward devoting greater attentional resources when a large social incentive is on the line. Overall, this study sheds light on how everyday, low-grade fluctuations in inflammation may influence cognitive abilities essential for daily life and effective inhibitory control.

Arousal, interindividual differences and temporal binding a psychophysiological study

The sense of agency varies as a function of arousal in negative emotional contexts. As yet, it is unknown whether the same is true for positive affect, and how inter-individual characteristics might predict these effects. Temporal binding, an implicit measure of the sense of agency, was measured in 59 participants before and after watching either an emotionally neutral film clip or a positive film clip with high or low arousal. Analyses included participants' individual differences in subjective affective ratings, physiological arousal (pupillometry, skin conductance, heart rate), striatal dopamine levels via eye blink rates, and psychopathy. Linear mixed models showed that sexual arousal decreased temporal binding whereas calm pleasure had no facilitation effect on binding. Striatal dopamine levels were positively linked whereas subjective and physiological arousal may be negatively associated with binding towards actions. Psychopathic traits reduced the effect of high arousal on binding towards actions. These results provide evidence that individual differences influence the extent to which the temporal binding is affected by high arousing states with positive valence.

A critical review of hot executive functioning in youth attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Methodological limitations, conceptual considerations, and future directions

Hot executive functioning (EF) - EF under emotionally or motivationally salient conditions - is a putative etiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), disruptive behavior problems (DBPs), and their related impairments. Despite two decades of research, the present study is the first review of the construct in youth ADHD, with a particular focus on the role of task design, age, and DBPs, as well as relevant conceptual and methodological considerations. While certain hot EF tasks have been investigated extensively (e.g., choice impulsivity), substantial inconsistency in measurement of the broader construct remains, severely limiting conclusions. Future research should a) consider the extent to which various hot EF tasks relate to one another, a higher order factor, and other related constructs; b) further investigate task design, particularly the elicitation of emotion or motivation and its anticipated effect on EF; and c) incorporate multiple levels of analysis to validate similarities and differences among tasks with regard to the affective experiences and cognitive demands they elicit. With improved measurement and conceptual clarity, hot EF has potential to advance the literature on etiological pathways to ADHD, DBPs and associated impairments and, more broadly, may represent a useful tool for understanding the influence of emotion and motivation on cognition.

Reward-based modulation of task-switching performance: a diffusion model analysis

Investigating the interface between motivation and cognitive control, we conducted two task switching experiments (N = 96 each) with reward manipulation where participants switched between three different tasks. We measured N-2 task repetition costs, which denote the performance decrement in N-2 task repetition sequences (ABA) relative to N-2 task switch sequences (CBA), and which are presumed to be a marker of inhibitory control in task switching. Participants in the reward group received performance-contingent reward in the second phase of each experiment, and in the second experiment they were additionally penalized for errors. Reward thresholds were determined individually based on participants' performance during the first phase of each experiment. Participants in the control group did not receive any reward. The reward manipulation led to faster performance in the reward group relative to the control group. Diffusion modeling revealed that the reward manipulation induced an increase in drift rate parameter, consistent with dopamine-based enhancement of attentional focus under reward. Contrary to our expectations, no robust evidence for a reward-based modulation of N-2 repetition costs was found across the two experiments. N-2 task repetition costs were small in both experiments, and possibly, a larger amount of inhibitory control is needed in order to obtain empirical evidence for a reward-related modulation thereof. However, additional analyses suggested that reward may not interact with inhibitory control on the task level at all.

Developmental deviation in delay discounting as a transdiagnostic indicator of risk for child psychopathology

BACKGROUND

The tendency to prefer smaller, immediate rewards over larger, delayed rewards is known as delay discounting (DD). Developmental deviations in DD may be key in characterizing psychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders. Recent work empirically supported DD as a transdiagnostic process in various psychiatric disorders. Yet, there is a lack of research relating developmental changes in DD from mid-childhood to adolescence to psychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders. Additionally, examining the interplay between socioeconomic status/total household income (THI) and psychiatric symptoms is vital for a more comprehensive understanding of pediatric pathology and its complex relationship with DD.

METHODS

The current study addresses this gap in a robust psychiatric sample of 1843 children and adolescents aged 5-18 (M = 10.6, SD = 3.17; 1,219 males, 624 females). General additive models (GAMs) characterized the shape of age-related changes in monetary and food reward discounting for nine psychiatric disorders compared with neurotypical youth (NT; n = 123). Over 40% of our sample possessed a minimum of at least three psychiatric or neurodevelopmental disorders. We used bootstrap-enhanced Louvain community detection to map DD-related comorbidity patterns. We derived five subtypes based on diagnostic categories present in our sample. DD patterns were then compared across each of the subtypes. Further, we evaluated the effect of cognitive ability, emotional and behavioral problems, and THI in relation to DD across development.

RESULTS

Higher discounting was found in six of the nine disorders we examined relative to NT. DD was consistently elevated across development for most disorders, except for depressive disorders, with age-specific DD differences compared with NTs. Community detection analyses revealed that one comorbidity subtype consisting primarily of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Combined Presentation and anxiety disorders displayed the highest overall emotional/behavioral problems and greater DD for the food reward. An additional subtype composed mainly of ADHD, predominantly Inattentive Presentation, learning, and developmental disorders, showed the greatest DD for food and monetary rewards compared with the other subtypes. This subtype had deficits in reasoning ability, evidenced by low cognitive and academic achievement performance. For this ADHD-I and developmental disorders subtype, THI was related to DD across the age span such that participants with high THI showed no differences in DD compared with NTs. In contrast, participants with low THI showed significantly worse DD trajectories than all others. Our results also support prior work showing that DD follows nonlinear developmental patterns.

CONCLUSIONS

We demonstrate preliminary evidence for DD as a transdiagnostic marker of psychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders in children and adolescents. Comorbidity subtypes illuminate DD heterogeneity, facilitating the identification of high-risk individuals. Importantly, our findings revealed a marked link between DD and intellectual reasoning, with children from lower-income households exhibiting lower reasoning skills and heightened DD. These observations underscore the potential consequences of compromised self-regulation in economically disadvantaged individuals with these disorders, emphasizing the need for tailored interventions and further research to support improved outcomes.

Exploring global trends and future directions in advertising research: A focus on consumer behavior

This study aims to select the physiological and neurophysiological studies utilized in advertising and to address the fragmented comprehension of consumers' mental responses to advertising held by marketers and advertisers. To fill the gap, the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) framework was employed to select relevant articles, and bibliometric analysis was conducted to determine global trends and advancements in advertising and neuromarketing. The study selected and analyzed forty-one papers from the Web of Science (WoS) database from 2009-2020. The results indicated that Spain, particularly the Complutense University of Madrid, was the most productive country and institution, respectively, with 11 and 3 articles. The journal Frontiers in Psychology was the most prolific, with eight articles. The article "Neuromarketing: The New Science of Consumer Behavior" had the most citations (152 T.Cs). Additionally, the researchers discovered that the inferior frontal and middle temporal gyri were associated with pleasant and unpleasant emotions, respectively, while the right superior temporal and right middle frontal gyrus was connected to high and low arousal. Furthermore, the right prefrontal cortex (PFC) and left PFC were linked to withdrawal and approach behaviors. In terms of the reward system, the ventral striatum played a critical role, while the orbitofrontal cortex and ventromedial PFC were connected to perception. As far as we know, this is the first paper that focused on the global academic trends and developments of neurophysiological and physiological instruments used in advertising in the new millennium, emphasizing the significance of intrinsic and extrinsic emotional processes, endogenous and exogenous attentional processes, memory, reward, motivational attitude, and perception in advertising campaigns.

