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DeRosa J, Rosch KS, Mostofsky SH, Nikolaidis A. Developmental deviation in delay discounting as a transdiagnostic indicator of risk for child psychopathology. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2024; 65:148-164. [PMID: 37524685 PMCID: PMC10828118 DOI: 10.1111/jcpp.13870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The tendency to prefer smaller, immediate rewards over larger, delayed rewards is known as delay discounting (DD). Developmental deviations in DD may be key in characterizing psychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders. Recent work empirically supported DD as a transdiagnostic process in various psychiatric disorders. Yet, there is a lack of research relating developmental changes in DD from mid-childhood to adolescence to psychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders. Additionally, examining the interplay between socioeconomic status/total household income (THI) and psychiatric symptoms is vital for a more comprehensive understanding of pediatric pathology and its complex relationship with DD. METHODS The current study addresses this gap in a robust psychiatric sample of 1843 children and adolescents aged 5-18 (M = 10.6, SD = 3.17; 1,219 males, 624 females). General additive models (GAMs) characterized the shape of age-related changes in monetary and food reward discounting for nine psychiatric disorders compared with neurotypical youth (NT; n = 123). Over 40% of our sample possessed a minimum of at least three psychiatric or neurodevelopmental disorders. We used bootstrap-enhanced Louvain community detection to map DD-related comorbidity patterns. We derived five subtypes based on diagnostic categories present in our sample. DD patterns were then compared across each of the subtypes. Further, we evaluated the effect of cognitive ability, emotional and behavioral problems, and THI in relation to DD across development. RESULTS Higher discounting was found in six of the nine disorders we examined relative to NT. DD was consistently elevated across development for most disorders, except for depressive disorders, with age-specific DD differences compared with NTs. Community detection analyses revealed that one comorbidity subtype consisting primarily of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Combined Presentation and anxiety disorders displayed the highest overall emotional/behavioral problems and greater DD for the food reward. An additional subtype composed mainly of ADHD, predominantly Inattentive Presentation, learning, and developmental disorders, showed the greatest DD for food and monetary rewards compared with the other subtypes. This subtype had deficits in reasoning ability, evidenced by low cognitive and academic achievement performance. For this ADHD-I and developmental disorders subtype, THI was related to DD across the age span such that participants with high THI showed no differences in DD compared with NTs. In contrast, participants with low THI showed significantly worse DD trajectories than all others. Our results also support prior work showing that DD follows nonlinear developmental patterns. CONCLUSIONS We demonstrate preliminary evidence for DD as a transdiagnostic marker of psychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders in children and adolescents. Comorbidity subtypes illuminate DD heterogeneity, facilitating the identification of high-risk individuals. Importantly, our findings revealed a marked link between DD and intellectual reasoning, with children from lower-income households exhibiting lower reasoning skills and heightened DD. These observations underscore the potential consequences of compromised self-regulation in economically disadvantaged individuals with these disorders, emphasizing the need for tailored interventions and further research to support improved outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob DeRosa
- Center for the Developing Brain, Child Mind Institute, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Keri S Rosch
- Center for Neurodevelopmental and Imaging Research, Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Department of Neuropsychology, Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Stewart H Mostofsky
- Center for Neurodevelopmental and Imaging Research, Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Aki Nikolaidis
- Center for the Developing Brain, Child Mind Institute, New York, NY, USA
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Button AM, Paluch RA, Schechtman KB, Wilfley DE, Geller N, Quattrin T, Cook SR, Eneli IU, Epstein LH. Parents, but not their children, demonstrate greater delay discounting with resource scarcity. BMC Public Health 2023; 23:1983. [PMID: 37828503 PMCID: PMC10568819 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-023-16832-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Individuals with obesity tend to discount the future (delay discounting), focusing on immediate gratification. Delay discounting is reliably related to indicators of economic scarcity (i.e., insufficient resources), including lower income and decreased educational attainment in adults. It is unclear whether the impact of these factors experienced by parents also influence child delay discounting between the ages of 8 and 12-years in families with obesity. METHODS The relationship between indices of family income and delay discounting was studied in 452 families with parents and 6-12-year-old children with obesity. Differences in the relationships between parent economic, educational and Medicaid status, and parent and child delay discounting were tested. RESULTS Results showed lower parent income (p = 0.019) and Medicaid status (p = 0.021) were differentially related to greater parent but not child delay discounting among systematic responders. CONCLUSIONS These data suggest differences in how indicators of scarcity influence delay discounting for parents and children, indicating that adults with scarce resources may be shaped to focus on immediate needs instead of long-term goals. It is possible that parents can reduce the impact of economic scarcity on their children during preadolescent years. These findings suggest a need for policy change to alleviate the burden of scarce conditions and intervention to modify delay discounting rate and to improve health-related choices and to address weight disparities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa M Button
