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Petrocelli JV, Curran JM, Stall LM. Bullshit can be harmful to your health: Bullibility as a precursor to poor decision--making. Curr Opin Psychol 2024; 55:101769. [PMID: 38091665 DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2023] [Revised: 11/16/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/28/2024]
Abstract
Bullshitting is characterized by sharing information with little to no regard for truth, established knowledge, or genuine evidence. It involves the use of various rhetorical strategies to make one's statements sound knowledgeable, impressive, persuasive, influential, or confusing in order to aid bullshitters in explaining things in areas where their obligations to provide opinions exceed their actual knowledge in those domains. Distinct from gullibility (i.e., a propensity to accept a false premise in the presence of untrustworthiness cues), we highlight the research on bullibility (i.e., believing bullshit even in the face of social cues that signal something is bullshit) and its links to erroneous judgments and decisions. A deeper understanding of bullibility is critical to identifying and correcting poor decision-making.
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Mækelæ MJ, Klevjer K, Westbrook A, Eby NS, Eriksen R, Pfuhl G. Is it cognitive effort you measure? Comparing three task paradigms to the Need for Cognition scale. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0290177. [PMID: 37590223 PMCID: PMC10434945 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0290177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Accepted: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 08/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Measuring individual differences in cognitive effort can be elusive as effort is a function of motivation and ability. We report six studies (N = 663) investigating the relationship of Need for Cognition and working memory capacity with three cognitive effort measures: demand avoidance in the Demand Selection Task, effort discounting measured as the indifference point in the Cognitive Effort Discounting paradigm, and rational reasoning score with items from the heuristic and bias literature. We measured perceived mental effort with the NASA task load index. The three tasks were not correlated with each other (all r's < .1, all p's > .1). Need for Cognition was positively associated with effort discounting (r = .168, p < .001) and rational reasoning (r = .176, p < .001), but not demand avoidance (r = .085, p = .186). Working memory capacity was related to effort discounting (r = .185, p = .004). Higher perceived effort was related to poorer rational reasoning. Our data indicate that two of the tasks are related to Need for Cognition but are also influenced by a participant's working memory capacity. We discuss whether any of the tasks measure cognitive effort.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kristoffer Klevjer
- Department of Psychology, UiT–The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Andrew Westbrook
- Department of Cognitive, Linguistic, and Psychological Sciences, Brown University, Providence, RI, United States of America
| | - Noah S. Eby
- Department of Neurology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Rikke Eriksen
- Department of Psychology, UiT–The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Gerit Pfuhl
- Department of Psychology, UiT–The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
- Department of Psychology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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Cognitive reflection test: The effects of the items sequence on scores and response time. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0279982. [PMID: 36626375 PMCID: PMC9831300 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0279982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
This paper aims to expand the literature on the determinants of the Cognitive Reflection Test scores, exploring the effects that the items sequence has on (1) Cognitive Reflection Test scores, (2) response time, (3) the relationship between Cognitive Reflection Test scores and response time, and (4) Cognitive Reflection scores, response time, and the relationship between both variables on men and women. The current study also explored the sex differences on Cognitive Reflection Test and response time according to items sequence. The results showed that manipulating the items sequence, the performance on the Cognitive Reflection Test improved significantly, but the response time were not significantly affected, although the results suggest that first items of the sequence could be working as training items. A positive relationship between Cognitive Reflection Test scores and response time was also found, except when the scores were maximized. Finally, some differences between men and women on the results were also found. The implications of these findings are discussed.