Reward network dysfunction is associated with cognitive impairment after stroke

Stroke survivors not only suffer from severe motor, speech and neurocognitive deficits, but in many cases also from a "lack of pleasure" and a reduced motivational level. Especially apathy and anhedonic symptoms can be linked to a dysfunction of the reward system. Rewards are considered as important co-factor for learning, so the question arises as to why and how this affects the rehabilitation of stroke patients. We investigated reward behaviour, learning ability and brain network connectivity in acute (3-7d) mild to moderate stroke patients (n = 28) and age-matched healthy controls (n = 26). Reward system activity was assessed using the Monetary Incentive Delay task (MID) during magnetoencephalography (MEG). Coherence analyses were used to demonstrate reward effects on brain functional network connectivity. The MID-task showed that stroke survivors had lower reward sensitivity and required greater monetary incentives to improve performance and showed deficits in learning improvement. MEG-analyses showed a reduced network connectivity in frontal and temporoparietal regions. All three effects (reduced reward sensitivity, reduced learning ability and altered cerebral connectivity) were found to be closely related and differed strongly from the healthy group. Our results reinforce the notion that acute stroke induces reward network dysfunction, leading to functional impairment of behavioural systems. These findings are representative of a general pattern in mild strokes and are independent of the specific lesion localisation. For stroke rehabilitation, these results represent an important point to identify the reduced learning capacity after stroke and to implement individualised recovery exercises accordingly.

Reinforcer value moderates the effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on learning and reversal

Introduction

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) are the leading cause of preventable developmental disability and are commonly characterized by alterations in executive function. Reversal learning tasks are reliable, cross-species methods for testing a frequently impaired aspect of executive control, behavioral flexibility. Pre-clinical studies commonly require the use of reinforcers to motivate animals to learn and perform the task. While there are several reinforcers available, the most commonly employed are solid (food pellets) and liquid (sweetened milk) rewards. Previous studies have examined the effects of different solid rewards or liquid dietary content on learning in instrumental responding and found that rodents on liquid reward with higher caloric content performed better with increased response and task acquisition rate. The influence of reinforcer type on reversal learning and how this interacts with developmental insults such as prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) has not been explored.

Methods

We tested whether reinforcer type during learning or reversal would impact an established deficit in PAE mice.

Results

We found that all male and female mice on liquid reward, regardless of prenatal exposure were better motivated to learn task behaviors during pre-training. Consistent with previous findings, both male and female PAE mice and Saccharine control mice were able to learn the initial stimulus reward associations irrespective of the reinforcer type. During the initial reversal phase, male PAE mice that received pellet rewards exhibited maladaptive perseverative responding whereas male mice that received liquid rewards performed comparable to their control counterparts. Female PAE mice that received either reinforcer types did not exhibit any deficits on behavioral flexibility. Female saccharine control mice that received liquid, but not pellet, rewards showed increased perseverative responding during the early reversal phase.

Discussion

These data suggest that reinforcer type can have a major impact on motivation, and therefore performance, during reversal learning. Highly motivating rewards may mask behavioral deficits seen with more moderately sought rewards and gestational exposure to the non-caloric sweetener, saccharine, can impact behavior motivated by those reinforcers in a sex-dependent manner.

The relationship between self, value-based reward, and emotion prioritisation effects

People show systematic biases in perception, memory, attention, and decision-making to prioritise information related to self, reward, and positive emotion. A long-standing set of experimental findings points towards putative common properties of these effects. However, the relationship between them remains largely unknown. Here, we addressed this question by assessing and linking these prioritisation effects generated by a common associative matching procedure in three experiments. Self, reward, and positive emotion prioritisation effects were assessed using cluster and shift function analyses to explore and test associations between these effects across individuals. Cluster analysis revealed two distinct patterns of the relationship between the biases. Individuals with faster responses showed a smaller reward and linear positive association between reward and emotion biases. Individuals with slower responses demonstrated a large reward and no association between reward and emotion biases. No evidence of the relationship between self and value-based reward or positive emotion prioritisation effects was found among the clusters. A shift function indicated a partial dominance of high-reward over low-reward distributions at later processing stages in participants with slower but not faster responses. Full stochastic dominance of self-relevance over others and positive over neutral emotion was pertinent to each subgroup of participants. Our findings suggest the independent origin of the self-prioritisation effect. In contrast, commonalities in cognitive mechanisms supporting value-based reward and positive emotion processing are subject to individual differences. These findings add important evidence to a steadily growing research base about the relationship between basic behavioural drivers.

The costs and benefits of psychedelics on cognition and mood

Anecdotal evidence has indicated that psychedelic substances may acutely enhance creative task performance, although empirical support for this claim is mixed at best. Clinical research has shown that psychedelics might have enduring effects on mood and well-being. However, there is no neurocognitive framework that ties acute changes in cognition to long-term effects in mood. In this review, we operationalize creativity within an emerging cognitive control framework and assess the current empirical evidence of the effects of psychedelics on creativity. Next, we leverage insights about the mechanisms and computations by which other psychoactive drugs act to enhance versus impair cognition, in particular to those that act on catecholamines, the neurophysiological consequences of which are relatively well understood. Finally, we use the same framework to link the suggested psychedelic-induced improvements in creativity with enduring psychedelic-induced improvements in mood.

Functional differentiation of the dorsal striatum: a coordinate-based neuroimaging meta-analysis

Background

The dorsal striatum, a nucleus in the basal ganglia, plays a key role in the execution of cognitive functions in the human brain. Recent studies have focused on how the dorsal striatum participates in a single cognitive function, whereas the specific roles of the caudate and putamen in performing multiple cognitive functions remain unclear. In this paper we conducted a meta-analysis of the relevant neuroimaging literature to understand the roles of subregions of the dorsal striatum in performing different functions.

Methods

PubMed, Web of Science, and BrainMap Functional Database were searched to find original functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies conducted on healthy adults under reward, memory, emotion, and decision-making tasks, and relevant screening criteria were formulated. Single task activation, contrast activation, and conjunction activation analyses were performed using the activation likelihood estimation (ALE) method for the coordinate-based meta-analysis to evaluate the differences and linkages.

Results

In all, 112 studies were included in this meta-analysis. Analysis revealed that, of the 4 single activation tasks, reward, memory, and emotion tasks all activated the putamen more, whereas decision-making tasks activated the caudate body. Contrast analysis showed that the caudate body played an important role in the 2 cooperative activation tasks, but conjunction activation results found that more peaks appeared in the caudate head.

Discussion

Different subregions of the caudate and putamen assume different roles in processing complex cognitive behaviors. Functional division of the dorsal striatum identified specific roles of 15 different subregions, reflecting differences and connections between the different subregions in performing different cognitive behaviors.