- Division of Population and Public Health Science, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Rocco A Paluch
- Department of Pediatrics, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, 3435 Main Street, Building #26, Buffalo, NY, 14214, USA
| | - Kenneth B Schechtman
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Denise E Wilfley
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Nancy Geller
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Teresa Quattrin
- Department of Pediatrics, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, 3435 Main Street, Building #26, Buffalo, NY, 14214, USA
| | - Stephen R Cook
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Ihouma U Eneli
- Department of Pediatrics, Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Leonard H Epstein
- Department of Pediatrics, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, 3435 Main Street, Building #26, Buffalo, NY, 14214, USA.
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de Ruijter MJT, Dahlén AD, Rukh G, Schiöth HB. Job satisfaction has differential associations with delay discounting and risk-taking. Sci Rep 2023; 13:754. [PMID: 36641497 PMCID: PMC9840618 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-27601-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Low job satisfaction has been associated with both negative health and negative organizational outcomes. Knowledge on which factors influence job satisfaction remains limited. This study assesses the associations between job satisfaction and three personality traits related to cognitive- and inhibitory control: delay discounting, risk-taking and sensation seeking (DRS-traits). Delay discounting and sensation seeking were inferred using self-reported behavioral data and health measurements for 80,676 participants in the UK Biobank. Multiple linear regression analysis produced beta coefficients and confidence intervals for each DRS-trait and job satisfaction. Analyses were adjusted for age, socioeconomic status and sleep quality. A combination of the three DRS-traits (CDRS) was assessed as well. Delay discounting and risk-taking were associated with, respectively, lower and higher job satisfaction in both sexes. Sensation seeking had no significant association with job satisfaction for either sex. The combined score, CDRS, was only negatively associated with job satisfaction in females but not in males. We discuss that the negative association between delay discounting and job satisfaction may be due to career related delay discounting effects, but also highlight that low job satisfaction itself may also lead to increased delay discounting. Additionally, we discuss why increased risk-taking behavior may have a positive effect on job satisfaction.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Amelia D Dahlén
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- Department of Public Health and Caring Sciences, Geriatrics, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Gull Rukh
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Helgi B Schiöth
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
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Tuen YJ, Bulley A, Palombo DJ, O'Connor BB. Social value at a distance: Higher identification with all of humanity is associated with reduced social discounting. Cognition 2023; 230:105283. [PMID: 36209687 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2022.105283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Revised: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
How much we value the welfare of others has critical implications for the collective good. Yet, it is unclear what leads people to make more or less equal decisions about the welfare of those from whom they are socially distant. The current research sought to explore the psychological mechanisms that might underlie welfare judgements across social distance. Here, a social discounting paradigm was used to measure the tendency for the value of a reward to be discounted as the social distance of its recipient increased. Across two cohorts (one discovery, one replication), we found that a more expansive identity with all of humanity was associated with reduced social discounting. Additionally, we investigated the specificity of this association by examining whether this relationship extended to delay discounting, the tendency for the value of a reward to be discounted as the temporal distance to its receipt increases. Our findings suggest that the observed association with identity was unique to social discounting, thus underscoring a distinction in value-based decision-making processes across distances in time and across social networks. As data were collected during the COVID-19 pandemic, we also considered how stress associated with this global threat might influence welfare judgements across social distances. We found that, even after controlling for COVID-19 related stress, correlations between identity and social discounting held. Together, these findings elucidate the psychological processes that are associated with a more equal distribution of generosity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Ji Tuen
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Adam Bulley
- The University of Sydney, School of Psychology and Brain and Mind Centre, 94 Mallett Street Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia; Department of Psychology, Harvard University, 33 Kirkland Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, United States of America
| | - Daniela J Palombo
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada.
