Extruded plant protein two-dimensional scaffold structures support myoblast cell growth for potential applications in cultured meat

Cultured meat has been proposed as a promising alternative to conventional meat products. Five different plant protein blends made from soy (from two different manufacturers), wheat, mung bean, and faba bean, were extruded to form low-moisture meat analogs (LMMA) and were used to assess LMMA scaffold potential for cultured meat application. Extruded LMMAs were characterized using scanning electron microscopy, water-holding capacity, total soluble matter, and mechanical properties. Two-dimensional LMMA scaffolds were seeded with C2C12 skeletal myoblast cells and cultured for 14 days, and cell attachment and morphology were evaluated. All five extrudates exhibited directionality of their fibrous protein structures but to varying degrees. Soy, wheat, mung bean, and faba bean-based LMMA scaffolds initially supported myoblast cell growth. However, after 14 days of culture, the extruded wheat LMMA exhibited superior myoblast cell growth. This may be attributed to the highly aligned fibrous structure of the extruded wheat LMMA as well as its elastic modulus, which closely approximated that of native skeletal muscle. Overall, two-dimensional structures of the extruded plant proteins support cell growth and advance the development of cultured meat.

In Vitro and In Vivo Biocompatibility of Bacterial Cellulose

Bacterial cellulose is a unique biomaterial produced by various species of bacteria that offers a range of potential applications in the biomedical field. To provide a cost-effective alternative to soft-tissue implants used in cavity infills, remodeling, and subdermal wound healing, in vitro cytotoxicity and in vivo biocompatibility of native bacterial cellulose were investigated. Cytotoxicity was assessed using a metabolic assay on Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts and INS-1832/13 rat insulinoma. Results showed no cytotoxicity, whether the cells were seeded over or under the bacterial cellulose scaffolds. Biocompatibility was performed on Sprague-Dawley rats (males and females, 8 weeks old) by implanting bacterial cellulose membranes subcutaneously for 1 or 12 weeks. The explanted scaffolds were then sliced and stained with hematoxylin and eosin for histological characterization. The first series of results revealed acute and chronic inflammation persisting over 12 weeks. Examination of the explants indicated a high number of granulocytes within the periphery of the bacterial cellulose, suggesting the presence of endotoxins within the membrane, confirmed by a Limulus amebocyte lysate test. This discovery motivated the development of non-pyrogenic bacterial cellulose scaffolds. Following this, a second series of animal experiments was done, in which materials were implanted for 1 or 2 weeks. The results revealed mild inflammation 1 week after implantation, which then diminished to minimal inflammation after 2 weeks. Altogether, this study highlights that unmodified, purified native bacterial cellulose membranes may be used as a cost-effective biomedical device provided that proper endotoxin clearance is achieved.

Obtaining source material for cellular agriculture

Cellular Agriculture (CellAg) is an attractive concept for innovative technology with the intent to provide food and nutrition complementary to existing supply streams. The past decade has seen considerable progress in the field with advancement of cellular technology that delivers the initial building blocks for meaningful implementation. The availability of natural cell-based material that can serve as nutrient-filled source for human consumption at low cost is a critical challenge for the emerging cellular agriculture industry. Therefore, here the isolation of bovine myofibroblasts of the Black Angus breed has been pursued and accomplished together with its characterisation by using RNA sequencing and proteomics through western blotting. To transition CellAg from a concept to a game changing technology for the industry, multiple challenges need to be overcome. The field requires powerful initial material, i.e., dedicated cells that can proliferate and differentiate robustly at scale. The methodology described allows for the production of healthy cells, which have been unequivocally characterized as clonal representatives of a stable myofibroblast cell line using transcriptomics and proteomics validation. Stringent and rigorous live cell monitoring of a nascent cell line derived from healthy muscle tissue allowed for stable cell growth. In this research article, a simple and precise methodology is presented for creating a bovine myofibroblast cell line (Bov.mia). Our work puts forward a low-tech use of materials and expertise that is devoid of transgenic approaches, thus creating a reliable approach for lab-scale research.

Emulsion-Templated Gelatin/Amino Acids/Chitosan Macroporous Hydrogels with Adjustable Internal Dimensions for Three-Dimensional Stem Cell Culture

The demand for macroporous hydrogel scaffolds with interconnected porous and open-pore structures is crucial for advancing research and development in cell culture and tissue regeneration. Existing techniques for creating 3D porous materials and controlling their porosity are currently constrained. This study introduces a novel approach for producing highly interconnected aspartic acid-gelatin macroporous hydrogels (MHs) with precisely defined open pore structures using a one-step emulsification polymerization method with surface-modified silica nanoparticles as Pickering stabilizers. Macroporous hydrogels offer adjustable pore size and pore throat size within the ranges of 50 to 130 μm and 15 to 27 μm, respectively, achieved through variations in oil-in-water ratio and solid content. The pore wall thickness of the macroporous hydrogel can be as thin as 3.37 μm and as thick as 6.7 μm. In addition, the storage modulus of the macroporous hydrogels can be as high as 7250 Pa, and it maintains an intact rate of more than 92% after being soaked in PBS for 60 days, which is also good performance for use as a biomedical scaffold material. These hydrogels supported the proliferation of human dental pulp stem cells (hDPSCs) over a 30 day incubation period, stretching the cell morphology and demonstrating excellent biocompatibility and cell adhesion. The combination of these desirable attributes makes them highly promising for applications in stem cell culture and tissue regeneration, underscoring their potential significance in advancing these fields.