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Lisøy RS, Pfuhl G, Sunde HF, Biegler R. Sweet spot in music-Is predictability preferred among persons with psychotic-like experiences or autistic traits? PLoS One 2022; 17:e0275308. [PMID: 36174035 PMCID: PMC9521895 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0275308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
People prefer music with an intermediate level of predictability; not so predictable as to be boring, yet not so unpredictable that it ceases to be music. This sweet spot for predictability varies due to differences in the perception of predictability. The symptoms of both psychosis and Autism Spectrum Disorder have been attributed to overestimation of uncertainty, which predicts a preference for predictable stimuli and environments. In a pre-registered study, we tested this prediction by investigating whether psychotic and autistic traits were associated with a higher preference for predictability in music. Participants from the general population were presented with twenty-nine pre-composed music excerpts, scored on their complexity by musical experts. A participant's preferred level of predictability corresponded to the peak of the inverted U-shaped curve between music complexity and liking (i.e., a Wundt curve). We found that the sweet spot for predictability did indeed vary between individuals. Contrary to predictions, we did not find support for these variations being associated with autistic and psychotic traits. The findings are discussed in the context of the Wundt curve and the use of naturalistic stimuli. We also provide recommendations for further exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebekka Solvik Lisøy
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social and Educational Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Gerit Pfuhl
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social and Educational Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT–The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Hans Fredrik Sunde
- Centre for Fertility and Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Robert Biegler
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social and Educational Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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Grimmer HJ, Laukkonen RE, Freydenzon A, von Hippel W, Tangen JM. Thinking style and psychosis proneness do not predict false insights. Conscious Cogn 2022; 104:103384. [PMID: 35933801 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2022.103384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2022] [Revised: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
The FIAT paradigm (Grimmer et al., 2021) is a novel method of eliciting 'Aha' moments for incorrect solutions to anagrams in the laboratory, i.e. false insights. There exist many documented reports of psychotic symptoms accompanying strong feelings of 'Aha!' (Feyaerts, Henriksen, Vanheule, Myin-Germeys, & Sass, 2021; Mishara, 2010; Tulver, Kaup, Laukkonen, & Aru, 2021), suggesting that the newly developed FIAT could reveal whether people who have more false insights are more prone to psychosis and delusional belief. To test this possibility, we recruited 200 participants to take an adapted version of the FIAT and complete measures of thinking style and psychosis proneness. We found no association between experimentally induced false insights and measures of Schizotypy, Need for Cognition, Jumping to Conclusions, Aberrant Salience, Faith in Intuition, or the Cognitive Reflection Task. We conclude that experiencing false insights might not be constrained to any particular type of person, but rather, may arise for anyone under the right circumstances.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Anna Freydenzon
- Institute of Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Australia
| | | | - Jason M Tangen
- School of Psychology, The University of Queensland, Australia
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Wu Z, Jiang Z, Wang Z, Ji Y, Wang F, Ross B, Sun X, Liu Z, Long Y. Association Between Wisdom and Psychotic-Like Experiences in the General Population: A Cross-Sectional Study. Front Psychiatry 2022; 13:814242. [PMID: 35509888 PMCID: PMC9058059 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.814242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Wisdom has been empirically researched as a complex psychological characteristic that is associated with many mental health outcomes. However, its association with psychotic-like experiences (PLEs) remains unclear. This is the first work to assess wisdom, explore its association with PLEs, and test its moderating effect on the relation between the frequency of PLEs and their associated distress in the general population. METHODS From January 29th to February 5th, 2021, our online self-administered survey recruited 927 participants (ages 14 to 65) from thirteen Chinese provinces. Convenience sampling was employed. We measured wisdom with the 12-item three-dimensional wisdom scale (3D-WS-12) and PLEs with the 15-item positive subscale of the Community Assessment of Psychic Experiences (CAPE-P15). RESULTS Using the cut-off value of 1.47 in the mean frequency score, we divided our participants into high-PLEs group (188, 22.1%) and low-PLEs group (663, 77.9%). Three-dimensional wisdom score was decreased in the high-PLEs group compared to the low-PLEs group (Kruskal-Wallis t = 59.9, p < 0.001). Wisdom was associated with less frequent PLEs (Spearman's rho = -0.21, p < 0.01) and lower distress related to PLEs (Spearman's rho = -0.28) in the high-PLEs group (all above p < 0.001), which were replicated in the low-PLEs group. Notably, wisdom significantly attenuated the distress associated with PLEs [coefficient = -0.018, Bootstrap 95% CI (-0.029, -0.008)], but only in the low-PLEs group. CONCLUSION Our results implicated that wisdom could protect individuals from distressful subclinical psychotic symptoms and wiser individuals have better general mental health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhipeng Wu
- Department of Psychiatry, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, Changsha, China
| | - Zhengqian Jiang
- Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Zhipeng Wang
- Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Yuqiao Ji
- Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Feiwen Wang
- Department of Psychiatry, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, Changsha, China
| | - Brendan Ross
- Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Xiaoqi Sun
