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Wellings IG, Ferguson R, Taylor IM. Differences in motivational dynamics between experienced cyclists and untrained participants during an incremental endurance exercise task. PSYCHOLOGY OF SPORT AND EXERCISE 2024:102753. [PMID: 39369830 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2024.102753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2024] [Revised: 09/19/2024] [Accepted: 09/26/2024] [Indexed: 10/08/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE The conflict between the desire to reduce effort during exercise and the performance goal of the exercise task contributes to explaining endurance exercise performance. However, whether the trajectories of these two motivational responses systematically differ across individuals with different characteristics is poorly understood. The present study examined whether changes in desire to reduce effort and performance goal value across moderate, heavy, and severe exercise intensity domains differed between cyclists and untrained, but active participants. METHODS Fifty participants (14 cyclists and 36 untrained) completed an incremental step test on a cycle ergometer, in which work rate was increased by 25 watts every 4 minutes until voluntary exhaustion. Desire to reduce effort, performance goal value, and blood lactate concentration (for determination of exercise intensity domains) were measured every four minutes and the data were analysed using multilevel modelling. RESULTS Desire to reduce effort increased quicker for untrained participants in the moderate exercise intensity domains (b = 1.66, p < .001) and across the whole trial (b = 1.64, p < .001), compared to cyclists (b = 0.69, and b = 1.14, respectively, both p < .001). Untrained participants reported lower performance goal value at the beginning of the trial (b = 16.02, p < .001), compared to cyclists (b = 17.25, p < .001). Beyond moderate intensities, the performance goal value decreased significantly for the untrained participants (b = -.70, p < .001) but significantly increased for cyclists (b = .45, p = .01). This pattern was also observed when focusing solely on the severe intensity domain (cyclists: b = .90, p < .001; untrained: b = -.84, p < .001). CONCLUSION There are distinct differences in the desire to reduce effort and performance goal value between cyclists and untrained athletes. Identifying these systematic differences enhances the credibility of the desire-goal conflict framework in explaining endurance performance and provides insight into the type and timing of interventions that might be successful in improving performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Izzy G Wellings
- School of Sport, Exercise & Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, United Kingdom, LE11 3TU.
| | - Richard Ferguson
- School of Sport, Exercise & Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, United Kingdom, LE11 3TU
| | - Ian M Taylor
- School of Sport, Exercise & Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, United Kingdom, LE11 3TU
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2
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Gonzalez MP, Brown DMY, Swafford IM, Summerville B, Seidi M, Hajiaghamemar M, Dorgo S. The Effects of Mental Fatigue on Anaerobic Power and Power Endurance Performance. Sports (Basel) 2024; 12:192. [PMID: 39058083 PMCID: PMC11280764 DOI: 10.3390/sports12070192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2024] [Revised: 07/10/2024] [Accepted: 07/12/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Mental fatigue has been studied extensively in relation to its impact on aerobic-, strength-, and motor-based tasks, but anaerobic power-based tasks have received limited attention. Interdisciplinary research investigating the underlying mechanisms by which mental fatigue influences physical performance has been called for. In two studies, the effects of mental fatigue on maximal power jump and endurance jump performance as well as kinetics and kinematics during jump performance were examined. Samples of collegiate volleyball players (Study 1; N = 14) and recreationally active students (Study 2; N = 27) completed two 30 min experimental manipulations (high vs. low cognitive control exertion) before performing three maximal power squat jumps followed by 15 repeated countermovement jumps, with measurements of kinetics and kinematics. For Study 1, the maximal power performance was significantly lower under a mentally fatigued condition, but no differences were observed for repeated jump performance, which may have been attributable to alterations in jump mechanics. For Study 2, no between-condition differences were observed for the maximal power performance, although repeated jump performance was significantly lower under a mentally fatigued condition. Collectively, these findings suggest that the impacts of mental fatigue on power-based performance tasks may depend on the task demands as well as the training status of the individual.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew P. Gonzalez
- Department of Kinesiology, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA;
| | - Denver M. Y. Brown
- Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA; (D.M.Y.B.); (I.M.S.); (B.S.)
