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Trybulski R, Kużdżał A, Bichowska-Pawęska M, Vovkanych A, Kawczyński A, Biolik G, Muracki J. Immediate Effect of Cryo-Compression Therapy on Biomechanical Properties and Perfusion of Forearm Muscles in Mixed Martial Arts Fighters. J Clin Med 2024; 13:1177. [PMID: 38398489 PMCID: PMC10889478 DOI: 10.3390/jcm13041177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2024] [Revised: 02/14/2024] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Mixed martial arts (MMA) fighters use their arms and hands for striking with the fists, grappling, and defensive techniques, which puts a high load on the forearms and hand muscles. New methods are needed to decrease the risk of injury and increase the effectiveness of regeneration. This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of cryo-compression (CC) therapy of different times (3 and 6 min) on forearm muscles in MMA fighters by investigating muscle pain, stiffness, tension, elasticity strength, and perfusion. Twenty professional male MMA fighters aged 26.5 ± 4.5 years, with training experience of 10.3 ± 5.0 years, were enrolled on an experimental within-group study design. The participants underwent CC therapy at a temperature of 3 °C and compression of 75 mmHg for 3 min and, in the second session, for 6 min. The investigated parameters were in the following order: (1) perfusion in non-reference units (PU), (2) muscle tone (T-[Hz]), (3) stiffness (S-[N/m]), (4) elasticity (E-[arb]), (5) pressure pain threshold (PPT-[N/cm]), and (6) maximum isometric force (Fmax [kgf]) at two time points: (1) at rest-2 min before CC therapy (pre) and (2) 2 min after CC therapy (post). There were significant differences between 3 and 6 min of CC therapy for PU and T. Meanwhile, F, E, PPT, and S were significantly different when comparing pre- to post-conditions. These results provide evidence that CC therapy is a stimulus that significantly affects parameters characterizing muscle biomechanical properties, pain threshold, strength, and tissue perfusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Trybulski
- Medical Department Wojciech Korfanty Upper Silesian Academy, 40-659 Katowice, Poland
| | - Adrian Kużdżał
- Institute of Health Sciences, College of Medical Sciences, University of Rzeszów, 35-959 Rzeszów, Poland;
| | - Marta Bichowska-Pawęska
- Faculty of Physical Education, Gdansk University of Physical Education and Sport, 80-336 Gdansk, Poland;
| | - Andriy Vovkanych
- Department of Physical Therapy and Ergotherapy, Ivan Boberkyj Lviv State University of Physical Culture, 79007 Lviv, Ukraine;
| | - Adam Kawczyński
- Department of Biomechanics and Sport Engineering, Gdansk University of Physical Education and Sport, 80-336 Gdansk, Poland;
| | - Grzegorz Biolik
- Department of General Surgery, Vascular Surgery, Angiology and Phlebology, Medical University of Silesia, 40-635 Katowice, Poland;
| | - Jarosław Muracki
- Institute of Physical Culture Sciences, Department of Physical Education and Health, University of Szczecin, 70-453 Szczecin, Poland;
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Roberts MD, McCarthy JJ, Hornberger TA, Phillips SM, Mackey AL, Nader GA, Boppart MD, Kavazis AN, Reidy PT, Ogasawara R, Libardi CA, Ugrinowitsch C, Booth FW, Esser KA. Mechanisms of mechanical overload-induced skeletal muscle hypertrophy: current understanding and future directions. Physiol Rev 2023; 103:2679-2757. [PMID: 37382939 PMCID: PMC10625844 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00039.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Revised: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Mechanisms underlying mechanical overload-induced skeletal muscle hypertrophy have been extensively researched since the landmark report by Morpurgo (1897) of "work-induced hypertrophy" in dogs that were treadmill trained. Much of the preclinical rodent and human resistance training research to date supports that involved mechanisms include enhanced mammalian/mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) signaling, an expansion in translational capacity through ribosome biogenesis, increased satellite cell abundance and myonuclear accretion, and postexercise elevations in muscle protein synthesis rates. However, several lines of past and emerging evidence suggest that additional mechanisms that feed into or are independent of these processes are also involved. This review first provides a historical account of how mechanistic research into skeletal muscle hypertrophy has progressed. A comprehensive list of mechanisms associated with skeletal muscle hypertrophy is then outlined, and areas of disagreement involving these mechanisms are presented. Finally, future research directions involving many of the discussed mechanisms are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael D Roberts
- School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States
| | - John J McCarthy
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States
| | - Troy A Hornberger
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States
| | - Stuart M Phillips
- Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Abigail L Mackey
- Institute of Sports Medicine Copenhagen, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Copenhagen University Hospital-Bispebjerg and Frederiksberg, and Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Gustavo A Nader
- Department of Kinesiology and Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States
| | - Marni D Boppart
- Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States
| | - Andreas N Kavazis
- School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States
| | - Paul T Reidy
- Department of Kinesiology, Nutrition and Health, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, United States
| | - Riki Ogasawara
- Healthy Food Science Research Group, Cellular and Molecular Biotechnology Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Cleiton A Libardi
- MUSCULAB-Laboratory of Neuromuscular Adaptations to Resistance Training, Department of Physical Education, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Carlos Ugrinowitsch
- School of Physical Education and Sport, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Frank W Booth
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States
| | - Karyn A Esser
- Department of Physiology and Aging, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States
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Grgic J. Effects of post-exercise cold-water immersion on resistance training-induced gains in muscular strength: a meta-analysis. Eur J Sport Sci 2023; 23:372-380. [PMID: 35068365 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2022.2033851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this review was to perform a meta-analysis examining the effects of cold-water immersion (CWI) coupled with resistance training on gains in muscular strength. Four databases were searched to find relevant studies. Their methodological quality and risk of bias were evaluated using the PEDro checklist. The effects of CWI vs. control on muscular strength were examined in a random-effects meta-analysis. Ten studies (n = 170; 92% males), with 11 comparisons across 22 groups, were included in the analysis. Studies were classified as of good or fair methodological quality. The main meta-analysis found that CWI attenuated muscular strength gains (effect size [ES]: -0.23; 95% confidence interval [CI]: -0.45, -0.01; p = 0.041). In the analysis of data from studies applying CWI only to the trained limbs, CWI attenuated muscular strength gains (ES: -0.31; 95% CI: -0.61, -0.01; p = 0.041). In the analysis of data from studies using whole-body CWI, there was no significant difference in muscular strength gains between CWI and control (ES: -0.08; 95% CI: -0.53, 0.38; p = 0.743). In summary, this meta-analysis found that the use of CWI following resistance exercise sessions attenuates muscular strength gains in males. However, when CWI was applied to the whole body, there was no significant difference between CWI and control for muscular strength. Due to the attenuated gains in muscular strength found with single limb CWI, the use and/or timing of CWI in resistance training should be carefully considered and individualized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jozo Grgic
- Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia
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Moore E, Fuller JT, Bellenger CR, Saunders S, Halson SL, Broatch JR, Buckley JD. Effects of Cold-Water Immersion Compared with Other Recovery Modalities on Athletic Performance Following Acute Strenuous Exercise in Physically Active Participants: A Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis, and Meta-Regression. Sports Med 2023; 53:687-705. [PMID: 36527593 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-022-01800-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Studies investigating the effects of common recovery modalities following acute strenuous exercise have reported mixed results. OBJECTIVES This systematic review with meta-analysis and meta-regression compared the effects of cold-water immersion (CWI) against other common recovery modalities on recovery of athletic performance, perceptual outcomes, and creatine kinase (CK) following acute strenuous exercise in physically active populations. STUDY DESIGN Systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression. METHODS The MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, Scopus, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, EmCare, and Embase databases were searched up until September 2022. Studies were included if they were peer reviewed, published in English, included participants who were involved in sport or deemed physically active, compared CWI with other recovery modalities following an acute bout of strenuous exercise, and included measures of performance, perceptual measures of recovery, or CK. RESULTS Twenty-eight studies were meta-analysed. CWI was superior to other recovery methods for recovering from muscle soreness, and similar to other methods for recovery of muscular power and flexibility. CWI was more effective than active recovery, contrast water therapy and warm-water immersion for most recovery outcomes. Air cryotherapy was significantly more effective than CWI for the promotion of recovery of muscular strength and the immediate recovery of muscular power (1-h post-exercise). Meta-regression revealed that water temperature and exposure duration were rarely exposure moderators. CONCLUSION CWI is effective for promoting recovery from acute strenuous exercise in physically active populations compared with other common recovery methods. PROTOCOL REGISTRATION Open Science Framework: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/NGP7C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Moore
- Alliance for Research in Exercise, Nutrition and Activity (ARENA), University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia.