- Department of Psychology, Cognition and Human Behavior Key Laboratory of Hunan Province, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, China
| | - Zhening Liu
- Department of Psychiatry, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, Changsha, China
| | - Yicheng Long
- Department of Psychiatry, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, Changsha, China
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Otero I, Salgado JF, Moscoso S. Cognitive reflection, cognitive intelligence, and cognitive abilities: A meta-analysis. INTELLIGENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2021.101614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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9
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Zander-Schellenberg T, Kuhn SAK, Möller J, Meyer AH, Huber C, Lieb R, Andreou C. Is intuition allied with jumping to conclusions in decision-making? An intensive longitudinal study in patients with delusions and in non-clinical individuals. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0261296. [PMID: 34928987 PMCID: PMC8687575 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0261296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Research suggests that a jumping-to-conclusions (JTC) bias, excessive intuition, and reduced analysis in information processing may favor suboptimal decision-making, both in non-clinical and mentally disordered individuals. The temporal relationship between processing modes and JTC bias, however, remains unexplored. Therefore, using an experience sampling methodology (ESM) approach, this study examines the temporal associations between intuitive/analytical information processing, JTC bias, and delusions in non-clinical individuals and patients with schizophrenia. Specifically, we examine whether a high use of intuitive and/or a low use of analytical processing predicts subsequent JTC bias and paranoid conviction. In a smartphone-based ESM study, participants will be prompted four times per day over three consecutive days to answer questionnaires designed to measure JTC bias, paranoid conviction, and preceding everyday-life intuition/analysis. Our hierarchical data will be analyzed using multilevel modelling for hypothesis testing. Results will further elucidate the role of aberrant human reasoning, particularly intuition, in (non-)clinical delusions and delusion-like experiences, and also inform general information processing models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thea Zander-Schellenberg
- Faculty of Psychology, Division of Clinical Psychology and Epidemiology, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Sarah A. K. Kuhn
- Faculty of Psychology, Division of Clinical Psychology and Epidemiology, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Julian Möller
- Faculty of Psychology, Division of Clinical Psychology and Epidemiology, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- Psychiatric University Hospital (UPK), University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Andrea H. Meyer
- Faculty of Psychology, Division of Clinical Psychology and Epidemiology, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christian Huber
- Psychiatric University Hospital (UPK), University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Roselind Lieb
- Faculty of Psychology, Division of Clinical Psychology and Epidemiology, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christina Andreou
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Translational Psychiatry Unit, University of Luebeck, Luebeck, Germany
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Ferreira S, Campos C, Marinho B, Rocha S, Fonseca-Pedrero E, Barbosa Rocha N. What drives beliefs in COVID-19 conspiracy theories? The role of psychotic-like experiences and confinement-related factors. Soc Sci Med 2021; 292:114611. [PMID: 34864602 PMCID: PMC8630839 DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Revised: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Rationale The COVID-19 pandemic is a worldwide threat to public health and the global economy. The climate of fear and uncertainty associated with the pandemic has fostered the emergence of a wide range of COVID-19 conspiracy theories that have the potential to shape public opinion and hinder the effective dissemination of valid information. Beliefs in conspiracy theories have been associated with maladaptive personality traits such as schizotypy and paranoia, as well as other non-psychotic psychological characteristics (e.g., social isolation, stress). Methods An online survey was conducted to examine the associations between beliefs in COVID-19 conspiracy theories and psychotic-like experiences in a Portuguese community sample (N = 438), while also addressing the role of sociodemographic variables, psychological outcomes (e.g., stress, affective states), confinement-related factors (e.g., confinement conditions/behaviors), and pandemic-related factors (e.g., health concerns, financial issues). Results Findings suggest that psychotic-like experiences are associated with beliefs in COVID-19 conspiracy theories, particularly perceptual abnormalities and persecutory ideation. Moreover, increased health-related concerns and reduced education levels also seem to be liability factors for these conspiracy beliefs. Conclusion These results add important insights into how the adherence to illogical and erroneous disease-related arguments can be related to psychotic-like experiences. COVID-19 conspiracy theories are yet another major challenge that governments and policymakers must contemplate when defining strategic directions to manage the current and future pandemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simão Ferreira
- Center for Rehabilitation Research, School of Health, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Carlos Campos
- Center for Rehabilitation Research, School of Health, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Laboratory of Neuropsychophysiology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Porto, Portugal; Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Beatriz Marinho
- Center for Rehabilitation Research, School of Health, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | | | | | - Nuno Barbosa Rocha
- Center for Rehabilitation Research, School of Health, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