| | - Isabella M. Swafford
- Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA; (D.M.Y.B.); (I.M.S.); (B.S.)
| | - Bryce Summerville
- Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA; (D.M.Y.B.); (I.M.S.); (B.S.)
| | - Morteza Seidi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA;
| | - Marzieh Hajiaghamemar
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA;
| | - Sandor Dorgo
- Department of Kinesiology, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA;
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3
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Zhang L, Wang B, Xu Q, Fu C. The role of boredom proneness and self-control in the association between anxiety and smartphone addiction among college students: a multiple mediation model. Front Public Health 2023; 11:1201079. [PMID: 37564421 PMCID: PMC10409989 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2023.1201079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Accepted: 07/12/2023] [Indexed: 08/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Smartphone addiction has been found to be a widespread public health issue, especially among youth. Previous studies reported a significant association between anxiety and smartphone addiction, but the underlying mechanism in this relationship is unclear. The purpose of this study was to investigate the mediating roles of boredom proneness and self-control in the relationship between anxiety and smartphone addiction. Methods Self-reported measures of anxiety, boredom proneness, self-control and smartphone addiction were administered to 1,526 Chinese college students. Results Smartphone addiction scores varied between 10 and 60 with an average of 30.89 ± 10.57 points. Anxiety had a direct and positive effect on smartphone addiction (effect = 0.18, 95% CI = 0.11-0.25), and an indirect effect on smartphone addiction through boredom proneness (effect = 0.10, 95% CI = 0.06-0.15) and self-control (effect = 0.16, 95% CI = 0.13-0.20). Boredom proneness and self-control sequentially mediated the relationship between anxiety and smartphone addiction (effect = 0.12, 95% CI = 0.10-0.15). Conclusion Anxiety is positively associated with smartphone addiction, and boredom proneness and self-control are important mediators in this relationship. Strengthening self-control and mitigating boredom could prevent smartphone addiction in anxious college students.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Zhang
- School of Public Health and Management, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, Shandong, China
| | - Baokai Wang
- Yantai Yuhuangding Hospital, Yantai, Shandong, China
| | - Qi Xu
- School of Public Health and Management, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, Shandong, China
| | - Chang Fu
- School of Public Health and Management, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, Shandong, China
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Dunton GF, Do B, Crosley-Lyons R, Naya CH, Hewus M, Kanning M. Assessing basic and higher-level psychological needs satisfied through physical activity. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1023556. [PMID: 36891201 PMCID: PMC9986481 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1023556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Background There has been increasing interest in the extent to which the fulfillment of psychological needs is associated with physical activity engagement. However, a vast majority of studies consider only basic psychological needs such as relatedness, competence, and autonomy-with higher-level psychological needs such as challenge, creativity, and spirituality rarely being addressed. The aim of this study was to examine the preliminary reliability (i.e., internal consistency) and validity (i.e., discriminant, construct, and predictive) of a multi-dimensional scale to assess a range of basic and higher-level psychological needs satisfied through physical activity. Methods A sample of 75 adults (ages 19-65 years, 59% female, 46% White) completed a baseline questionnaire measuring 13 psychological needs subscales (i.e., physical comfort, safety, social connection, esteem from others, individual esteem, learning, challenge, entertainment, novelty, creativity, mindfulness, aesthetic appreciation, and morality), exercise enjoyment, and exercise vitality. Participants then completed 14 days of accelerometer monitoring of physical activity and ecological momentary assessment of affective responses during physical activity sessions in daily life. Results Internal consistency reliability was acceptable (>0.70) for all subscales except for mindfulness, aesthetic