Engineering Considerations on Large-Scale Cultured Meat Production

In recent decades, cultured meat has received considerable interest as a sustainable alternative to traditional meat products, showing promise for addressing the inherent problems associated with conventional meat production. However, current limitations on the scalability of production and extremely high production costs have prevented their widespread adoption. Therefore, it is important to develop novel engineering strategies to overcome the current limitations in large-scale cultured meat production. Such engineering considerations have the potential for advancements in cultured meat production by providing innovative and effective solutions to the prevailing challenges. In this review, we discuss how engineering strategies have been utilized to advance cultured meat technology by categorizing the production processes of cultured meat into three distinct steps: (1) cell preparation; (2) cultured meat fabrication; and (3) cultured meat maturation. For each step, we provide a comprehensive discussion of the recent progress and its implications. In particular, we focused on the engineering considerations involved in each step of cultured meat production, with specific emphasis on large-scale production.

In-vitro assays for immuno-oncology drug efficacy assessment and screening for personalized cancer therapy: scopes and challenges

INTRODUCTION

Immunotherapies have revolutionized cancer treatment, but often fail to produce desirable therapeutic outcomes in all patients. Due to the inter-patient heterogeneity and complexity of the tumor microenvironment, personalized treatment approaches are gaining demand. Researchers have long been using a range of in-vitro assays including 2D models, organoid co-cultures, and cancer-on-a-chip platforms for cancer drug screening. A comparative analysis of these assays with their suitability, high-throughput capacity, and clinical translatability is required for optimal translational use.

AREAS COVERED

The review summarized in-vitro platforms with their comparative advantages and limitations including construction strategies, and translational potential for immuno-oncology drug efficacy assessment. We also discussed end-point analysis strategies so that researchers can contextualize their usefulness and optimally design experiments for personalized immunotherapy efficacy prediction.

EXPERT OPINION

Researchers developed several in-vitro platforms that can provide information on personalized immunotherapy efficacy from different angles. Image-based assays are undoubtedly more suitable to gather a wide range of information including cellular morphology and phenotypical behaviors but need significant improvement to overcome issues including background noise, sample preparation difficulty, and long duration of experiment. More studies and clinical trials are needed to resolve these issues and validate the assays before they can be used in real-life scenarios.

Decellularised plant scaffolds facilitate porcine skeletal muscle tissue engineering for cultivated meat biomanufacturing

Cultivated meat (CM) offers a sustainable and ethical alternative to conventional animal agriculture, involving cell maturation in a controlled environment. To emulate the structural complexity of traditional meat, the development of animal-free and edible scaffolds is crucial, providing vital physical and biological support during tissue development. The aligned vascular bundles of the decellularised asparagus scaffold were selected to facilitate the attachment and alignment of murine myoblasts (C2C12) and porcine adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (pADMSCs). Muscle differentiation was assessed through immunofluorescence staining with muscle markers, including Myosin heavy chain (MHC), Myogenin (MYOG), and Desmin. The metabolic activity of Creatine Kinase in C2C12 differentiated cells significantly increased compared to proliferated cells. Quantitative PCR analysis revealed a significant increase in Myosin Heavy Polypeptide 1 (MYH1) and MYOG expression compared to Day 0. These results highlight the application of decellularised plant scaffold (DPS) as a promising, edible material conducive to cell attachment, proliferation, and differentiation into muscle tissue. To create a CM prototype with biological mimicry, pADMSC-derived muscle and fat cells were also co-cultured on the same scaffold. The co-culture was confirmed through immunofluorescence staining of muscle markers and LipidTOX staining, revealing distinct muscle fibres and adipocytes containing lipid droplets respectively. Texture profile analysis conducted on uncooked CM prototypes and pork loin showed no significant differences in textural values. However, the pan-fried CM prototype differed significantly in hardness and chewiness compared to pork loin. Understanding the scaffolds' textural profile enhances our insight into the potential sensory attributes of CM products. DPS shows potential for advancing CM biomanufacturing.

Scaffold-based 3D cell culture models in cancer research

Three-dimensional (3D) cell cultures have emerged as valuable tools in cancer research, offering significant advantages over traditional two-dimensional (2D) cell culture systems. In 3D cell cultures, cancer cells are grown in an environment that more closely mimics the 3D architecture and complexity of in vivo tumors. This approach has revolutionized cancer research by providing a more accurate representation of the tumor microenvironment (TME) and enabling the study of tumor behavior and response to therapies in a more physiologically relevant context. One of the key benefits of 3D cell culture in cancer research is the ability to recapitulate the complex interactions between cancer cells and their surrounding stroma. Tumors consist not only of cancer cells but also various other cell types, including stromal cells, immune cells, and blood vessels. These models bridge traditional 2D cell cultures and animal models, offering a cost-effective, scalable, and ethical alternative for preclinical research. As the field advances, 3D cell cultures are poised to play a pivotal role in understanding cancer biology and accelerating the development of effective anticancer therapies. This review article highlights the key advantages of 3D cell cultures, progress in the most common scaffold-based culturing techniques, pertinent literature on their applications in cancer research, and the ongoing challenges.

Programmable scaffolds with aligned porous structures for cell cultured meat

Porous scaffolds for cell cultured meat are currently limited in the food-grade material requirements, the cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation capacities, and the ignored appearance design. We proposed programmable scaffolds specially tailored for cell cultured meat. The scaffold with aligned porous structures was fabricated with the ice-templated directional freeze-drying of the food-grade collagen hydrogel. Due to the abundant tripeptide presence and well-aligned porous structures, the scaffold could not only provide sites for cell adhesion and proliferation, but also promote the oriented growth and differentiation of cells. The up-regulation of myogenic related genes, synthesis of myogenic related proteins and formation of matured myotubes furtherly proved the differentiation of cells on aligned scaffold. These characteristics would facilitate the traditional meat characteristics simulation of cell cultured meat in term of texture and microstructure. Meanwhile, patterned scaffolds were achievable as well with the help of mold-assisted ice templating, which would improve the people's interest, recognition, and acceptance of the tailored cell cultured meat. These characteristics indicate great application prospects of the proposed programmable scaffolds in cell cultured meat.