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Liu J, Yang T, Zhou L, Gong J, He Y, Cui X, Luo X, Wu J. Association between schizotypal personality traits and emotional instability: mediation and moderation analysis among Chinese college students. J Affect Disord 2021; 291:83-92. [PMID: 34023751 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2021.04.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Revised: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 04/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous studies identified an association between schizophrenia and emotional instability. However, the relationship between schizotypal personality traits and emotional instability has not been explored to date. Furthermore, both mediating and moderating factors need to be identified. METHODS A total of 2936 students completed the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ), the Affective Lability Scale-Short Form (ALS-SF), and the Davos Assessment of Cognitive Biases Scale (DACOBS). RESULTS 1) The total scores of DACOBS (and all dimensions) and ALS-SF (and all dimensions) in the high schizotypal personality trait group were higher than in the low schizotypal personality trait group (all P < 0.05). 2) SPQ score and DACOBS social cognition problems, subjective cognitive problems, jumping to conclusions bias, and external attribution bias subscale scores positively predicted the total score of ALS-SF (or the dimensions of ALS-SF) in both male and female populations (all P < 0.05). 3) In the male population, DACOBS social cognition problems, subjective cognitive problems, jumping to conclusions bias, and external attribution bias subscale scores mediated the relationship between SPQ score and ALS-SF total score (or its subscales). In the female population, DACOBS attention for threat bias, external attribution bias, jumping to conclusions bias, social cognition problems, and subjective cognitive problems subscale scores mediated the relationship between SPQ score and ALS-SF total score (or its subscales). 4) Gender exerted a moderating effect on this relationship between SPQ score and ALS-SF total/anxiety-depression score (all P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Schizotypal personality traits might influence emotional instability through cognitive biases, and the degree of this influence varies depending on gender.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianbo Liu
- Department of Child Psychiatry of Shenzhen Kangning Hospital, Shenzhen Mental Health Center; Shenzhen University, Mental Health School, Shenzhen 518020, China
| | - Tingyu Yang
- National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, and Department of Psychiatry, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha 410011, Hunan, China
| | - Lihua Zhou
- College of Education Science, Hengyang Normal University, Hengyang 421002, China
| | - Jingbo Gong
- Department of Applied Psychology, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 41000, China
| | - Yuqiong He
- National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, and Department of Psychiatry, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha 410011, Hunan, China
| | - Xilong Cui
- National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, and Department of Psychiatry, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha 410011, Hunan, China
| | - Xuerong Luo
- National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, and Department of Psychiatry, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha 410011, Hunan, China.
| | - Junduan Wu
- Department of Psychology, School of Public Health, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530000, China.
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Hegelstad WTV, Kreis I, Tjelmeland H, Pfuhl G. Psychosis and Psychotic-Like Symptoms Affect Cognitive Abilities but Not Motivation in a Foraging Task. Front Psychol 2020; 11:1632. [PMID: 32903697 PMCID: PMC7438796 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2020] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Objective Goal-directed behavior is a central feature of human functioning. It requires goal appraisal and implicit cost-benefit analyses, i.e., how much effort to invest in the pursuit of a certain goal, against its value and a confidence judgment regarding the chance of attainment. Persons with severe mental illness such as psychosis often struggle with reaching goals. Cognitive deficits, positive symptoms restricting balanced judgment, and negative symptoms such as anhedonia and avolition may compromise goal attainment. The objective of this study was to investigate to what degree symptom severity is related to cognitive abilities, metacognition, and effort-based decision-making in a visual search task. Methods Two studies were conducted: study 1: N = 52 (healthy controls), and study 2: N = 46 (23 patients with psychosis/23 matched healthy controls). Symptoms were measured by the CAPE-42 (study 1) and the PANSS (study 2). By using a visual search task, we concomitantly measured (a) accuracy in short-term memory, (b) perceived accuracy by participants making a capture area or confidence interval, and (c) effort by measuring how long one searched for the target. Perseverance was assessed in trials in which the target was omitted and search had to be abandoned. Results Higher levels of positive symptoms, and having a diagnosis of psychosis, were associated with larger errors in memory. Participants adjusted both their capture area and their search investment to the error of their memory. Perseverance was associated with negative symptoms in study 1 but not in study 2. Conclusion By simultaneously assessing error and confidence in one's memory, as well as effort in search, we found that memory was affected by positive, not negative, symptoms in healthy controls, and was reduced in patients with psychosis. However, impaired memory did not concur with overconfidence or less effort in search, i.e., goal directed behavior was unrelated to symptoms or diagnosis. Metacognition and motivation were neither affected by cognitive abilities nor by negative symptoms. Clinically, this could indicate that struggles with goal directed behavior in psychosis may not solely be dependent on primary illness factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenche Ten Velden Hegelstad
- TIPS Centre for Clinical Research in Psychosis, Psychiatric Division, Stavanger University Hospital, Stavanger, Norway
| | - Isabel Kreis
- Department of Psychology, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Håkon Tjelmeland
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Gerit Pfuhl
- Department of Psychology, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