| | - Joel T Fuller
- Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Macquarie Park, NSW, Australia
| | - Clint R Bellenger
- Alliance for Research in Exercise, Nutrition and Activity (ARENA), University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Siena Saunders
- Alliance for Research in Exercise, Nutrition and Activity (ARENA), University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Shona L Halson
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, McAuley at Banyo, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - James R Broatch
- Institute for Health and Sport (IHES), Victoria University, VIC, Australia
| | - Jonathan D Buckley
- Alliance for Research in Exercise, Nutrition and Activity (ARENA), University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia
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No effect of repeated post-resistance exercise cold or hot water immersion on in-season body composition and performance responses in academy rugby players: a randomised controlled cross-over design. Eur J Appl Physiol 2023; 123:351-359. [PMID: 36284024 PMCID: PMC9895015 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-022-05075-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 10/08/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Following resistance exercise, uncertainty exists as to whether the regular application of cold water immersion attenuates lean muscle mass increases in athletes. The effects of repeated post-resistance exercise cold versus hot water immersion on body composition and neuromuscular jump performance responses in athletes were investigated. METHODS Male, academy Super Rugby players (n = 18, 19.9 ± 1.5 y, 1.85 ± 0.06 m, 98.3 ± 10.7 kg) participated in a 12-week (4-week × 3-intervention, i.e., control [CON], cold [CWI] or hot [HWI] water immersion) resistance exercise programme, utilising a randomised cross-over pre-post-design. Body composition measures were collected using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry prior to commencement and every fourth week thereafter. Neuromuscular squat (SJ) and counter-movement jump (CMJ) performance were measured weekly. Linear mixed-effects models were used to analyse main (treatment, time) and interaction effects. RESULTS There were no changes in lean (p = 0.960) nor fat mass (p = 0.801) between interventions. CON (p = 0.004) and CWI (p = 0.003) increased (g = 0.08-0.19) SJ height, compared to HWI. There were no changes in CMJ height (p = 0.482) between interventions. CONCLUSION Repeated post-resistance exercise whole-body CWI or HWI does not attenuate (nor promote) increases in lean muscle mass in athletes. Post-resistance exercise CON or CWI results in trivial increases in SJ height, compared to HWI. During an in-season competition phase, our data support the continued use of post-resistance exercise whole-body CWI by athletes as a recovery strategy which does not attenuate body composition increases in lean muscle mass, while promoting trivial increases in neuromuscular concentric-only squat jump performance.
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Haq A, Ribbans WJ, Hohenauer E, Baross AW. The Effect of Repetitive Whole Body Cryotherapy Treatment on Adaptations to a Strength and Endurance Training Programme in Physically Active Males. Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:834386. [PMID: 35399598 PMCID: PMC8990227 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.834386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite its potential merit in sport and exercise recovery, the implications of repetitive Whole Body Cryotherapy (WBC) during training programmes require further review due to the possibility of repetitive cold interfering with long term adaptations. This study investigated the impact of two weekly 3 min WBC sessions (30 s at −60°C, 150 s at −120°C) on adaptations to a 6 week strength and endurance training programme. Sixteen male participants (mean ± SD age 33.4 ± 9.8 years, body mass 82.3 ± 9.8 kg) randomly allocated into WBC (n = 7) and non-cryotherapy control (CON, n=9) groups completed the programme consisting of two weekly strength and plyometric training sessions and two weekly 30 min runs (70% VO2 max). Participants were assessed for body fat, VO2 max, muscle torque, three repetition maximum barbell squat and countermovement jump height before and after the programme. Resistance and running intensities were progressed after 3 weeks. Participants in both groups significantly improved muscle torque (WBC: 277.1 ± 63.2 Nm vs. 318.1 ± 83.4 Nm, p < 0.01, d = 0.56; CON: 244.6 ± 50.6 Nm vs. 268.0 ± 71.8 Nm, p = 0.05, d = 0.38) and barbell squat (WBC: 86.4 ± 19.5 kg vs. 98.9 ± 15.2 kg, p = 0.03, d = 0.69; CON: 91.1 ± 28.7 kg vs. 106.1 ± 30.0 kg, p < 0.01, d=0.51) following the 6 week programme. For the CON group, there was also a significant reduction in body fat percentage (p = 0.01) and significant increase in jump height (p = 0.01). There was no significant increase in VO2 max for either group (both p > 0.2). There was no difference between WBC and CON for responses in muscle torque, 3RM barbell squat and body fat, however WBC participants did not increase their jump height (p = 0.23). Repetitive WBC does not appear to blunt adaptations to a concurrent training programme, although there may be an interference effect in the development of explosive power. Sports practitioners can cautiously apply repetitive WBC to support recovery post-exercise without undue concern on athletes' fitness gains or long term performance, particularly throughout training phases focused more on general strength development than explosive power.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adnan Haq
- Sports Studies, Moulton College, Moulton, United Kingdom
- Sport and Exercise Science, University of Northampton Waterside, Northampton, United Kingdom