| | - Brendan Bo O'Connor
- Department of Psychology, University of Albany (SUNY), Social Science 399, 1400 Washington Avenue, Albany, NY 12222, United States of America.
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Lu J, Lu Q, Lu L. Differential Effects of Fundamental and Longitudinal Life History Trade-Offs on Delay Discounting: An Evolutionary Framework. Behav Sci (Basel) 2022; 12:bs12030063. [PMID: 35323382 PMCID: PMC8945661 DOI: 10.3390/bs12030063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2022] [Revised: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
We synthesized life history theory and the antagonistic pleiotropy hypothesis to form an integrative framework for understanding delay discounting (DD). We distinguished between fundamental and longitudinal life history trade-offs to explain individual and age differences of DD. Fundamental life history trade-offs are characterized by life history strategies (LHS), describing how individuals adjust reproductive timing according to childhood environments, while longitudinal life history trade-offs characterize how individuals make trade-offs between early- vs. late-life reproduction as a function of age. Results of a life-span sample (242 Chinese participants) supported several theoretical predictions: (a) slower LHS predicted lower DD; (b) the relationship between chronological age and DD was U-shaped; (c) the effects of age and LHS were differential. Mechanisms underlying fundamental and longitudinal trade-offs were explored. Regarding fundamental trade-offs, LHS mediated the effects of childhood environment on DD. Regarding longitudinal trade-offs, the U-shaped relationship was more evident between physical age and DD: older adults who were in poorer physical health felt older and exhibited a higher DD. Neither the time perspective nor anticipatory time perception mediated the effect of life history trade-offs. We concluded that DD was a product of two distinct life history trade-offs, reflecting both the trait-like quality and age-related development.
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Roth MR, Loya JM, Yi R. The role of social value orientation on delay discounting in a group context. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2021.111401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Latent Heterogeneity in the Impact of Financial Coaching on Delay Discounting among Low-Income Smokers: A Secondary Analysis of a Randomized Controlled Trial. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19052736. [PMID: 35270426 PMCID: PMC8910110 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19052736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Revised: 02/23/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Low-income adults are significantly more likely to smoke, and face more difficulty in quitting, than people with high income. High rates of delay discounting (DD) may be an important factor contributing to the high rates of tobacco use among low-income adults. Future-oriented financial coaching may offer a novel approach in the treatment of smoking cessation among low-income adults. This secondary analysis (N = 251) of data from a randomized controlled trial examined the integration of future-oriented financial coaching into smoking cessation treatment for low-income smokers. Linear regression and finite mixture models (FMM) estimated the overall and the latent heterogeneity of the impact of the intervention versus usual care control on DD rates 6 months after randomization. Though standard linear regression found no overall difference in DD between intervention and control (β = −0.23, p = 0.338), the FMM identified two latent subgroups with different responses to the intervention. Subgroup 1 (79% of the sample) showed no difference in DD between intervention and control (β = 0.25, p = 0.08). Subgroup 2 (21% of the sample) showed significantly lower DD (β = −2.06, p = 0.003) among intervention group participants versus control at 6 months. Participants were more likely to be a member of subgroup 2 if they had lower baseline DD rates, were living at or below 100% of federal poverty, or were married/living with a partner. This study identified a group of low-income adults seeking to quit smoking who responded to financial coaching with decreased DD rates. These results can be used to inform future targeting of the intervention to individuals who may benefit most, as well as inform future treatment adaptations to support the subgroup of low-income smokers, who did not benefit.