Function without feeling: neural reactivity and intercommunication during flexible motor adjustments evoked by emotional and neutral stimuli

Motor conflicts arise when we need to quickly overwrite prepotent behavior. It has been proposed that affective stimuli modulate the neural processing of motor conflicts. However, previous studies have come to inconsistent conclusions regarding the neural impact of affective information on conflict processing. We employed functional magnetic resonance imaging during a Go/Change-Go task, where motor conflicts were either evoked by neutral or emotionally negative stimuli. Dynamic causal modeling was used to investigate how motor conflicts modulate the intercommunication between the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and the anterior insula (AI) as 2 central regions for cognitive control. Conflicts compared to standard actions were associated with increased BOLD activation in several brain areas, including the dorsal ACC and anterior insula. There were no differences in neural activity between emotional and non-emotional conflict stimuli. Conflicts compared to standard actions lowered neural self-inhibition of the ACC and AI and led to increased effective connectivity from the ACC to AI contralateral to the acting hand. Thus, our study indicates that neural conflict processing is primarily driven by the functional relevance of action-related stimuli, not their inherent affective meaning. Furthermore, it sheds light on the role of interconnectivity between ACC and AI for the implementation of flexible behavioral change.

Men's reactions to gender inequality in the workplace: From relative deprivation on behalf of women to collective action

Over recent years, the role of men as women's allies in the struggle for gender equality has become increasingly important. Previous research has shown that often men do not fight gender inequalities as they fail to recognize the severity of discrimination against women (e.g., in hiring). In this study (N = 427), we examined whether men who experienced relative deprivation on behalf of women-a form of relative deprivation that stems from the awareness that women hold a less privileged position in society-were more motivated to engage in collective action to support gender equality in the workplace. The findings showed that men's feelings of deprivation on behalf of women were associated with a greater willingness to engage in collective action for gender equality. This relationship was sequentially mediated by two emotional reactions related to deprivation-increased guilt about gender inequalities and decreased fear of a potential backlash-and the moral conviction of acting for gender equality. These results suggest that men's awareness of gender inequality at work is an important antecedent to their acting in solidarity with women and that emotions and moral conviction are two psychological processes that turn cognition into behavior. Action to reduce gender inequalities should make men more sensitive to seeing that they hold a privileged position in society and to recognizing the pervasive and harmful nature of women's deprivation.

Arousal-driven interactions between reward motivation and categorization of emotional facial expressions

Reward motivation and emotion share common dimensions of valence and arousal, but the nature of interactions between the two constructs is relatively unclear. On the one hand, based on the common valence dimension, valence-compatible interactions are expected where reward motivation would facilitate the processing of compatible (i.e., positive) emotion and hamper the processing of incompatible (i.e., negative) emotion. On the other hand, one could hypothesize valence-general interactions driven by the arousal dimension, where the processing of both positive and negative emotions would be facilitated under reward motivation. Currently, the evidence for valence-compatible vs. valence-general type interactions between reward motivation and goal-relevant emotion is relatively mixed. Moreover, as most of the previous work focused primarily on appetitive motivation, the influence of aversive motivation on goal-relevant emotion is largely unexplored. To address these important gaps, in the present study, we investigated the interactions between motivation and categorization of facial emotional expressions by manipulating the valence dimension of motivation (appetitive and aversive motivation levels) together with that of emotion (positive and negative valence stimuli). Specifically, we conducted two behavioral experiments to separately probe the influence of appetitive and aversive motivation (manipulated via an advance cue signaling the prospect of monetary gains in Experiment 1 and losses in Experiment 2, respectively) on the categorization of happy, fearful, and neutral faces. We tested the two competing hypotheses regarding the interactions between appetitive/aversive motivation and emotional face categorization: Valence-compatible vs. Valence-general. We found evidence consistent with valence-general interactions where both appetitive and aversive motivation facilitated the categorization of happy and fearful faces relative to the neutral ones. Our findings demonstrate that interactions between reward motivation and categorization of emotional faces are driven by the arousal dimension, not by valence.

Development of an individualized procedure to induce reward-related impulsivity and evaluating its impact on drinking control

High impulsivity predisposes young adults to engage in hazardous alcohol use. Experimental research has shown that reward-related impulsivity is causally-related to heavier drinking. Correlational studies suggest that positive alcohol outcome expectancies mediate this effect, but causation has yet to be established. This study sought to clarify this relationship by: 1) developing a new, individualized procedure for inducing reward-related impulsivity with high generalizability; 2) experimentally manipulating positive alcohol expectancies to determine its mechanistic role in reward-related impulsivity risk for drinking. Eighty-seven young adults (67% female; M_age = 19.19, SD = 2.01) received either a covert manipulation to reduce positive alcohol expectancies (n = 43) or control (n = 44) after being administered the Individualized Reward-Seeking Induction Schedule (IRIS). The primary outcome was self-reported confidence in the ability to refuse alcohol in cued situations (drinking refusal self-efficacy). Results showed that IRIS increased reward-related impulsivity (p < .001, d_rm = 0.48) and reduced drinking refusal self-efficacy (p = .029, η²_P = .055, ω_p² = .043). Experimentally diminishing positive alcohol expectancies had a marginal effect on the reward-seeking induction when controlling for covariates (p = .057, η²_P = .044). Findings provide preliminary validation of IRIS as a new methodology for investigating the causal role of reward-related impulsivity in alcohol-related cognition and youth drinking.

Neural Connectivity Underlying Reward and Emotion-Related Processing: Evidence From a Large-Scale Network Analysis

Neuroimaging techniques have advanced our knowledge about neurobiological mechanisms of reward and emotion processing. It remains unclear whether reward and emotion-related processing share the same neural connection topology and how intrinsic brain functional connectivity organization changes to support emotion- and reward-related prioritized effects in decision-making. The present study addressed these challenges using a large-scale neural network analysis approach. We applied this approach to two independent functional magnetic resonance imaging datasets, where participants performed a reward value or emotion associative matching task with tight control over experimental conditions. The results revealed that interaction between the Default Mode Network, Frontoparietal, Dorsal Attention, and Salience networks engaged distinct topological structures to support the effects of reward, positive and negative emotion processing. Detailed insights into the properties of these connections are important for understanding in detail how the brain responds in the presence of emotion and reward related stimuli. We discuss the linking of reward- and emotion-related processing to emotional regulation, an important aspect of regulation of human behavior in relation to mental health.

Functional Mechanisms of Health Behavior Change Techniques: A Conceptual Review

Background

Health behavior change is among the top recommendations for improving health of patients with lifestyle-related chronic diseases. An array of behavior change techniques (BCTs) have been developed to support behavior change initiation and maintenance. These BCTs often show limited success when they are not informed by theory, leading to a mismatch between the intention of the BCT and patients' needs or expectations. Previous studies have identified a number of resources (domains) which patients may require to initiate and maintain health behavior change. Indeed, not yet well established is how BCTs address these resources, i.e., the functional mechanisms of BCTs.

Purpose

Provide a theoretical framework of the functional mechanisms of BCTs for developing and implementing successful interventions for health behavior change.

Methods

Conceptual review, including literature analysis and synthesis as well as conceptualization of a new model based on the synthesis.

Results

Through the integration of dual-process models as well as reward and motivation proceeding, i.e., affective, emotional, or intuitive neurobiological cues, into the rational framework of rather linear cognitive or task-related decision progress, we categorize previously identified resources into three distinct sets: external, internal reflective, and internal affective resources. Based on this triad, we classify BCTs according to their functional mechanisms into facilitating (=providing external resources), boosting (=strengthening internal reflective resources), and nudging (=activating internal affective resources). Consequently, we present a simplified Behavior Change Resource Model (BCRM) that is centered on patients' resources.

Conclusion

The model can be applied to develop health behavior change interventions, which promote engagement and empowerment. Future studies should aim at testing the applicability and practicality of the BCRM.