- School of Health, Sport and Professional Practice, University of South Wales Sport Park, Pontypridd, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Adnan Haq
| | - William J. Ribbans
- Sport and Exercise Science, University of Northampton Waterside, Northampton, United Kingdom
- The County Clinic, Northampton, United Kingdom
| | - Erich Hohenauer
- Department of Business Economics, Health and Social Care, University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Southern Switzerland, Landquart, Switzerland
| | - Anthony W. Baross
- Sport and Exercise Science, University of Northampton Waterside, Northampton, United Kingdom
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Allan R, Akin B, Sinclair J, Hurst H, Alexander J, Malone JJ, Naylor A, Mawhinney C, Gregson W, Ihsan M. Athlete, coach and practitioner knowledge and perceptions of post-exercise cold-water immersion for recovery: a qualitative and quantitative exploration. SPORT SCIENCES FOR HEALTH 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11332-021-00839-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
AbstractThis survey sought to establish current use, knowledge and perceptions of cold-water immersion (CWI) when used for recovery. 111 athletes, coaches and support practitioners completed the anonymous online survey, answering questions about their current CWI protocols, perceptions of benefits associated with CWI and knowledge of controlling mechanisms. Respondents were largely involved in elite sport at international, national and club level, with many having used CWI previously (86%) and finding its use beneficial for recovery (78%). Protocols differed, with the duration of immersion one aspect that failed to align with recommendations in the scientific literature. Whilst many respondents were aware of benefits associated with CWI, there remains some confusion. There also seems to be a gap in mechanistic knowledge, where respondents are aware of benefits associated with CWI, but failed to identify the underlying mechanisms. This identifies the need for an improved method of knowledge transfer between scientific and applied practice communities. Moreover, data herein emphasises the important role of the ‘support practitioner’ as respondents in this role tended to favour CWI protocols more aligned to recommendations within the literature. With a significant number of respondents claiming they were made aware of CWI for recovery through a colleague (43%), the importance of knowledge transfer and context being appropriately applied to data is as important as ever. With the firm belief that CWI is useful for recovery in sport, the focus should now be on investigating the psychophysiological interaction and correct use of this methodology.
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Thorpe RT. Post-exercise Recovery: Cooling and Heating, a Periodized Approach. Front Sports Act Living 2021; 3:707503. [PMID: 34541521 PMCID: PMC8440788 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2021.707503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Robin T Thorpe
- Football Exchange, Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom.,College of Health Solutions, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ, United States
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Ihsan M, Abbiss CR, Allan R. Adaptations to Post-exercise Cold Water Immersion: Friend, Foe, or Futile? Front Sports Act Living 2021; 3:714148. [PMID: 34337408 PMCID: PMC8322530 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2021.714148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In the last decade, cold water immersion (CWI) has emerged as one of the most popular post-exercise recovery strategies utilized amongst athletes during training and competition. Following earlier research on the effects of CWI on the recovery of exercise performance and associated mechanisms, the recent focus has been on how CWI might influence adaptations to exercise. This line of enquiry stems from classical work demonstrating improved endurance and mitochondrial development in rodents exposed to repeated cold exposures. Moreover, there was strong rationale that CWI might enhance adaptations to exercise, given the discovery, and central role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) in both cold- and exercise-induced oxidative adaptations. Research on adaptations to post-exercise CWI have generally indicated a mode-dependant effect, where resistance training adaptations were diminished, whilst aerobic exercise performance seems unaffected but demonstrates premise for enhancement. However, the general suitability of CWI as a recovery modality has been the focus of considerable debate, primarily given the dampening effect on hypertrophy gains. In this mini-review, we highlight the key mechanisms surrounding CWI and endurance exercise adaptations, reiterating the potential for CWI to enhance endurance performance, with support from classical and contemporary works. This review also discusses the implications and insights (with regards to endurance and strength adaptations) gathered from recent studies examining the longer-term effects of CWI on training performance and recovery. Lastly, a periodized approach to recovery is proposed, where the use of CWI may be incorporated during competition or intensified training, whilst strategically avoiding periods following training focused on improving muscle strength or hypertrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed Ihsan
- Human Potential Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Research and Scientific Support, Aspetar Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, Doha, Qatar
| | - Chris R Abbiss
- Centre for Exercise and Sports Science Research, School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Robert Allan
- School of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, United Kingdom
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