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Seaman KL, Abiodun SJ, Fenn Z, Samanez-Larkin GR, Mata R. Temporal discounting across adulthood: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychol Aging 2022; 37:111-124. [PMID: 35113618 PMCID: PMC8827494 DOI: 10.1037/pag0000634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
A number of developmental theories have been proposed that make differential predictions about the links between age and temporal discounting, or the devaluation of future rewards. Most empirical studies examining adult age differences in temporal discounting have relied on economic intertemporal choice tasks, which pit choosing a smaller, sooner monetary reward against choosing a larger, later one. Although initial studies using these tasks suggested older adults discount less than younger adults, follow-up studies provided heterogeneous, and thus inconclusive, results. Using an open science approach, we test the replicability of adult age differences in temporal discounting by conducting a preregistered systematic literature search and meta-analysis of adult age differences in intertemporal choice tasks. Across 37 cross-sectional studies (Total N = 104,737), a planned meta-analysis found no sizeable relation between age and temporal discounting, r = -0.068, 95% CI [-0.170, 0.035]. We also found little evidence of publication bias or p-hacking. Exploratory analyses of moderators found no effect of research design (e.g., extreme-group vs. continuous age), incentives (hypothetical vs. real rewards), duration of delay (e.g., days, weeks, months, or years), or quantification of discounting behavior (e.g., proportion of immediate choices vs. parameters from computational modeling). Additional analyses of 12 participant-level data sets found little support for a nonlinear relation between age and temporal discounting across adulthood. Overall, the results suggest that younger, middle-aged, and older adults show similar preferences for smaller, sooner over larger, later rewards. We provide recommendations for future empirical work on temporal discounting across the adult life span. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kendra L. Seaman
- Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Dallas, Center for Vital Longevity, University of Texas at Dallas
| | | | - Zöe Fenn
- Department of Psychology, University of Basel
| | - Gregory R. Samanez-Larkin
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University
| | - Rui Mata
- Department of Psychology, University of Basel, Max Planck Institute for Human Development
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Pargeter J, Khreisheh N, Stout D. Understanding stone tool-making skill acquisition: Experimental methods and evolutionary implications. J Hum Evol 2019; 133:146-166. [PMID: 31358178 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2019.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2019] [Revised: 05/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/22/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Despite its theoretical importance, the process of stone tool-making skill acquisition remains understudied and poorly understood. The challenges and costs of skill learning constitute an oft-neglected factor in the evaluation of alternative adaptive strategies and a potential source of bias in cultural transmission. Similarly, theory and data indicate that the most salient neural and cognitive demands of stone tool-making should occur during learning rather than expert performance. Unfortunately, the behavioral complexity and extensive learning requirements that make stone knapping skill acquisition an interesting object of study are the very features that make it so challenging to investigate experimentally. Here we present results from a multidisciplinary study of Late Acheulean handaxe-making skill acquisition involving twenty-six naïve participants and up to 90 hours training over several months, accompanied by a battery of psychometric, behavioral, and neuroimaging assessments. In this initial report, we derive a robust quantitative skill metric for the experimental handaxes using machine learning algorithms, reconstruct a group-level learning curve, and explore sources of individual variation in learning outcomes. Results identify particular cognitive targets of selection on the efficiency or reliability of tool-making skill acquisition, quantify learning costs, highlight the likely importance of social support, motivation, persistence, and self-control in knapping skill acquisition, and illustrate methods for reliably reconstructing ancient learning processes from archaeological evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin Pargeter
- Department of Anthropology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA; Rock Art Research Institute, School of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Studies, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
| | | | - Dietrich Stout