The effect of URB597, exercise or their combination on the performance of 6-OHDA mouse model of Parkinson disease in the elevated plus maze, tail suspension test and step-down task

Parkinson disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that is often accompanied by motor and psychiatric symptoms. Various approaches have been proposed for the treatment of PD. Here, we investigated the effect of a low dose of fatty acid amide hydrolase inhibitor URB597 (as an enhancer of endocannabinoid anandamide levels), exercise or their combination on some behavior alterations in PD mice lesioned by 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA). The impact of swimming exercise (5×/week for 4 weeks) and URB597 (0.1 mg/kg, 2×/week for 4 weeks) on the anxiety-related behavior (elevated plus maze; EPM), depression-related behavior (tail suspension test; TST), and passive avoidance memory (step-down task) was examined in the sham and male NMRI mouse of PD model. The results show that URB597 prevented memory deficits and elicited antidepressant- and anxiolytic-like effects but did not affect hypolocomotion in the PD mice. However, URB597 did not have a significant effect on the performance of the sham mice in the performed tests. Moreover, swimming training abolished depressive- and anxiogenic-like behaviors and increased locomotion without affecting memory deficits in the PD mice. Meanwhile, swimming decreased immobility time and increased locomotion in the sham mice. Furthermore, URB597 in association with swimming training prevented all deficits induced in the PD mice, while this combination impaired memory and produced the positive effects on depression- and anxiety-related behaviors and locomotion of the sham mice. It is concluded that although URB597 or exercise alone had positive effects on most behavioral tests, their combination improved all parameters in the PD mice.

In for a penny, in for a pound: examining motivated memory through the lens of retrieved context models

When people encounter items that they believe will help them gain reward, they later remember them better than others. A recent model of emotional memory, the emotional context maintenance and retrieval model (eCMR), predicts that these effects would be stronger when stimuli that predict high and low reward can compete with each other during both encoding and retrieval. We tested this prediction in two experiments. Participants were promised £1 for remembering some pictures, but only a few pence for remembering others. Their recall of the content of the pictures they saw was tested after 1 min and, in experiment 2, also after 24 h. Memory at the immediate test showed effects of list composition. Recall of stimuli that predicted high reward was greater than of stimuli that predicted lower reward, but only when high- and low-reward items were studied and recalled together, not when they were studied and recalled separately. More high-reward items in mixed lists were forgotten over a 24-h retention interval compared with items studied in other conditions, but reward did not modulate the forgetting rate, a null effect that should be replicated in a larger sample. These results confirm eCMR's predictions, although further research is required to compare that model against alternatives.

Impact of emotionally-charged images and trial order on downstream cognitive processing: An ERP study

Theories of emotion-cognition interactions suggest that emotional valence can both facilitate or limit cognitive performance. One cause for the mixed findings may be the order (random versus non-random presentation) in which emotional stimuli are presented. To investigate the impact of stimuli order on cognitive control processing, EEG data were recorded as 130 undergraduate students (M age = 22.2, SD = 5.4; 79 female) completed a modified version of the AX-Continuous Performance Task in which the cue was followed by an emotionally-valenced image (positive, negative, and neutral). Specifically, the task was designed so that valenced images were presented in either a block or random order, prior to probe presentation. We examined two event-related potentials (ERPs), the N2, which reflects aspects of cognitive control, and the late positive potential (LPP), which reflects attention allocation to emotional stimuli. We assessed the impact of emotionally oriented attention (LPP) on downstream cognitive control (N2) and how this relationship might differ for a block versus random (order of emotional image) task design. Consistent with the LPP literature, we found a main effect of image valence with the negative trials showing larger LPPs than the positive and neutral trials. For N2s, we found that the negative trials were associated with smaller N2s than both the positive and neutral trials. We observed that as LPP amplitude increased, subsequent N2 amplitude was reduced, specifically for negative trials in the random design. These results suggest an emotion-related depletion of neural cognitive resources. Lastly, we found larger N2s for the block design versus the random design. Together, these results indicate the importance of paying attention to both trial order (block versus random) and within trial stimulus sequence when designing emotion induction tasks.

Investigating anticipatory processes during sequentially changing reward prospect: An ERP study

Performance-contingent reward prospect modulates the stability-flexibility balance in voluntary task switching. High reward prospect typically increases stability, indicated by a low voluntary switch rate (VSR). But this effect depends on the immediate reward history: Only when a high reward repeats (reward remains high), stability is increased. In contrast, when reward increases (high reward following low reward) cognitive flexibility is promoted, indicated by a relatively high VSR. To investigate the underlying mechanisms of changing reward expectations during voluntary task choice, we conducted two experiments and measured reward cue-locked event-related potentials (P2, P3b, CNV). The experiments yielded consistent findings: The P2 was stronger in response to high vs. low reward reflecting an early attentional boost by high reward anticipation. The P3b was highest in increase, intermediate in remain-high, and lowest in low reward trials suggesting responsiveness to working memory updating and motivational arousal. Finally, the CNV increased over time and was sensitive to both reward magnitude and sequence with the lowest amplitude in reward remain-low trials suggesting that preparatory control only increases when worth the effort. Taken together, early attentional processes (P2) were boosted by mere reward magnitude, while later processes (P3b, CNV) were sensitive to both reward magnitude and its sequence.

Evaluating the learning of stimulus-control associations through incidental memory of reinforcement events

Cognitive control describes the ability to use internal goals to strategically guide how we process and respond to our environment. Changes in the environment lead to adaptation in control strategies. This type of control learning can be observed in performance adjustments in response to varying proportions of easy to hard trials over blocks of trials on classic control tasks. Known as the list-wide proportion congruent (LWPC) effect, increased difficulty is met with enhanced attentional control. Recent research has shown that motivational manipulations may enhance the LWPC effect, but the underlying mechanisms are not yet understood. We manipulated Stroop proportion congruency over blocks of trials and, after each trial, provided participants with either performance-contingent feedback ("correct/incorrect") or noncontingent feedback ("response logged") above trial-unique, task-irrelevant images (reinforcement events). The LWPC task was followed by a surprise recognition memory task, which allowed us to test whether attention to feedback (incidental memory for the images) varies as a function of proportion congruency, time, performance contingency, and individual differences. We replicated a robust LWPC effect in a large sample (N = 402) but observed no differences in behavior between feedback groups. Importantly, the memory data revealed better encoding of feedback images from context-defining trials (e.g., congruent trials in a mostly congruent block), especially early in a new context and in congruent conditions. Individual differences in reward and punishment sensitivity were not strongly associated with control-learning effects. These results suggest that statistical learning of contextual demand may have a larger impact on control learning than individual differences in motivation. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Effect of non-instructed instrumental contingency of monetary reward and positive affect in a cognitive control task

In recent years, we observed a strong interest in the influence of motivation and emotion on cognitive control. Prior studies suggest that the instrumental contingency between a response and a rewarding or affective stimulus is particularly important in that context-which is resonating with observations in the associative learning literature. However, despite this overlap, and the relevance of non-instructed learning in real life, the vast majority of studies investigating motivation-cognition interactions use direct instructions to inform participants about the contingencies between responses and stimuli. Thus, there is little experimental insight regarding how humans detect non-instructed contingencies between their actions and motivational or affective outcomes, and how these learned contingencies come to influence cognitive control processes. In an attempt to close this gap, the goal of the present study was to test the effect of non-instructed contingent and non-contingent outcomes (i.e. monetary reward and positive affective stimuli) on cognitive control using the AX-continuous performance task (AX-CPT) paradigm. We found that entirely non-instructed contingencies between responses and positive outcomes (both monetary and affective ones) led to significant performance improvement. The present results open new perspectives for studying the influence of motivation and emotion on cognitive control at the insertion with associative learning.