appreciation, and morality. Ten of the 13 subscales exhibited discriminant validity by differentiating between engagement (vs. no engagement) in at least one physical activity type (e.g., brisk walking and yoga/Pilates). All the subscales, except physical comfort and esteem from others, were associated with at least one of the construct validation criteria (e.g., exercise enjoyment, affective response during exercise). Five of the subscales were associated with at least one of the predictive validation criteria (i.e., light, moderate, vigorous intensity activity measured by accelerometer). Conclusion Having the capacity to assess whether one's current physical activity is failing to fulfill various psychological needs-combined with recommendations about which types of activities may satisfy those needs-may address an important gap in physical activity promotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Genevieve F Dunton
- Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Bridgette Do
- Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Rachel Crosley-Lyons
- Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Christine H Naya
- Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Micaela Hewus
- Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Martina Kanning
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
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5
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Do B, Rhodes RE, Kanning M, Hewus M, Dunton GF. Examining whether affectively-charged motivations predict subsequent affective response during physical activity: An ecological momentary assessment study. Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:1029144. [PMID: 36465585 PMCID: PMC9715743 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.1029144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/04/2022] [Indexed: 09/15/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Evidence suggests positive affective response during physical activity increases the likelihood of engaging in and maintaining regular activity exercise in the future. Elucidating antecedents for a positive affective response may help identify intervention strategies to increase activity. Affectively-charged motivations (e.g., desires, urges, dreading) have been posited as proximal antecedents to physical activity but have yet to be examined in terms of their influence on affective response in real-world settings. The current study used ecological momentary assessment (EMA) to examine within-subject effects of pre-physical activity affectively-charged motivation on subsequent affective response during physical activity. METHODS Participants included 56 adults (M = 39.18 years, SD = 11.98; 67.86% female) who completed a 14-day smartphone-based EMA study. Prior to starting physical activity (time t), participants self-initiated an event-contingent EMA survey that assessed affectively-charged motivation for physical activity (i.e., rating scale from "dreading it" to "excited to do it"). EMA surveys prompted during subsequent physical activity (time t + 15 min) assessed affective response (i.e., feeling good-bad, energized-exhausted, thrilled-miserable, interested-bored, and relaxed-nervous). Multi-level linear regression models examined within-subject effects of pre- physical activity affectively-charged motivations on subsequent affective response during physical activity controlling for between-subjects effects of affectively-charged motivation, age, biological sex, time of day, and day of the week. RESULTS Overall, there were N = 304 physical activity occasions in the analysis (M = 5.43, SD = 3.97). When individuals reported more positive affectively-charged motivation for physical activity than usual before physical activity occasions, they reported feeling more energized (Estimate = 0.22, p < 0.001), good (Estimate = 0.25, p < 0.001), thrilled (Estimate = 0.12, p = 0.02), and interested (Estimate = 0.24, p < 0.001) during subsequent physical activity. Affectively-charged motivation was not associated with feeling more relaxed (Estimate = 0.11, p = 0.13) during subsequent physical activity. CONCLUSION Momentary affectively-charged motivations predicted more positive affective response during subsequent physical activity among active adults. Future research can explore potential sources of intraindividual differences in affectively-charged motivations and further examine these associations with future physical activity behavior. To improve positive affective responses, interventions may boost affectively-charged motivations through real-time mobile prompting in naturalistic settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bridgette Do
- Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Ryan E. Rhodes
- School of Exercise Science, Physical and Health Education, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Martina Kanning
- Department of Sports Science, Social and Health Sciences, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Micaela Hewus
- Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Genevieve F. Dunton
- Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
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Van Tilburg WAP, Pekrun R, Igou ER. Consumed by Boredom: Food Choice Motivation and Weight Changes during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Behav Sci (Basel) 2022; 12:366. [PMID: 36285935 PMCID: PMC9598600 DOI: 10.3390/bs12100366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Revised: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Boredom is an established cause and correlate of eating behavior. Yet, existing work offers a scattered range of plausible motivations for why this is. We examined among 302 people representative of the adult UK population what motivations they had for selecting food during the COVID-19 pandemic and how this related to boredom. As predicted, bored people choose food less for health reasons and more for convenience. Boredom reduced ethical and 'natural content' motivations for selecting food and was not associated with choosing food to regulate one's mood or to experience unfamiliarity. Boredom was also associated with greater absolute changes in weight over the course of the pandemic. Boredom did not predict weight gains or losses overall. These findings offer insights into the role that boredom plays in eating motivations in particular and health-relevant outcomes in general.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Reinhard Pekrun
- Department of Psychology, University of Essex, Colchester CO4 3SQ, UK
- Institute for Positive Psychology and Education, Australian Catholic University, North Sydney, NSW 2060, Australia
- Department of Psychology, University of Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany
- Department of Psychology, University of Limerick, V94 T9PX Limerick, Ireland
| | - Eric R. Igou
- Department of Psychology, University of Limerick, V94 T9PX Limerick, Ireland
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7
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Stewart TH, Villaneuva K, Hahn A, Ortiz-Delatorre J, Wolf C, Nguyen R, Bolter ND, Kern M, Bagley JR. Actual vs. perceived exertion during active virtual reality game exercise. FRONTIERS IN REHABILITATION SCIENCES 2022; 3:887740. [PMID: 36189005 PMCID: PMC9397749 DOI: 10.3389/fresc.2022.887740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Background Virtual exercise has become more common as emerging and converging technologies make active virtual reality games (AVRGs) a viable mode of exercise for health and fitness. Our lab has previously shown that AVRGs can elicit moderate to vigorous exercise intensities that meet recommended health benefit guidelines. Dissociative attentional focuses during AVRG gameplay have the potential to widen the gap between participants' perception of exertion and actual exertion. Objective The aim of this study was to determine actual exertion (AEx) vs. perceived exertion (PEx) levels during AVRGs by measuring heart rate (HR) and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) in two different settings. Materials and methods HR and RPE were collected on participants (N = 32; age 22.6 ± 2.6) during 10 min of gameplay in LabS and GymS using the HTC VIVE with the following games played: Fruit Ninja VR (FNVR), Beat Saber (BS), and Holopoint (HP). Results Participants exhibited significantly higher levels of AEx compared to reported PEx for all three AVRGs (Intensity): FNVR [AEx = 11.6 ± 1.8 (Light), PEx = 9.0 ± 2.0 (Very Light)], BS [AEx = 11.3 ± 1.7 (Light), PEx = 10.3 ± 2.1 (Very Light)], HP [AEx = 13.1 ± 2.3 (Somewhat Hard), PEx = 12.3 ± 2.4 (Light–Somewhat Hard)]. Additionally, participants playing in the GymS experienced significantly higher levels of AEx [12.4 ± 2.3 (Light–Somewhat Hard)] and PEx [10.8 ± 2.5 (Very Light–Light)] compared to the LabS [AEx = 11.6 ± 1.8 (Light), PEx = 10.3 ± 2.6 (Very Light–Light)]. Conclusion Perceptions of exertion may be lower than actual exertion during AVRG gameplay, and exertion levels can be influenced by the setting in which AVRGs are played. This may inform VR developers and health clinicians who aim to incorporate exercise/fitness regimens into upcoming ‘virtual worlds' currently being developed at large scales (i.e., the “metaverse”).