- Department of Anthropology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Ellmann S, Seyler L, Evers J, Heinen H, Bozec A, Prante O, Kuwert T, Uder M, Bäuerle T. Prediction of early metastatic disease in experimental breast cancer bone metastasis by combining PET/CT and MRI parameters to a Model-Averaged Neural Network. Bone 2019; 120:254-261. [PMID: 30445200 DOI: 10.1016/j.bone.2018.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Revised: 11/07/2018] [Accepted: 11/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Macrometastases in bone are preceded by bone marrow invasion of disseminated tumor cells. This study combined functional imaging parameters from FDG-PET/CT and MRI in a rat model of breast cancer bone metastases to a Model-averaged Neural Network (avNNet) for the detection of early metastatic disease and prediction of future macrometastases. Metastases were induced in 28 rats by injecting MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells into the right superficial epigastric artery, resulting in the growth of osseous metastases in the right hind leg of the animals. All animals received FDG-PET/CT and MRI at days 0, 10, 20 and 30 after tumor cell injection. In total, 18/28 rats presented with metastases at days 20 or 30 (64.3%). None of the animals featured morphologic bone lesions during imaging at day 10, and the imaging parameters acquired at day 10 did not differ significantly between animals with metastases at or after day 20 and those without (all p > 0.3). The avNNet trained with the imaging parameters acquired at day 10, however, achieved an accuracy of 85.7% (95% CI 67.3-96.0%) in predicting future macrometastatic disease (ROCAUC 0.90; 95% CI 0.76-1.00), and significantly outperformed the predictive capacities of all single parameters (all p ≤ 0.02). The integration of functional FDG-PET/CT and MRI parameters into an avNNet can thus be used to predict macrometastatic disease with high accuracy, and their combination might serve as a surrogate marker for bone marrow invasion as an early metastatic process that is commonly missed during conventional staging examinations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan Ellmann
- Department of Radiology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, 91054 Erlangen, Germany.
| | - Lisa Seyler
- Department of Radiology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, 91054 Erlangen, Germany.
| | - Jochen Evers
- Department of Radiology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Henrik Heinen
- Department of Radiology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Aline Bozec
- Department of Internal Medicine 3, Rheumatology and Immunology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, 91054 Erlangen, Germany.
| | - Olaf Prante
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, 91054 Erlangen, Germany.
| | - Torsten Kuwert
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, 91054 Erlangen, Germany.
| | - Michael Uder
- Department of Radiology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, 91054 Erlangen, Germany.
| | - Tobias Bäuerle
- Department of Radiology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, 91054 Erlangen, Germany.
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Krams I, Luoto S, Rubika A, Krama T, Elferts D, Krams R, Kecko S, Skrinda I, Moore FR, Rantala MJ. A head start for life history development? Family income mediates associations between height and immune response in men. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2018; 168:421-427. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2018] [Revised: 10/07/2018] [Accepted: 10/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Indrikis Krams
- Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences; University of Tartu; Tartu Estonia
- Department of Zoology and Animal Ecology, Faculty of Biology; University of Latvia; Rīga Latvia
- Department of Biotechnology; Daugavpils University; Daugavpils Latvia
| | - Severi Luoto
- English, Drama and Writing Studies; University of Auckland; Auckland New Zealand
- School of Psychology; University of Auckland; Auckland New Zealand
| | - Anna Rubika
- Department of Anatomy and Physiology; Daugavpils University; Daugavpils Latvia
| | - Tatjana Krama
- Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences; University of Tartu; Tartu Estonia
- Department of Biotechnology; Daugavpils University; Daugavpils Latvia
| | - Didzis Elferts
- Department of Botany and Ecology, Faculty of Biology; University of Latvia; Rīga Latvia
| | - Ronalds Krams
- Department of Biotechnology; Daugavpils University; Daugavpils Latvia
| | - Sanita Kecko
- Department of Biotechnology; Daugavpils University; Daugavpils Latvia
| | | | - Fhionna R. Moore
- School of Psychology; University of Dundee; Dundee United Kingdom
| | - Markus J. Rantala
- Department of Biology; University of Turku; Turku Finland
- Turku Brain and Mind Centre; University of Turku; Turku Finland
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