Bottom-up influences on voluntary task switching in different reward contexts?

In humans, voluntary task switching is susceptible to bottom-up influences like a switch of the target stimulus identity (Mayr & Bell, 2006). A recent study with ants (Czaczkes, Koch, Fröber, & Dreisbach, 2018) has shown that even irrelevant cue changes increase switching behavior, but only if they are presented within a high-reward context. To investigate whether a reward context would also increase switching behavior in response to meaningless cue changes in humans, we conducted two voluntary task switching experiments. On each trial, participants chose between two tasks preceded by one of two different color cues. Reward prospect was manipulated between blocks (Experiment 1: no vs. high reward; Experiment 2: low vs. high reward). In both experiments, the cue change did not modulate the voluntary switch rate. However, the voluntary switch rate was significantly lower in high-reward blocks as compared to no-reward or low-reward blocks. This suggests that bottom-up influences on deliberate task switching in humans are limited to task-relevant information. Moreover, the finding of a decreased voluntary switch rate within a high-reward context further supports the claim that unchanged high reward prospect promotes cognitive stability.

Revisiting positive affect and reward influences on cognitive control

Modulation of cognitive control by emotion and motivation has become a major topic in cognition research; however, characterizing the extent to which these influences may dissociate has proved challenging. Here, I examine recent advances in this literature, focusing on: (1) neuromodulator mechanisms underlying positive affect and reward motivation effects on cognitive control; (2) contingency and associative learning in interactions between affect/reward and cognitive control; (3) aspects of task design, unrelated to affect/reward, that may have acted as confounding influences on cognitive control in prior work. I suggest that positive affect and reward should not be considered singular in their effects on cognitive control, but instead varying on multiple parameters and interacting with task demands, to determine goal-directed, adaptive behavior.

Reward expectation modulates N2pc for target selection: Electrophysiological evidence

In an electrophysiological experiment, we investigated the effect of reward expectation on the localized attentional interference effect using a cue-target paradigm, while event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded. A cue indicating the reward condition of each trial (incentive vs. non-incentive) was followed by the presentation of a search array containing two target items. Participants were asked to decide whether the two shape singletons (two triangles, two rectangles, or one triangle and one rectangle) among a set of circles were the same shape. Moreover, we manipulated the distance between the two targets to be adjacent to each other (Separation 1) or further apart (Separation 3 and Separation 5). Behavioral results revealed a larger reward facilitation effect for the larger target separation conditions. The N2pc component locked to the target display exhibited an interaction between reward expectation and the distance between the two targets. For non-incentive trials, the N2pc amplitude increased as the separation between the two targets increased; however, for incentive trials, the N2pc showed comparable amplitudes in the different target separation conditions. These results indicate that reward expectation regulated attentional focus to better resolve the competition between representation and selection of the two targets for acquiring possible reward outcomes.

Neural Modulation in Approach-Avoidance Conflicts in Externalizing Psychopathology

Externalizing psychopathology (EXT) is characterized by poor decision-making in situations that involve simultaneous cues for approach and avoidance behavior (i.e. approach-avoidance conflicts). Previous studies of EXT have examined these deficits primarily using tasks involving decisions between positive reward and negative punishment, suggesting that EXT is characterized by a general bias towards high salience (e.g. temporally proximal or reward) cues relative to low salience (e.g. temporally distal or loss) cues. However, in order to better characterize decision-making in approach-avoidance conflicts, the present study utilized a novel task to examine neural activation in contexts involving both positive reward and negative punishment as well as positive punishment and negative reward by manipulating physical proximity of affective cues. Neuroimaging results indicated that EXT was associated with deficits related to cue prioritization based on salience, suggesting that failure to differentiate relevant from less relevant information contributes to poor decision-making among individuals with EXT.

Differences in basic psychological needs-related resting-state functional connectivity between individuals with high and low life satisfaction

Basic psychological needs including autonomy, competence, and relatedness can be affected by the level of life satisfaction. The current research aimed to elucidate differences in the association of these needs and functional connectivity of reward processing and emotion regulation between individuals with high and low life satisfaction. A total of 83 young adults were divided into the high life satisfaction (HLS) and low life satisfaction (LLS) groups and were scanned for 5-min resting-state fMRI. A seed-to-voxel analysis was performed using the seeds of the nucleus accumbens (NAcc), medial orbitofrontal cortex, subgenual anterior cingulate cortex (sgACC), insula, and amygdala. Analysis of covariance was conducted to test differences in the association of basic psychological needs and functional connectivity between the two groups. Connectivity strengths between the NAcc and right ventromedial prefrontal cortex and between the sgACC and left ventromedial prefrontal cortex were higher in the HLS group as the autonomy and relatedness scores increased, respectively, whereas in the LLS group as they decreased. Connectivity strengths between the NAcc and right midcingulate cortex and between the sgACC and left fusiform gyrus were higher in the HLS group as the competence and relatedness scores decreased, respectively, but in the LLS group as they increased. These findings suggest that individuals' perceived life satisfaction affects the relationship between the neural mechanism for reward processing and emotion regulation and basic psychological needs support. Psychological need satisfactions seem to have an emotional impact by acting as a contradictory brain mechanism between individuals with high and low life satisfaction.

Abnormal functional connectivity within the reward network: a potential neuroimaging endophenotype of bipolar disorder

BACKGROUND

Reward circuit dysfunction underlies the pathogenesis of bipolar disorder (BD). This study aims to investigate whether nucleus accumbens (NAcc) and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), two key reward regions for BD, have resting-state dysfunctional connectivity with other brain regions in depressed and euthymic BD.

METHODS

40 bipolar depressive (DE), 20 euthymic patients (EU) and 20 healthy controls (HC) were recruited to undergo resting-state functional MRI (rs-fMRI) scanning. Seed-based functional connectivity (FC) was calculated between NAcc/vmPFC and the whole brain. Group differences were calculated and their correlations with clinical characteristics were analyzed. Support vector machine was applied to classify BD patients and HC based on the FC between the cluster of group difference and NAcc/vmPFC.

RESULTS

Whole brain networks of FC identified right anterior insular cortex (AIC) as a significant region with bilateral NAcc when compared among three groups. The right AIC-NAcc FC elevated in both patient groups and was highest in the EU group. Interestingly, vmPFC-based networks also identified the right AIC as a significant cluster. The right AIC-vmPFC FC elevated in both patient groups. However, FC between NAcc and vmPFC did not significantly differ BD patients from HC. Furthermore, the strength of FC between bilateral NAcc and the right AIC was positively associated with the illness course of BD. Notably, the NAcc/vmPFC-right AIC classifier acquired an accuracy of 68.75% and AUC-ROC of 78.17%.

LIMITATIONS

Our sample size is modest.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicated that elevated NAcc/vmPFC-right AIC connectivity within the reward circuit could be a neuroimaging endophenotype of BD.