An Overview of Recent Progress in Engineering Three-Dimensional Scaffolds for Cultured Meat Production

Cultured meat is a new type of green, safe, healthy, and sustainable alternative to traditional meat that will potentially alleviate the environmental impact of animal farming and reduce the requirement for animal slaughter. However, the cultured meat structures that have been prepared lack sufficient tissue alignment. To create a product that is similar in texture and taste to traditional animal meat, muscle stem cells must be organized in a way that imitates the natural structure of animal tissue. Recently, various scaffold technologies and biomaterials have been developed to support the three-dimensional (3D) cultivation and organization of muscle stem cells. Hence, we propose an overview of the latest advancements and challenges in creating three-dimensional scaffolds for the biomanufacturing of cultured meat.

A review on directional muscle cell growth in scaffolding biomaterials with aligned porous structures for cultivated meat production

Scaffolds suitable for use in food products are essential in cultured meat production. Simultaneously, efforts are being undertaken to strengthen the scaffolding to improve cell proliferation, differentiation, and tissue formation. Muscle cells proliferate and differentiate according to the directional patterns of the scaffold, similar to natural tissue and native muscle tissue. Therefore, establishing an aligned pattern in the scaffolding architecture is vital for cultured meat applications. Recent studies on the fabrication of scaffolds with aligned porosity structures and their utility in manufacturing cultured meat are highlighted in this review. In addition, the directional growth of muscle cells in terms of proliferation and differentiation has also been explored, along with the aligned scaffolding architectures. The aligned porosity architecture of the scaffolds supports the texture and quality of meat-like structures. Although it is difficult to build adequate scaffolds for culturing meat manufactured from diverse biopolymers, it is necessary to develop novel methods to create aligned scaffolding structures. Furthermore, to avoid animal slaughter in the future, it will be imperative to adopt non-animal-based biomaterials, growth factors, and serum-free media conditions for quality meat production.

3D culture of fibroblasts and neuronal cells on microfabricated free-floating carriers

3D cell culture is a relatively recent trend in biomedical research for artificially mimicking in vivo environment and providing three dimensions for the cells to grow in vitro, particularly with regard to surface-adherent mammalian cells. Different cells and research objectives require different culture conditions which has led to an increase in the diversity of 3D cell culture models. In this study, we show two independent on-carrier 3D cell culture models aimed at two different potential applications. Firstly, micron-scale porous spherical structures fabricated from poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) or PLGA are used as 3D cell carriers so that the cells do not lose their physiologically relevant spherical shape. Secondly, millimetre-scale silk fibroin structures fabricated by 3D inkjet bioprinting are used as 3D cell carriers to demonstrate cell growth patterning in 3D for use in applications which require directed cell growth. The L929 fibroblasts demonstrated excellent adherence, cell-division and proliferation on the PLGA carriers, while the PC12 neuronal cells showed excellent adherence, proliferation and spread on the fibroin carriers without any evidence of cytotoxicity from the carriers. The present study thus proposes two models for 3D cell culture and demonstrates, firstly, that easily fabricable porous PLGA structures can act as excellent cell carriers for aiding cells easily retain their physiologically relevant 3D spherical shape in vitro, and secondly, that 3D inkjet printed silk fibroin structures can act as geometrically-shaped carriers for 3D cell patterning or directed cell growth in vitro. While the 'fibroblasts on PLGA carriers' model will help achieve more accurate results than the conventional 2D culture in cell research, such as drug discovery, and cell proliferation for adoptive cell transfer, such as stem cell therapy, the 'neuronal cells on silk fibroin carriers' model will help in research requiring patterned cell growth, such as treatment of neuropathies.

Three-dimensional (3D) cell culture studies: a review of the field of toxicology

Traditional two-dimensional (2D) cell culture employed for centuries is extensively used in toxicological studies. There is no doubt that 2D cell culture has made significant contributions to toxicology. However, in today's world, it is necessary to develop more physiologically relevant models. Three-dimensional (3D) cell culture, which can recapitulate the cell's microenvironment, is, therefore, a more realistic model compared to traditional cell culture. In toxicology, 3D cell culture models are a powerful tool for studying different tissues and organs in similar environments and behave as if they are in in vivo conditions. In this review, we aimed to present 3D cell culture models that have been used in different organ toxicity studies. We reported the results and interpretations obtained from these studies. We aimed to highlight 3D models as the future of cell culture by reviewing 3D models used in different organ toxicity studies.

Decellularization: Leveraging a Tissue Engineering Technique for Food Production

The edible nature of many plants makes leaves particularly useful as scaffolds for the development of cultured meat, where animal tissue is grown in the laboratory setting. Recently, we demonstrated that decellularized spinach leaves can serve as scaffolds to grow and differentiate cells for cultured meat products. However, conventional decellularization methods use solutions that are not considered safe for use in food, such as organic solvents (hexanes) and detergents (triton X-100 (TX100)). This study modified decellularization protocols to incorporate detergents that are regulated (REG) by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in food, such as Polysorbate 20 (PS20), and eliminates the use of hexanes for cuticle removal. Spinach leaves were decellularized with sodium dodecyl sulfate and then with either TX100 (control) or PS20. The average DNA content for TX100 samples and PS20 samples was similar (1.3 ± 0.07 vs 1.3 ± 0.05 ng/mg; TX100 vs PS20, p = ns). The importance of cuticle removal was tested by removing hexanes from the protocol. Groups that included the cuticle removal step exhibited an average reduction in DNA content of approximately 91.7%, and groups that omitted the cuticle removal step exhibited an average reduction of approximately 90.3% (p = ns), suggesting that the omission of the cuticle removal step did not impede decellularization. Lastly, primary bovine satellite cells (PBSCs) were cultured for 7 days (d) on the surface of spinach leaves decellularized using the REG protocol. After the 7 d incubation period, PBSCs grown on the surface of REG scaffolds had an average viability of approximately 97.4%. These observations suggest that the REG protocol described in this study is an effective decellularization method, more closely adhering to food safety guidelines, that could be implemented in lab grown meat and alternative protein products.