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Affiliation(s)
- Trenton H. Stewart
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA, United States
- Virtual Reality Institute of Health and Exercise, San Francisco, CA, United States
- *Correspondence: Trenton H. Stewart
| | - Kirsten Villaneuva
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Amanda Hahn
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Julissa Ortiz-Delatorre
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA, United States
- Virtual Reality Institute of Health and Exercise, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Chandler Wolf
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Randy Nguyen
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Nicole D. Bolter
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Marialice Kern
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA, United States
- Virtual Reality Institute of Health and Exercise, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - James R. Bagley
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA, United States
- Virtual Reality Institute of Health and Exercise, San Francisco, CA, United States
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A single item measure of self-control – validation and location in a nomological network of self-control, boredom, and if-then planning. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL BULLETIN 2022. [DOI: 10.32872/spb.7453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Self-control is a highly adaptive human capacity and research on self-control is booming. To further facilitate self-control research, especially in conditions where time-constraints might render the use of multi-item measures of self-control problematic, a validated time-efficient single item measure would be an asset. However, such a measure has not yet been developed and tested. Here, we address this gap by reporting the psychometric properties of a single item measure of self-control and by assessing its localization within a larger theorized psychometric network consisting of self-control, boredom and if-then planning. In a high-powered (N = 1553) study with paid online workers from the US (gender: 47.3% female, 51.7% male, 1% other; age: 40.36 ± 12.65 years), we found evidence for the convergent validity (Brief Self-Control Scale), divergent validity (Short Boredom Proneness Scale and If-Then Planning Scale), and criterion validity (objective and subjective socio-economic status) of the single item measure of self-control (“How much self-control do you have?”). Network psychometrics further revealed that the single item was part of the self-control subnetwork and clearly distinguishable from boredom and if-then planning, which together with self-control form a larger psychometric network of psychological dispositions that are relevant for orienting goal directed behavior. Thus, the present findings indicate that self-control can be adequately captured with the single item measure presented here, thereby extending the methodological toolbox of self-control researchers by a highly-time efficient measure.
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Wolff W, Bieleke M, Keller L. Boredom Proneness Predicts Self-Assessed Decision Errors in Sports but Is Unrelated to Risk Taking in General. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:3479. [PMID: 35329163 PMCID: PMC8950886 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19063479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Revised: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 03/11/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Introduction: Boredom proneness is linked to poor self-regulation, leading to poor decision making and/or increased risk taking. These links have not yet been investigated in the domain of sports and exercise. However, poor decisions or excessive risk behavior would be highly detrimental to sporting performance and, in some cases, even cause physical harm. Here, we address this gap by assessing if boredom proneness is linked to general risk taking, sport-specific risk taking, and to regrets about sports-specific decision errors with respect to acting too risky or too passively. Methods: N = 936 athletes (27.6 ± 9.0 years, 89.6% men): n = 330 Climbers (31.8 ± 10.7 years, 82.4% men), n = 83 Snowboarders (29.9 ± 8.3 years, 79.5% men), and n = 523 Esports athletes (24.6 ± 6.3 years, 95.8% men) completed the Short Boredom Proneness Scale (SBPS), along with measures for objective risk taking (Balloon Analogue Risk Task; BART), subjective risk taking (general willingness to take risks), as well as assessments for sport-specific risk taking and regrets for sports-specific decision errors (taking too many risks, failing to act at all). In the two extreme sports samples (i.e., climbers and snowboarders), we additionally assessed self-selected outcome certainty in a hypothetical sports-specific scenario where an error would result in physical harm. Results: A series of multiple regression analyses revealed that boredom proneness was unrelated to objective and subjective general risk taking, but a significant predictor of sport-specific risk taking and higher risk taking in the sports scenario (climbers and snowboarders only). Most importantly, boredom proneness predicted regrets for taking too many risks and being too passive. Exploratory post-hoc analyses further indicated that boredom proneness in extreme sports athletes was lower than in esports athletes. Higher boredom proneness was significantly related to lower skill levels across all kinds of sport. Discussion: Across three athlete samples, boredom proneness was unrelated to general risk taking but significantly related to poorer decision making, as indicated by regrets about acting too risky and too passively, as well as demanding a significantly lower safety threshold to make a risky sports-specific choice. While at odds with the often-reported link between boredom proneness and risk taking, these results are consistent with the conceptualization of boredom proneness as a maladaptive self-regulatory disposition that leads to noisy decision making in sports. In addition, we provide preliminary evidence that boredom proneness covaries with self-selection into specific types of sports and might also stand in the way of skill acquisition in sports.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanja Wolff
- Department of Sport Science, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany; (W.W.); (M.B.)