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Mækelæ MJ, Reggev N, Dutra N, Tamayo RM, Silva-Sobrinho RA, Klevjer K, Pfuhl G. Perceived efficacy of COVID-19 restrictions, reactions and their impact on mental health during the early phase of the outbreak in six countries. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2020; 7:200644. [PMID: 32968525 PMCID: PMC7481706 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.200644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic forced millions of people to drastically change their social life habits as governments employed harsh restrictions to reduce the spread of the virus. Although beneficial to physical health, the perception of physical distancing and related restrictions could impact mental health. In a pre-registered online survey, we assessed how effective a range of restrictions were perceived, how severely they affected daily life, general distress and paranoia during the early phase of the outbreak in Brazil, Colombia, Germany, Israel, Norway and USA. Most of our over 2000 respondents rated the restrictions as effective. School closings were perceived as having the strongest effect on daily life. Participants who believed their country reacted too mildly perceived the risk of contracting SARS-CoV-2 to be higher, were more worried and expressed reduced beliefs in the ability to control the outbreak. Relatedly, dissatisfaction with governmental reactions corresponded with increased distress levels. Together, we found that satisfaction with one's governmental reactions and fear appraisal play an important role in assessing the efficacy of restrictions during the pandemic and their related psychological outcomes. These findings inform policy-makers on the psychological factors that strengthen resilience and foster the well-being of citizens in times of global crisis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Niv Reggev
- Department of Psychology and Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Israel
| | - Natalia Dutra
- Department of Physiology and Behavior, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil
| | - Ricardo M. Tamayo
- Departamento de Psicología, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia
| | - Reinaldo A. Silva-Sobrinho
- Laboratory of Epidemiology and Operational Research in Health, Western Paraná State University – Unioeste, Foz Iguaçu-PR, Brazil
| | - Kristoffer Klevjer
- Department of Psychology, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Gerit Pfuhl
- Department of Psychology, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
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Norman E, Pfuhl G, Sæle RG, Svartdal F, Låg T, Dahl TI. Metacognition in Psychology. REVIEW OF GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1177/1089268019883821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
How has the concept of metacognition been used within basic and applied psychological research? We begin our answer by presenting a broad definition of metacognition, a historical overview of its development and its presence in research databases. To assess which function and facets are most frequently addressed within each of the sub-disciplines, we present results from separate literature searches. We then review how metacognition has been defined and empirically explored within selected sub-disciplines in terms of typical research questions, conceptual definitions, how the concept has been measured, and examples of interesting findings and implications. We identify similarities, inconsistencies, and disagreements across fields and point out areas for future research. Our overall conclusion is that it is useful to consider metacognition as a broad umbrella concept across different domains and across basic and applied research. Nonetheless, we recommend that researchers be more specific and explicit about their approach and assumptions whenever using metacognition in their research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth Norman
- UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
- University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Gerit Pfuhl
- UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
- Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | | | | | - Torstein Låg
- UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
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Jensen Mækelæ M, Pfuhl G. Deliberate reasoning is not affected by language. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0211428. [PMID: 30703137 PMCID: PMC6355010 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0211428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2018] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Millions of people use a second language every day. Does this have an effect on their decision-making? Are decisions in a second language more deliberate? Two mechanisms have been proposed: reduced emotionality or increased deliberation. Most studies so far used problems where both mechanisms could contribute to a foreign language effect. Here, we aimed to identify whether deliberate reasoning increases for problems that are devoid of any emotional connotation when using a second language or having to switch between native and second language. METHOD We measured deliberate reasoning with items from the cognitive reflection test, ratio bias, a probability matching task, and base rate neglect items. We recruited over 500 participants from Norway and the Netherlands that had English as their second language. Participants were randomly assigned to either the native, switching or second language condition. We measured: number of correctly answered items-deliberate reasoning score, perceived effort, perceived accuracy or confidence, and language proficiency. RESULTS Deliberate reasoning was not increased when using a second language or when having to switch between native and second language. All three groups performed equally well. Significant predictors of deliberate reasoning were age, gender, education, perceived effort, and confidence but not the language context. Participants with low English proficiency spent more time reading compared to more fluent speakers. CONCLUSION There is no advantage of second language on deliberate reasoning in the absence of time pressure. Deliberation was not increased by providing items in a second language, but through the willingness to spend cognitive effort and time to read carefully.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Jensen Mækelæ
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Gerit Pfuhl
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
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