Physical and biological advances in endothelial cell-based engineered co-culture model systems

Scientific knowledge in the field of cell biology and mechanobiology heavily leans on cell-based in vitro experiments and models that favor the examination and comprehension of certain biological processes and occurrences across a variety of environments. Cell culture assays are an invaluable instrument for a vast spectrum of biomedical and biophysical investigations. The quality of experimental models in terms of simplicity, reproducibility, and combinability with other methods, and in particular the scale at which they depict cell fate in native tissues, is critical to advancing the knowledge of the comprehension of cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions in tissues and organs. Typically, in vitro models are centered on the experimental tinkering of mammalian cells, most often cultured as monolayers on planar, two-dimensional (2D) materials. Notwithstanding the significant advances and numerous findings that have been accomplished with flat biology models, their usefulness for generating further new biological understanding is constrained because the simple 2D setting does not reproduce the physiological response of cells in natural living tissues. In addition, the co-culture systems in a 2D stetting weakly mirror their natural environment of tissues and organs. Significant advances in 3D cell biology and matrix engineering have resulted in the creation and establishment of a new type of cell culture shapes that more accurately represents the in vivo microenvironment and allows cells and their interactions to be analyzed in a biomimetic approach. Contemporary biomedical and biophysical science has novel advances in technology that permit the design of more challenging and resilient in vitro models for tissue engineering, with a particular focus on scaffold- or hydrogel-based formats, organotypic cultures, and organs-on-chips, which cover the purposes of co-cultures. Even these complex systems must be kept as simplified as possible in order to grasp a particular section of physiology too very precisely. In particular, it is highly appreciated that they bridge the space between conventional animal research and human (patho)physiology. In this review, the recent progress in 3D biomimetic culturation is presented with a special focus on co-cultures, with an emphasis on the technological building blocks and endothelium-based co-culture models in cancer research that are available for the development of more physiologically relevant in vitro models of human tissues under normal and diseased conditions. Through applications and samples of various physiological and disease models, it is possible to identify the frontiers and future engagement issues that will have to be tackled to integrate synthetic biomimetic culture systems far more successfully into biomedical and biophysical investigations.

Recent advances in bioengineered scaffold for in vitro meat production

In vitro meat production via stem cell technology and tissue engineering provides hypothetically elevated resource efficiency which involves the differentiation of muscle cells from pluripotent stem cells. By applying the tissue engineering technique, muscle cells are cultivated and grown onto a scaffold, resulting in the development of muscle tissue. The studies related to in vitro meat production are advancing with a seamless pace, and scientists are trying to develop various approaches to mimic the natural meat. The formulation and fabrication of biodegradable and cost-effective edible scaffold is the key to the successful development of downstream culture and meat production. Non-mammalian biopolymers such as gelatin and alginate or plant-derived proteins namely soy protein and decellularized leaves have been suggested as potential scaffold materials for in vitro meat production. Thus, this article is aimed to furnish recent updates on bioengineered scaffolds, covering their formulation, fabrication, features, and the mode of utilization.

Key aspects for conception and construction of co-culture models of tumor-stroma interactions

The tumor microenvironment is crucial in the initiation and progression of cancers. The interplay between cancer cells and the surrounding stroma shapes the tumor biology and dictates the response to cancer therapies. Consequently, a better understanding of the interactions between cancer cells and different components of the tumor microenvironment will drive progress in developing novel, effective, treatment strategies. Co-cultures can be used to study various aspects of these interactions in detail. This includes studies of paracrine relationships between cancer cells and stromal cells such as fibroblasts, endothelial cells, and immune cells, as well as the influence of physical and mechanical interactions with the extracellular matrix of the tumor microenvironment. The development of novel co-culture models to study the tumor microenvironment has progressed rapidly over recent years. Many of these models have already been shown to be powerful tools for further understanding of the pathophysiological role of the stroma and provide mechanistic insights into tumor-stromal interactions. Here we give a structured overview of different co-culture models that have been established to study tumor-stromal interactions and what we have learnt from these models. We also introduce a set of guidelines for generating and reporting co-culture experiments to facilitate experimental robustness and reproducibility.

Bioprocessing by Decellularized Scaffold Biomaterials in Cultured Meat: A Review

As novel carrier biomaterials, decellularized scaffolds have promising potential in the development of cellular agriculture and edible cell-cultured meat applications. Decellularized scaffold biomaterials have characteristics of high biocompatibility, bio-degradation, biological safety and various bioactivities, which could potentially compensate for the shortcomings of synthetic bio-scaffold materials. They can provide suitable microstructure and mechanical support for cell adhesion, differentiation and proliferation. To our best knowledge, the preparation and application of plant and animal decellularized scaffolds have not been summarized. Herein, a comprehensive presentation of the principles, preparation methods and application progress of animal-derived and plant-derived decellularized scaffolds has been reported in detail. Additionally, their application in the culture of skeletal muscle, fat and connective tissue, which constitute the main components of edible cultured meat, have also been generally discussed. We also illustrate the potential applications and prospects of decellularized scaffold materials in future foods. This review of cultured meat and decellularized scaffold biomaterials provides new insight and great potential research prospects in food application and cellular agriculture.