The neuroscience of positive emotions and affect: Implications for cultivating happiness and wellbeing

This review paper provides an integrative account regarding neurophysiological correlates of positive emotions and affect that cumulatively contribute to the scaffolding for happiness and wellbeing in humans and other animals. This paper reviews the associations among neurotransmitters, hormones, brain networks, and cognitive functions in the context of positive emotions and affect. Consideration of lifespan developmental perspectives are incorporated, and we also examine the impact of healthy social relationships and environmental contexts on the modulation of positive emotions and affect. The neurophysiological processes that implement positive emotions are dynamic and modifiable, and meditative practices as well as flow states that change patterns of brain function and ultimately support wellbeing are also discussed. This review is part of "The Human Affectome Project" (http://neuroqualia.org/background.php), and in order to advance a primary aim of the Human Affectome Project, we also reviewed relevant linguistic dimensions and terminology that characterizes positive emotions and wellbeing. These linguistic dimensions are discussed within the context of the neuroscience literature with the overarching goal of generating novel recommendations for advancing neuroscience research on positive emotions and wellbeing.

Endocannabinoids and aging-Inflammation, neuroplasticity, mood and pain

Aging is associated with changes in hormones, slowing of metabolism, diminished physiological processes, chronic inflammation and high exposure to oxidative stress factors, generally described as the biological cost of living. Lifestyle interventions of diet and exercise can improve the quality of life during aging and lower diet-related chronic disease. The endocannabinoid system (ECS) has important effects on systemic metabolism and physiological systems, including the central and peripheral nervous systems. Exercise can reduce the loss of muscle mass and improve strength, and increase the levels of endocannabinoids (eCB) in brain and blood. Although the ECS exerts controls on multiple systems throughout life it affords benefits to natural aging. The eCB are synthesized from polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and the primary ones are produced from arachidonic acid (n-6 PUFA) and others from the n-3 PUFA, namely eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids. The eCB ligands bind to their receptors, CB1 and CB2, with effects on appetite stimulation, metabolism, immune functions, and brain physiology and neuroplasticity. Dietary families of PUFA are a primary factor that can influence the types and levels of eCB and as a consequence, the downstream actions when the ligands bind to their receptors. Furthermore, the association of eCB with the synthesis of oxylipins (OxL) is a connection between the physiological actions of eCB and the lipid derived immunological OxL mediators of inflammation. OxL are ubiquitous and influence neuroinflammation and inflammatory processes. The emerging actions of eCB on neuroplasticity, well-being and pain are important to aging. Herein, we present information about the ECS and its components, how exercise and diet affects specific eCB, their role in neuroplasticity, neuroinflammation, pain, mood, and relationship to OxL. Poor nutrition status and low nutrient intakes observed with many elderly are reasons to examine the role of dietary PUFA actions on the ECS to improve health.

Motivation and reward mechanisms in health behavior change processes

With increasing prevalence of lifestyle-related chronic diseases worldwide, understanding health behavior change and the development of successful interventions to support lifestyle modification is gaining increasing interest among politicians, scientists, therapists and patients alike. A number of health behavior change theories have been developed aiming at explaining health behavior change and understanding the domains that make change more likely. Until now, only few studies have taken into account automatic, implicit or non-cognitive aspects of behavior, including emotion and positive affect. Recent progress in the neuroscience of motivation and reward systems can provide further insights into the relevance of such domains. In this integrative review, we present a description of the possible motivation and reward systems (approach/wanting = pleasure; aversion/avoiding = relief; assertion/non-wanting = quiescence) involved in behavior change. Therefore, based on established theories encompassing both initiation and maintenance of behavior change, we create a flexible seven-stage behavior change process with three engagement phases (non-engagement, motivational engagement, executive engagement) and relate the motivation and reward systems to each of these stages. We propose that either appetitive (preferably) or aversive motivational salience is activated during motivational engagement, that learning leads to continued behavior and that assertive salience prevails when the new behavior has become habitual. We discuss under which circumstances these mechanisms and reward-motivation pathways are likely to occur and address potential shortcomings of our proposed theoretical framework. We highlight implications for future interventions aiming at lifestyle modification.

Performance feedback promotes proactive but not reactive adaptation of conflict-control

Cognitive control refers to the use of internal goals to guide how we process stimuli, and control can be applied proactively (in anticipation of a stimulus) or reactively (once that stimulus has been presented). The application of control can be guided by memory; for instance, people typically learn to adjust their level of attentional selectivity to changing task statistics, such as different frequencies of hard and easy trials in the Stroop task. This type of control-learning is highly adaptive, but its boundary conditions are currently not well understood. In the present study, we assessed how the presence of performance feedback shapes control-learning in the context of item-specific (reactive control, Experiments 1a and 1b) and list-wide (proactive control, Experiments 2a and 2b) proportion of congruency manipulations in a Stroop protocol. We found that performance feedback did not alter the modulation of the Stroop effect by item-specific cueing, but did enhance the modulation of the Stroop effect by a list-wide context. Performance feedback thus selectively promoted proactive, but not reactive, adaptation of cognitive control. These results have important implications for experimental designs, potential psychiatric treatment, and theoretical accounts of the mechanisms underlying control-learning. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Dissociable Effects of Monetary, Liquid, and Social Incentives on Motivation and Cognitive Control

Humans are social creatures and, as such, can be motivated by aspects of social life (e.g., approval from others) to guide decision-making in everyday contexts. Indeed, a common view is that people may have stronger orientation toward social goals or incentives relative to other incentive modalities, such as food or money. However, current studies have only rarely addressed how social incentives compare to other types of rewards in motivating goal-directed behavior. The current study tested this claim; across two separate experiments, the effects of liquid and social incentives were compared in terms of their subsequent impact on task performance and self-reported affect and motivation. Critically, valenced social incentives offered both ecological validity (short video clips—Experiment 1) and continuity with prior stimuli used in the social reward and motivation literature (static images—Experiment 2) when examining their effect on behavior. Across both studies, the results replicate and extend prior work, demonstrating robust effects of liquid incentives on task performance and self-reported affect and motivation, while also supporting an interpretation of weaker motivational and affective effects for social incentives. These patterns of results highlight the complex and wide-ranging effects of social incentives and call into question the effectiveness of social incentives, relative to other incentive modalities, in motivating behavior.

Differential ageing trajectories in motivation, inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility in Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus)

Across the lifespan, the performance in problem-solving tasks varies strongly, owing to age-related variation in cognitive abilities as well as the motivation to engage in a task. Non-human primates provide an evolutionary perspective on human cognitive and motivational ageing, as they lack an insight into their own limited lifetime, and ageing trajectories are not affected by customs and societal norms. To test age-related variation in inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility and persistence, we presented Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus), living at La Forêt des Singes in Rocamadour (France), with three problem-solving tasks. We conducted 297 trials with 143 subjects aged 2-30 years. We found no effect of age on success and latency to succeed in the inhibitory control task. In the cognitive flexibility task, 21 out of 99 monkeys were able to switch their strategy, but there was no evidence for an effect of age. Yet, the persistence in the motivation task as well as the overall likelihood to participate in any of the tasks declined with increasing age. These results suggest that motivation declines earlier than the cognitive abilities assessed in this study, corroborating the notion that non-human primates and humans show similar changes in motivation in old age. This article is part of the theme issue 'Evolution of the primate ageing process'.