- Institute of Educational Science, Educational Psychology, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Maik Bieleke
- Department of Sport Science, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany; (W.W.); (M.B.)
| | - Lucas Keller
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
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10
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Hirsch A, Bieleke M, Bertschinger R, Schüler J, Wolff W. Struggles and strategies in anaerobic and aerobic cycling tests: A mixed-method approach with a focus on tailored self-regulation strategies. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0259088. [PMID: 34705866 PMCID: PMC8550367 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0259088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Endurance sports pose a plethora of mental demands that exercisers have to deal with. Unfortunately, investigations of exercise-specific demands and strategies to deal with them are insufficiently researched, leading to a gap in knowledge about athletic requirements and strategies used to deal with them. Here, we investigated which obstacles exercisers experience during an anaerobic (Wingate test) and an aerobic cycling test (incremental exercise test), as well as the strategies they considered helpful for dealing with these obstacles (qualitative analysis). In addition, we examined whether thinking of these obstacles and strategies in terms of if-then plans (or implementation intentions; i.e., "If I encounter obstacle O, then I will apply strategy S!") improves performance over merely setting performance goals (i.e., goal intentions; quantitative analysis). N = 59 participants (age: M = 23.9 ± 6.5 years) performed both tests twice in a 2-within (Experimental session: 1 vs. 2) × 2-between (Condition: goal vs. implementation intention) design. Exercisers' obstacles and strategies were assessed using structured interviews in Session 1 and subjected to thematic analysis. In both tests, feelings of exertion were the most frequently stated obstacle. Motivation to do well, self-encouragement, and focus on the body and on cycling were frequently stated strategies in both tests. There were also test-specific obstacles, such as boredom reported in the aerobic test. For session 2, the obstacles and strategies elicited in Session 1 were used to specify if-then plans. Bayesian mixed-factor ANOVA suggests, however, that if-then plans did not help exercisers to improve their performance. These findings shed novel light into the mental processes accompanying endurance exercise and the limits they pose on performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Hirsch
- Department of Sport Science, Sport Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Maik Bieleke
- Department of Sport Science, Sport Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Raphael Bertschinger
- Department of Sport Science, Sport Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Julia Schüler
- Department of Sport Science, Sport Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Wanja Wolff
- Department of Sport Science, Sport Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
- Educational Psychology, Institute of Educational Science, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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11
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Struk AA, Scholer AA, Danckert J. Perceptions of Control Influence Feelings of Boredom. Front Psychol 2021; 12:687623. [PMID: 34305746 PMCID: PMC8298837 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.687623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Conditions of low and high perceived control often lead to boredom, albeit for different reasons. Whereas, high perceived control may be experienced as boring because the situation lacks challenge, low perceived control may be experienced as boring because the situation precludes effective engagement. In two experiments we test this proposed quadratic relationship. In the first experiment we had participants play different versions of the children's game "rock-paper-scissors" in which they arbitrarily won (intended to maximize feelings of control) or lost (to induce feelings of low control). Despite having only dichotomous conditions, participants reported experiencing a broad range of levels of perceived control. Consistent with our predictions, boredom was highest at low and high levels of perceived control (i.e., a quadratic relation between perceived control and felt boredom). Experiment 2 tested the notion that the mere prospect of gaining control may mitigate boredom. Participants given to believe (erroneously) that they could gain control over the game of rock, paper, scissors were less bored than those who believed there was no possibility of winning at greater than chance levels. This suggests that beliefs concerning prospective control, rather than a given level of perceived control per se, may predict engagement and boredom.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - James Danckert
- Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
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Abstract