Recent trends in bioartificial muscle engineering and their applications in cultured meat, biorobotic systems and biohybrid implants

Recent advances in tissue engineering and biofabrication technology have yielded a plethora of biological tissues. Among these, engineering of bioartificial muscle stands out for its exceptional versatility and its wide range of applications. From the food industry to the technology sector and medicine, the development of this tissue has the potential to affect many different industries at once. However, to date, the biofabrication of cultured meat, biorobotic systems, and bioartificial muscle implants are still considered in isolation by individual peer groups. To establish common ground and share advances, this review outlines application-specific requirements for muscle tissue generation and provides a comprehensive overview of commonly used biofabrication strategies and current application trends. By solving the individual challenges and merging various expertise, synergetic leaps of innovation that inspire each other can be expected in all three industries in the future.

A database of crop pest cell lines

We have developed an online database describing the known cell lines from Coleoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, and Lepidoptera that were developed from agricultural pests. Cell line information has been primarily obtained from previous compilations of insect cell lines. We conducted in-depth Internet literature searches and drew on Internet sources such as the Cellosaurus database (https://web.expasy.org/cellosaurus/), and inventories from cell line depositories. Here, we report on a new database of insect cell lines, which covers 719 cell lines from 86 species. We have not included cell lines developed from Drosophila because they are already known from published databases, such as https://dgrc.bio.indiana.edu/cells/Catalog. We provide the designation, tissue and species of origin, cell line developer, unique characteristics, its use in various applications, publications, and patents, and, when known, insect virus susceptibility. This information has been assembled and organized into a searchable database available at the link https://entomology.ca.uky.edu/aginsectcellsdatabase which will be updated on an ongoing basis.

In vitro Insect Fat Cultivation for Cellular Agriculture Applications

Cell-cultured fat could provide important elements of flavor, nutrition, and texture to enhance the quality and therefore expand consumer adoption of alternative meat products. In contrast to cells from livestock animals, insect cells have been proposed as a relatively low-cost and scalable platform for tissue engineering and muscle cell-derived cultured meat production. Furthermore, insect fat cells have long been cultured and characterized for basic biology and recombinant protein production but not for food production. To develop a food-relevant approach to insect fat cell cultivation and tissue engineering, Manduca sexta cells were cultured and induced to accumulate lipids in 2D and 3D formats within decellularized mycelium scaffolding. The resultant in vitro fat tissues were characterized and compared to in vivo fat tissue data by imaging, lipidomics, and texture analyses. The cells exhibited robust lipid accumulation when treated with a 0.1 mM soybean oil emulsion and had "healthier" fat profiles, as measured by the ratio of unsaturated to saturated fatty acids. Mycelium scaffolding provided a simple, food-grade approach to support the 3D cell cultures and lipid accumulation. This approach provides a low-cost, scalable, and nutritious method for cultured fat production.

Emulsion-templated microparticles with tunable stiffness and topology: Applications as edible microcarriers for cultured meat

Cultured meat has potential to diversify methods for protein production, but innovations in production efficiency will be required to make cultured meat a feasible protein alternative. Microcarriers provide a strategy to culture sufficient volumes of adherent cells in a bioreactor that are required for meat products. However, cell culture on inedible microcarriers involves extra downstream processing to dissociate cells prior to consumption. Here, we present edible microcarriers that can support the expansion and differentiation of myogenic cells in a single bioreactor system. To fabricate edible microcarriers with a scalable process, we used water-in-oil emulsions as templates for gelatin microparticles. We also developed a novel embossing technique to imprint edible microcarriers with grooved topology in order to test if microcarriers with striated surface texture can promote myoblast proliferation and differentiation in suspension culture. In this proof-of-concept demonstration, we showed that edible microcarriers with both smooth and grooved surface topologies supported the proliferation and differentiation of mouse myogenic C2C12 cells in a suspension culture. The grooved edible microcarriers showed a modest increase in the proliferation and alignment of myogenic cells compared to cells cultured on smooth, spherical microcarriers. During the expansion phase, we also observed the formation of cell-microcarrier aggregates or 'microtissues' for cells cultured on both smooth and grooved microcarriers. Myogenic microtissues cultured with smooth and grooved microcarriers showed similar characteristics in terms of myotube length, myotube volume fraction, and expression of myogenic markers. To establish feasibility of edible microcarriers for cultured meat, we showed that edible microcarriers supported the production of myogenic microtissue from C2C12 or bovine satellite muscle cells, which we harvested by centrifugation into a cookable meat patty that maintained its shape and exhibited browning during cooking. These findings demonstrate the potential of edible microcarriers for the scalable production of cultured meat in a single bioreactor.

3D Spheroid Human Dermal Papilla Cell as an Effective Model for the Screening of Hair Growth Promoting Compounds: Examples of Minoxidil and 3,4,5-Tri-O-caffeoylquinic acid (TCQA)

Dermal papilla cells (DPCs) are an important element of the hair follicle (HF) niche, widely used as an in vitro model to study hair growth-related research. These cells are usually grown in 2D culture, but this system did not show efficient therapeutic effects on HF regeneration and growth, and key differences were observed between cell activity in vitro and in vivo. Recent studies have showed that DPCs grown in 3D hanging spheroids are more morphologically akin to an intact DP microenvironment. In this current study, global gene molecular analysis showed that the 3D model highly affected cell adhesion molecules and hair growth-related pathways. Furthermore, we compared the expression of signalling molecules and metabolism-associated proteins of DPCs treated with minoxidil (an FDA-approved drug for hair loss treatment) and 3,4,5-tri-O-caffeoylquinic acid (TCQA) (recently found to induce hair growth in vitro and in vivo) in 3D spheroid hanging drops and a 2D monolayer using DNA microarray analysis. Further validations by determining the gene and protein expressions of key signature molecules showed the suitability of this 3D system for enhancing the DPC activity of the hair growth-promoting agents minoxidil and TCQA.