How Sequentially Changing Reward Prospect Modulates Meta-control: Increasing Reward Prospect Promotes Cognitive Flexibility

Meta-control is necessary to regulate the balance between cognitive stability and flexibility. Evidence from (voluntary) task switching studies suggests performance-contingent reward as one modulating factor. Depending on the immediate reward history, reward prospect seems to promote either cognitive stability or flexibility: Increasing reward prospect reduced switch costs and increased the voluntary switch rate, suggesting increased cognitive flexibility. In contrast, remaining high reward prospect increased switch costs and reduced the voluntary switch rate, suggesting increased cognitive stability. Recently we suggested that increasing reward prospect serves as a meta-control signal toward cognitive flexibility by lowering the updating threshold in working memory. However, in task switching paradigms with two tasks only, this could alternatively be explained by facilitated switching to the other of two tasks. To address this issue, a series of task switching experiments with uncued task switching between three univalent tasks was conducted. Results showed a reduction in reaction time (RT) switch costs to a nonsignificant difference and a high voluntary switch rate when reward prospect increased, whereas repetition RTs were faster, switch RTs slower, and voluntary switch rate was reduced when reward prospect remained high. That is, increasing reward prospect put participants in a state of equal readiness to respond to any target stimulus-be it a task repetition or a switch to one of the other two tasks. The study thus provides further evidence for the assumption that increasing reward prospect serves as a meta-control signal to increase cognitive flexibility, presumably by lowering the updating threshold in working memory.

The effects of cognitive abilities and task demands on tonic and phasic pupil sizes

Previous studies on individual differences in pupil size of healthy individuals and their relation to performance have been inconclusive. Using a novel approach, we tested the effect of general cognitive abilities and level of task performance on pretrial baseline and task-evoked pupil (TEP) sizes (N = 116) while we manipulated the level of task demands using a multiple object tracking task. Results did not reveal an effect of general cognitive abilities, estimated by working memory capacity and gF scores, on either baseline or TEP sizes. In contrast, we found an interaction in TEP sizes between level of overall MOT performance and task demands. We propose that individual differences in TEP sizes are related to state-specific level of task performance and task demands, probably in combination with other factors like age, personality traits, and state-specific level of motivation and arousal. We also suggest methodological confounds that may cause the previous inconclusive findings.

Reinforcement and Punishment Shape the Learning Dynamics in fMRI Neurofeedback

Introduction

Neurofeedback (NF) using real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has proven to be a valuable neuroscientific tool for probing cognition and promising therapeutic approach for several psychiatric disorders. Even though learning constitutes an elementary aspect of NF, the question whether certain training schemes might positively influence its dynamics has largely been neglected.

Methods

To address this issue, participants were trained to exert control on their subgenual anterior cingulate cortex (sgACC) blood-oxygenation-level-dependent signal, receiving either exclusively positive reinforcement (PR, “positive feedback”) or also positive punishment (PP, “negative feedback”). The temporal dynamics of the learning process were investigated by individually modeling the feedback periods and trends, offering the possibility to assess activation changes within and across blocks, runs and sessions.

Results

The results show faster initial learning of the PR + PP group by significantly lower deactivations of the sgACC in the first session and stronger regulation trends during the first runs. Independent of the group, significant control over the sgACC could further be shown with but not without feedback.

Conclusion

The beneficial effect of PP is supported by previous findings of multiple research domains suggesting that error avoidance represents an important motivational factor of learning, which complements the reward spectrum. This hypothesis warrants further investigation with respect to NF, as it could offer a way to generally facilitate the process of gaining volitional control over brain activity.

Males are more sensitive to reward and less sensitive to loss than females among people with internet gaming disorder: fMRI evidence from a card-guessing task

BACKGROUND

Many studies have found an interesting issue in the Internet gaming disorder (IGD): males are always observed to be the majority. However, there are little research to exploring the differences in the neural mechanisms between males and females in decision-making process among people with IGD. Therefore, explore the reward/loss processing between different gender with IGD could help in understanding the underlying neural mechanism of IGD.

METHODS

Data from functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) were collected from 111 subjects (IGD: 29 males, 25 females; recreational internet game user (RGU): 36 males, 21 females) while they were performing a card-guessing task. We collected and compared their brain features when facing the win and loss conditions in different groups.

RESULTS

For winning conditions, IGD group showed hypoactivity in the lingual gyrus than RGU group, male players showed hyperactivity in the left caudate nucleus, bilateral cingulate gyrus, right middle frontal gyrus (MFG), right precuneus and inferior parietal lobule relative to the females. And significant sex-by-group interactions results showed higher brain activities in the thalamus, parahippocampal gyrus and lower brain activities in Inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) were observed in males with IGD than females. For losing conditions, IGD group showed hypoactivity in the left lingual gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus and right anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) compared to the RGU group, male players showed hyperactive left caudate nucleus and hypoactive right middle occipital gyrus relative to females. And significant sex-by-group interactions results showed that compared to females with IGD, males with IGD showed decreased brain activities in the IFG and lingual gyrus.

CONCLUSIONS

First, there appeared to be no difference in reward processing between the IGD and RGU group, but IGD showed less sensitivity to loss. Secondly, male players showed more sensitivity to rewards and less sensitivity to losses. Last but not least, males and females showed opposite activation patterns in IGD degree and rewards/losses processing. And male IGD subjects are more sensitive to reward and less sensitive to loss than females, which might be the reason for the gender different rates on IGD.

Expecting the good: Symbolic valence signals provoke action biases and undermine goal-directed behavior

Positive and negative events are known to trigger opposing action tendencies (approach vs. avoidance). Recently, we found that advance monetary incentive cues can override such valence-action biases. In the present study we tested whether symbolic emotional valence cues can lead to similar adjustments and facilitate performance regardless of the required action. To this end, we performed three closely related experiments in which valence prospect (positive vs. neutral; indicated by stimulus color) and action requirements (approach vs. avoid; indicated by stimulus shape) were manipulated in a trial-to-trial fashion. Orthogonal to this, valence prospect was either embedded in the cue or target stimulus in discrete blocks (cue-valence vs. target-valence blocks). Actual valence was presented in the form of emotional face stimuli after response execution, which mirrors monetary incentive manipulations. In two of the experiments, we observed a positive-approach bias in form of performance benefit for positive versus neutral valence trials, which was exclusive for approach actions. Although numerically more pronounced in target-valence blocks, the bias was not significantly diminished in cue- versus target-valence blocks. This opposes our prediction that emotional valence cues can diminish such biases and instead highlights the robustness of inherent mappings between emotional valence and action tendencies - even if this goes against the task goal.

Cognitive rigidity and BDNF-mediated frontostriatal glutamate neuroadaptations during spontaneous nicotine withdrawal

Cognitive flexibility is the ability to switch strategic responses adaptively in changing environments. Cognitive rigidity imposed by neural circuit adaptations during nicotine abstinence may foster maladaptive nicotine taking in addicts. We systematically examined the effects of spontaneous withdrawal in mice exposed to either nicotine (6.3 or 18 mg/kg/day) or saline for 14 days on cognitive flexibility using an operant strategy set-shifting task. Because frontostriatal circuits are critical for cognitive flexibility and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) modulates glutamate plasticity in these circuits, we also explored the effects of nicotine withdrawal on these neurochemical substrates. Mice undergoing nicotine withdrawal required more trials to attain strategy-switching criterion. Error analysis show that animals withdrawn from both nicotine doses committed higher perseverative errors, which correlated with measures of anxiety. However, animals treated with the higher nicotine dose also displayed more strategy maintenance errors that remained independent of negative affect. BDNF mRNA expression increased in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) following nicotine withdrawal. Surprisingly, BDNF protein declined in mPFC but was elevated in dorsal striatum (DS). DS BDNF protein positively correlated with perseverative and maintenance errors, suggesting mPFC-DS overflow of BDNF during withdrawal. BDNF-evoked glutamate release and synapsin phosphorylation was attenuated within DS synapses, but enhanced in the nucleus accumbens, suggesting a dichotomous role of BDNF signaling in striatal regions. Taken together, these data suggest that spontaneous nicotine withdrawal impairs distinct components of cognitive set-shifting and these deficits may be linked to BDNF-mediated alterations in glutamate signaling dynamics in discrete frontostriatal circuits.