Abstract. If-then planning (implementation intentions) describes a self-regulatory strategy that helps people to attain their goals across a variety of domains, such as achieving physical activity goals. Based on such beneficial effects, if-then plans are anecdotally discussed as a strategy to enhance sports-related performance as well. However, this discussion currently lacks an empirical basis. We therefore conducted a scoping review to identify experimental research on the effects of if-then planning on sports-related performance, potential moderators of these effects, the methodological approaches used, and the suitability of the available evidence for assessing the effectiveness of if-then planning in sports. Based on a search of four online databases, we identified a set of 11 studies that investigated if-then planning in experimental research with sports-related performance as an outcome measure. Six of these studies focused on if-then planning in endurance tasks, whereas the remaining studies investigated sports performance in domains that do not revolve primarily around endurance (e. g., tennis, golf, darts). The samples were often small and comprised university students; the conclusions drawn regarding the effectiveness of if-then planning for improving sports-related performance were rather heterogeneous. Still, most studies did shed light on tentative mechanisms (e. g., perceptions of effort and pain, arousal) and moderators (e. g., athletes’ beliefs about their performance limits, the feasibility of the behavior) of if-then planning in sports, guiding future research regarding the question of when and for whom if-then planning might be a beneficial strategy. Based on these findings, we identify the potentials and pitfalls of using if-then plans to enhance sports-related performance, discuss promising routes for future research, and derive practical implications for athletes and coaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maik Bieleke
- Department of Sport Science, Sport Psychology, University of Konstanz, Germany
| | - Wanja Wolff
- Department of Sport Science, Sport Psychology, University of Konstanz, Germany
- Department of Educational Psychology, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Chris Englert
- Department of Sport Psychology, Goethe University Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Peter M. Gollwitzer
- Department of Psychology, New York University, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, Germany
- Institute of Psychology, Leuphana University Lüneburg, Germany
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13
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Wolff W, Englert C. On the Past, Present and Future of Volition Research in Sports. ZEITSCHRIFT FUR SPORTPSYCHOLOGIE 2021. [DOI: 10.1026/1612-5010/a000339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wanja Wolff
- Department of Sport Science, University of Konstanz, Germany
- Department of Educational Psychology, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Chris Englert
- Department of Sport Psychology, Goethe University Frankfurt, Germany
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14
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Englert C, Dziuba A, Giboin LS, Wolff W. Elites Do Not Deplete - No Effect of Prior Mental Exertion on Subsequent Shooting Performance in Elite Shooters. Front Psychol 2021; 12:668108. [PMID: 34177728 PMCID: PMC8226326 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.668108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In order to perform at the highest level, elite shooters have to remain focused during the whole course of a tournament, which regularly lasts multiple hours. Investing self-control over extended time periods is often associated with lower levels of perceived self-control strength (i.e., the subjective estimation of how much mental effort one is capable of investing in a given task) and impaired performance in several sports-related domains. However, previous findings on the effects of prior self-control efforts on shooting performance have been mixed, as elite shooters seem to be less affected by preceding self-control demanding tasks than sub-elite athletes. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of self-control on shooting performance in elite shooters. Hence, we randomly assigned elite shooters to an experimental (n = 12) or a control condition (n = 11) and asked them to perform a series of 40 shots at baseline (T1) and again after a task which either did or did not require self-control (T2). Additionally, we continuously measured the shooters’ level of perceived self-control strength. We assumed that in elite athletes, shooting accuracy as well as the perceived level of self-control strength would not be significantly affected over time from T1 to T2 in both conditions. In line with our assumptions, Bayesian linear mixed effect models revealed that shooting performance remained relatively stable in both conditions over time and the conditions also did not differ significantly in their perceived levels of self-control strength. Contrary to resource-based theories of self-control, these results speak against the idea of a limited self-control resource as previous acts of self-control did not impair subsequent shooting performance in elite athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Englert
- Department of Educational Psychology, Institute of Education, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Anna Dziuba
- Institute of Sports and Sports Science, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Louis-Solal Giboin
- Department of Sport Sciences, Sensorimotor Performance Lab, Human Performance Research Centre, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Wanja Wolff
- Department of Educational Psychology, Institute of Education, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.,Sport Psychology, Department of Sport Sciences, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
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