Recent advances of natural biopolymeric culture scaffold: synthesis and modification

Traditionally existing 2D culture scaffold has been inappropriately validated due to the failure in generating the precise therapeutic response. Therefore, this leads to the fabrication of 3D culture scaffold resolving the limitations in the in vivo environment. In recent years, tissue engineering played an important role in the field of bio-medical engineering. Biopolymer material, a novel natural material with excellent properties of nontoxic and biodegradable merits can be served as culture scaffold. This review summarizes the modifications of natural biopolymeric culture scaffold with different crosslinkers and their application. In addition, this review provides the recent progress of natural biopolymeric culture scaffold mainly focusing on their properties, synthesizing and modification and application.

Three-dimensional cell culture (3DCC) improves secretion of signaling molecules of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs)

OBJECTIVES

The secretome of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), also called MSC-conditioned media (MSC-CM), represents one of the promising strategies for cellular therapy and tissue repair and regeneration. MSC-CM contains growth factors and cytokines that control many cellular responses during development and regeneration. Traditional 2D cell culture (2DCC) has previously been used to generate MSC-CM while evidence has proved that the physiological and biological behaviors of cells in 2DCC are significantly different from those in 3D cell culture (3DCC). Therefore, the objective is to compare the content of MSC-CM generated from traditional 2DCC and 3DCC using a 3D scaffold.

METHODS

Adipose tissue-derived MSCs (AT-MSCs) were isolated from four donors (N = 4) and characterized according to the criteria stipulated by the International Society for Cell Therapy (ISCT). MSCs at passage 3 were grown in traditional 2DCC until 70% confluence and MSC-CM were collected at 24, 48, and 94 h. On the other hand, MSCs at passage 3 were grown on a polystyrene scaffold for 10 days to generate a 3D model of MSCs, and then MSC-CM was collected at 24, 48, and 94 h. MSC-CM from both 2DCC and 3DCC were analyzed for protein content using ELISA. Haematoxylin eosin (HE) staining and immunofluorescence (IF) were used to characterize the 3DCC of MSCs.

RESULTS

MSCs from 2DCC were fibroblast like cells, and flow cytometry showed they were positive for CD73 and CD105 while being negative for CD14, CD19, and HLA-DR. They were also able to differentiate into adipocytes, osteoblasts, and chondrocytes. HE and IF showed that MSCs formed 3D model structures on the polystyrene scaffold. MSC-CM collected from both 2DCC and 3DCC contained growth factors, e.g., platelet derived growth factor (PDGF-AB), transforming growth factor-1 (TGF-1), hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), stromal derived factor-1 (SDF-1), interleukin 1 (IL-1), and interleukin 6 (IL-6). Concentrations of biomolecules secreted by MSCs in 3DCC were significantly higher than in 2DCC.

CONCLUSION

It could be concluded that 3DCC of MSCs using a polystyrene scaffold is a novel approach to generate MSC secretome for therapeutic applications.

Engineering Stress in Thin Films: An Innovative Pathway Toward 3D Micro and Nanosystems

Transformation of conventional 2D platforms into unusual 3D configurations provides exciting opportunities for sensors, electronics, optical devices, and biological systems. Engineering material properties or controlling and modulating stresses in thin films to pop-up 3D structures out of standard planar surfaces has been a highly active research topic over the last decade. Implementation of 3D micro and nanoarchitectures enables unprecedented functionalities including multiplexed, monolithic mechanical sensors, vertical integration of electronics components, and recording of neuron activities in 3D organoids. This paper provides an overview on stress engineering approaches to developing 3D functional microsystems. The paper systematically presents the origin of stresses generated in thin films and methods to transform a 2D design into an out-of-plane configuration. Different types of 3D micro and nanostructures, along with their applications in several areas are discussed. The paper concludes with current technical challenges and potential approaches and applications of this fast-growing research direction.

Scaffolding Biomaterials for 3D Cultivated Meat: Prospects and Challenges

Cultivating meat from stem cells rather than by raising animals is a promising solution to concerns about the negative externalities of meat production. For cultivated meat to fully mimic conventional meat's organoleptic and nutritional properties, innovations in scaffolding technology are required. Many scaffolding technologies are already developed for use in biomedical tissue engineering. However, cultivated meat production comes with a unique set of constraints related to the scale and cost of production as well as the necessary attributes of the final product, such as texture and food safety. This review discusses the properties of vertebrate skeletal muscle that will need to be replicated in a successful product and the current state of scaffolding innovation within the cultivated meat industry, highlighting promising scaffold materials and techniques that can be applied to cultivated meat development. Recommendations are provided for future research into scaffolds capable of supporting the growth of high-quality meat while minimizing production costs. Although the development of appropriate scaffolds for cultivated meat is challenging, it is also tractable and provides novel opportunities to customize meat properties.

Extracellular Matrix and the Production of Cultured Meat

Cultured meat production is an evolving method of producing animal meat using tissue engineering techniques. Cells, chemical factors, and suitable biomaterials that serve as scaffolds are all essential for the cultivation of muscle tissue. Scaffolding is essential for the development of organized meat products resembling steaks because it provides the mechanical stability needed by cells to attach, differentiate, and mature. In in vivo settings, extracellular matrix (ECM) ensures substrates and scaffolds are provided for cells. The ECM of skeletal muscle (SM) maintains tissue elasticity, creates adhesion points for cells, provides a three-dimensional (3D) environment, and regulates biological processes. Consequently, creating mimics of native ECM is a difficult task. Animal-derived polymers like collagen are often regarded as the gold standard for producing scaffolds with ECM-like properties. Animal-free scaffolds are being investigated as a potential source of stable, chemically defined, low-cost materials for cultured meat production. In this review, we explore the influence of ECM on myogenesis and its role as a scaffold and vital component to improve the efficacy of the culture media used to produce cultured meat.