The Effect of Positive and Negative Affect on Early Treatment Milestones in the Context of Integrated Smoking Treatment

: Smoking is the leading cause of preventable death in the United States. Efforts have been made to develop effective, integrated smoking-cessation treatments for individuals with greater difficulty quitting, including individuals with elevated anxiety sensitivity (AS). Despite initial evidence for the efficacy of these treatments, little is understood about pretreatment predictors of early treatment milestones, including treatment initiation and response. Positive affectivity (PA) and negative affectivity (NA) are unique mood traits that may be related to early treatment milestones. Indeed, PA and NA are related to smoking and mood outcomes generally. Yet, it is presently unknown if pretreatment PA or NA predict early treatment milestones within the context of an integrated smoking-cessation treatment. The current study sought to evaluate the independent effect of PA and NA on early treatment milestones within the context of an integrated smoking-AS treatment protocol. Smoking and AS outcomes were evaluated independently. Participants included 288 (50% female; Mage = 38.66, SD = 13.67) treatment-seeking adult daily cigarette users. Results indicated that higher pretreatment NA was associated with an increased likelihood of early dropout versus responding to treatment across both outcomes (smoking: odds ratio [OR] 0.93, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.88-0.99; AS: OR 0.92, 95% CI 0.88-0.98). Pretreatment PA did not significantly differentiate any of the groups. Overall, the present study serves as an initial investigation of the role of pretreatment NA in identifying those at greatest risk for dropping out of treatment (cf. responding to treatment).

How sequential changes in reward expectation modulate cognitive control: Pupillometry as a tool to monitor dynamic changes in reward expectation

Much evidence suggests that positive affect associated with performance-contingent reward modulates cognitive flexibility and stability. For example, in voluntary task switching, it has been shown that unchanged high reward promotes cognitive stability whereas increases or decreases in reward prospect as well as unchanged low reward promote cognitive flexibility (higher voluntary switch rate, VSR). Pupil diameter has been shown to respond to reward prospect, to task switching manipulations, and more generally to effort in cognitive control tasks and thus appears to be the ideal tool to learn more about the processes underlying these reward-modulated decisions. Therefore, we measured pupillary activity in two voluntary task switching experiments with randomly changing reward magnitudes. Behaviorally, VSR was again lowest when reward remained high as compared to all other reward sequences. Baseline pupil diameter was generally higher following switch trials as compared to repetition trials. Furthermore, the pupil responded dynamically to the reward manipulation: Phasic cue- and target-locked pupil dilation was larger in the reward phase as compared to the non-reward baseline block. Most importantly, phasic pupil dilation in the target interval was highest when reward prospect increased and lowest when reward prospect decreased, suggesting that motivational arousal fluctuates in sync with changes in reward expectation. These results are discussed with respect to current theories on cognitive control as a form of affect regulation.

The Looking Glass for Intelligence Quotient Tests: The Interplay of Motivation, Cognitive Functioning, and Affect

The Intelligence Quotient (IQ) tests and the corresponding psychometric explanations dominate both the scientific and popular views about human intelligence. Though the IQ tests have been in currency for long, there exists a gap in what they are believed to measure and what they do. While the IQ tests index the quality of cognitive functioning in selected domains of mental repertoire, the applied settings often inflate their predictive value leading to an interpretive gap. The present article contends that studying the influence of motivational and affective processes on cognitive functioning would help to evolve a more psychologically comprehensive account of the IQ tests and bridge the interpretive gap. To conclude, the article suggests possible future research directions that could strengthen the predictive value of the IQ tests.

Mood state and conflict adaptation: an update and a diffusion model analysis

The present study investigated the affective modulation of conflict adaptation. In a first step, we conducted a direct replication of a previous study (Schuch & Pütz, 2018). Positive vs. negative mood state was induced by a success-failure manipulation (between-groups, N = 40 per group). In a subsequent task-switching experiment, the congruency sequence effect was assessed in task repetitions and task switches, measuring conflict adaptation within tasks and between tasks, respectively. We found conflict adaptation (averaged across task repetitions and task switches) to be enhanced in negative mood. We did not replicate our previous finding of enhanced conflict adaptation in task switches in positive mood. In a second step, we combined the replication data with the original data set, yielding a larger database with N = 80 per mood group. Using diffusion modeling, we explored the affective modulation of conflict adaptation in task repetitions. Conflict adaptation was reflected in drift rate, consistent with the idea that response conflict triggers an increase in processing selectivity, thereby attenuating the influence of the irrelevant stimulus dimension. Conflict adaptation was also reflected in boundary separation, suggesting that response conflict on the previous trial triggered an increase in response caution. The mood manipulation did not seem to affect processing selectivity (as captured by drift rate) but affected the setting of response caution (as captured by the boundary separation parameter), with faster and more error-prone responding in the negative than positive mood group. We discuss theoretical implications of these findings, and also briefly consider the affective modulations of other cognitive control measures.

Reward Responsiveness and Inhibition Traits Differentially Predict Economic Biases in Gain and Loss Contexts

Research on economic decision making has revealed specific biases in gain versus loss domains such that risky choice options are overvalued in gain conditions, implying optimism, but undervalued in loss conditions, implying pessimism. Individual differences in motivational traits and affective states have been shown to predict beliefs and behavior in risky decision making, but it is presently unclear which personal characteristics are most predictive of domain-specific biases. To address this gap in the literature, we investigated the relative influence of positive and negative motivational traits (general sensitivity to rewards and punishments) versus affective states (current levels of positive and negative emotions) on beliefs and choice behavior during a risky economic decision task. We also expanded on previous research by examining how the valence of one’s judgment context (positive context tested in Experiment 1, negative context tested in Experiment 2) may determine whether risky choice behavior is more strongly influenced by positive versus negative characteristics. Biases in belief were calculated using an economic decision task that involved estimating the value of risky “stocks” relative to safe “bonds” from experienced outcomes. Experiment 1 used a positive judgment context (likelihood of a “good stock”) while Experiment 2 used a negative judgment context (likelihood of a “bad stock”). Consistent with previous findings, we observed a domain-based bias in beliefs about stock values across experiments, such that participants exhibited optimism in gain domain and pessimism in the loss domain. Experiment 1 further revealed that domain-based bias and suboptimal choice behavior was predicted by trait-level reward sensitivity, while positive affective state (PAS) had a more limited influence on belief bias alone. Under the negative judgment context of Experiment 2, there was a similar relationship between reward sensitivity and choice behavior; however, results revealed a slightly stronger influence of negative affective state (NAS). A subsequent cross-study analysis found sensitivity to rewards was most predictive of domain-based biases. These results suggest that motivational traits – particularly those relating to reward sensitivity – are more consistent predictors of domain-based biases and risky choice behavior than affective states, but their predictive power depends the valence of the decision context.