Nanocellulose from Nata de Coco as a Bioscaffold for Cell-Based Meat

The three-dimensional formation of bio-engineered tissue for applications such as cell-based meat requires critical interaction between the bioscaffold and cellular biomass. To explore the features underlying this interaction, we have assessed the commercially available bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) product from Cass Materials for its suitability to serve as a bioscaffold for murine myoblast attachment, proliferation, and differentiation. Rigorous application of both scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy reveals cellular details of this interaction. While the retention rate of myoblast cells appears low, BNC is able to provide effective surface parameters for the formation of anchor points to form mature myotubes. Understanding the principles that govern this interaction is important for the successful scaling of these materials into edible, commercially viable, and nutritious biomass.

Large-scale cultured meat production: Trends, challenges and promising biomanufacturing technologies

Food systems of the future will need to face an increasingly clear reality - that a protein-rich diet is essential for good health, but traditional meat products will not suffice to ensure safety, sustainability, and equity of food supply chains at a global scale. This paper provides an in-depth analysis of bioprocess technologies needed for cell-based meat production and challenges in reaching commercial scale. Specifically, it reviews state-of-the-art bioprocess technologies, current limitations, and opportunities for research across four domains: cell line development, cell culture media, scaffolding, and bioreactors. This also includes exploring innovations to make cultured meat a viable protein alternative across numerous key performance indicators and for specific applications where traditional livestock is not an option (e.g., local production, space exploration). The paper explores tradeoffs between production scale, product quality, production cost, and footprint over different time horizons. Finally, a discussion explores various factors that may impact the ability to successfully scale and market cultured meat products: social acceptance, environmental tradeoffs, regulatory guidance, and public health benefits. While the exact nature of the transition from traditional livestock to alternative protein products is uncertain, it has already started and will likely continue to build momentum in the next decade.

Homemade bread: Repurposing an ancient technology for in vitro tissue engineering

Numerous biomaterial scaffolds have been developed which provide architectures to support the proliferation of mammalian cells. Scaffolds derived from plant components have been utilized in several tissue engineering applications, including the production of cultured meats. Bread crumb is a common ingredient employed as a texturizer and filler in existing manufacturing processes for the production of animal meat products. Though an unconventional choice as a scaffolding material, we developed a yeast-free "soda bread" with controllable porosity and mechanical properties which is stable over several weeks in culture with fibroblasts, myoblasts and pre-osteoblasts. All cells were able to proliferate throughout the three-dimensional scaffolds, depositing extra-cellular matrix while exhibiting low stress and high viability. Importantly, myoblasts were also able to differentiate into myotubes, a key step required for the culture of skeletal muscle tissue. The results suggest opportunities for the dual-use possibility of utilizing existing texturizer and filler components in future lab grown meat products, however this will of course require further validation. Regardless, the bread-derived scaffolds presented here are simply produced, inherently edible and support muscle tissue engineering, qualities which highlight their utility in the production of future meat products.

Cellulose Acetate Nanofibers: Incorporating Hydroxyapatite (HA), HA/Berberine or HA/Moghat Composites, as Scaffolds to Enhance In Vitro Osteoporotic Bone Regeneration

The specific objective of this study was to stabilize a simple valid method to prepare pure nanorod hydroxyapatite (HA) mixed with berberine chloride (BER) and Moghat water extract (ME) as composites for incorporation into cellulose acetate (CA) nanofibers to be used as novel bone scaffolds and to determine their efficacy in bone regeneration process In Vitro. Preparation of HA/BER and HA/ME composites were performed by mixing powders using the ball-milling machine. The HA, HA/BER, and HA/ME composites at a concentration of 6.25, 12.5, 25, 50, 100, and 200 mg were mixed with CA solution (13%), then the fiber was formed using electrospinning technique. The properties of the obtained CA fibers were investigated (SEM, TEM, EDX, FTIR, TGA, water uptake, porosity, and mechanical tests). The efficacy of HA and HA composites loaded into CA nanofiber on osteoblast and osteoclast differentiation were measured by tacking ALP, osteocalcin, TRAcP, calcium, and total protein concentration. Moreover, their effects on cell differentiation (CD90 and PARP- ɣ) and death markers (GSK3b, MAPK, Wnt-5 and β-catenin) were evaluated by using ELISA and qPCR. The obtained TEM results indicated that the continuous CA and CA/HA composites electrospun fibers have ultrafine fiber diameters of about 200 nm and uniform distribution of discrete n-HA clusters throughout. In addition, hydrocortisone (HCT) was found to increase the formation of adipocytes and osteoclastic markers CD90 and p38-MAPK which indicated the bone lose process take placed. Treatment with CA loaded with HA, HA/BER or HA/ME decreased CD90, Wnt-5, PARP- ɣ, GSK3b and p38-MAPK associated elevation of osteogenic markers: ALP and osteocalcin. Moreover, HCT overexpressed RANKL and down expressed Osterix gene. Treatment with CA/HA/BER or CA/HA/ME downregulated RANKL and upregulated Osterix associated with a reduction in RANKL/OPG ratio, at p < 0.05. In conclusion, novel CA composite nanofibers (CA/HA/BER and CA/HA/ME) reversed the HCT adverse effect on osteoblast cell death through canonical and non-canonical pathways regulated by Wnt/β-catenin and Wnt/Ca(²⁺) pathways. Furthermore, our data confirmed that the novel scaffolds create a crosstalk between RUNX-2, RANKL, p38-MAPK, and Wnt signals which positively impact bone regeneration process. Treatment with CA/HA/BER is better compared to the treatment with CA/HA/ME. Nevertheless, both are considered as alternative biomaterial scaffolds with a potential for biomedical applications in the field of bone tissue engineering.

The Emerging Role of Decellularized Plant-Based Scaffolds as a New Biomaterial

The decellularization of plant-based biomaterials to generate tissue-engineered substitutes or in vitro cellular models has significantly increased in recent years. These vegetal tissues can be sourced from plant leaves and stems or fruits and vegetables, making them a low-cost, accessible, and sustainable resource from which to generate three-dimensional scaffolds. Each construct is distinct, representing a wide range of architectural and mechanical properties as well as innate vasculature networks. Based on the rapid rise in interest, this review aims to detail the current state of the art and presents the future challenges and perspectives of these unique biomaterials. First, we consider the different existing decellularization techniques, including chemical, detergent-free, enzymatic, and supercritical fluid approaches that are used to generate such scaffolds and examine how these protocols can be selected based on plant cellularity. We next examine strategies for cell seeding onto the plant-derived constructs and the importance of the different functionalization methods used to assist in cell adhesion and promote cell viability. Finally, we discuss how their structural features, such as inherent vasculature, porosity, morphology, and mechanical properties (i.e., stiffness, elasticity, etc.) position plant-based scaffolds as a unique biomaterial and drive their use for specific downstream applications. The main challenges in the field are presented throughout the discussion, and future directions are proposed to help improve the development and use of vegetal constructs in biomedical research.

Evaluation of the Potential Effects of Retinol and Alginate/Gelatin-Based Scaffolds on Differentiation Capacity of Mouse Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs) into Retinal Cells

Background and Objectives

Retinal stem cells (RSCs) resided in ciliary epithelium have shown to possess a high capacity to self-renew and differentiate into retinal cells. RSCs could be induced to differentiate when they are exposed to stimuli like natural compounds and suitable contexts such as biomaterials. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of Retinol and alginate/gelatin-based scaffolds on differentiation potential of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) originated from mouse ciliary epithelium.

Methods and Results

MSCs were extracted from mouse ciliary epithelium, and their identity was verified by detecting specific surface antigens. To provide a three-dimensional in vitro culture system, 2% alginate, 0.5% gelatin and the mixed alginate-gelatin hydrogels were fabricated and checked by SEM. Retinol treatment was performed on MSCs expanded on alginate/gelatin hydrogels and the survival rate and the ability of MSCs to differentiate were examined through measuring expression alterations of retina-specific genes by ICC and qPCR. The cell population isolated from ciliary epithelium contained more than 93.4% cells positive for MSC-specific marker CD105. Alginate/gelatin scaffolds showed to provide an acceptable viability (over 70%) for MSC cultures. Retinol treatment could induce a high expression of rhodopsin protein in MSCs expanded in alginate and alginate-gelatin mixtures. An elevated presentation of Nestin, RPE65 and Rhodopsin genes was detected in retinol-treated cultures expanded on alginate and alginate-gelatin scaffolds.

Conclusions

The results presented here elucidate that retinol treatment of MSCs grown on alginate scaffolds would promote the mouse ciliary epithelium-derived MSCs to differentiate towards retinal neurons.

Food safety considerations and research priorities for the cultured meat and seafood industry

Cell-cultured meat and seafood offer a sustainable opportunity to meet the world's increasing demand for protein in a climate-changed world. A responsible, data-driven approach to assess and demonstrate safety of cell-cultured meat and seafood can support consumer acceptance and help fully realize the potential of these products. As an initial step toward a thorough demonstration of safety, this review identifies hazards that could be introduced during manufacturing, evaluates applicability of existing safety assessment approaches, and highlights research priorities that could support safe commercialization. Input was gathered from members of the cultured meat and seafood industry, researchers, regulators, and food safety experts. A series of workshops were held with 87 industry representatives and researchers to create a modular manufacturing process diagram, which served as a framework to identify potential chemical and biological hazards along the steps of the manufacturing process that could affect the safety of a final food product. Interviews and feedback on draft documents validated the process diagram and supported hazard identification and evaluation of applicable safety methods. Most hazards are not expected to be novel; therefore, safety assessment methods from a range of fields, such as conventional and novel foods, foods produced from biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, and so forth, are likely to be applicable. However, additional assessment of novel inputs or products with significant differences from existing foods may be necessary. Further research on the safety of the inputs and associated residues, potential for contamination, and development of standardized safety assessment approaches (particularly animal-free methods) is recommended.

Analysis of Actin and Focal Adhesion Organisation in U2OS Cells on Polymer Nanostructures

BACKGROUND

In this work, we explore how U2OS cells are affected by arrays of polymer nanopillars fabricated on flat glass surfaces. We focus on describing changes to the organisation of the actin cytoskeleton and in the location, number and shape of focal adhesions. From our findings we identify that the cells can be categorised into different regimes based on their spreading and adhesion behaviour on nanopillars. A quantitative analysis suggests that cells seeded on dense nanopillar arrays are suspended on top of the pillars with focal adhesions forming closer to the cell periphery compared to flat surfaces or sparse pillar arrays. This change is analogous to similar responses for cells seeded on soft substrates.

RESULTS

In this work, we explore how U2OS cells are affected by arrays of polymer nanopillars fabricated on flat glass surfaces. We focus on describing changes to the organisation of the actin cytoskeleton and in the location, number and shape of focal adhesions. From our findings we identify that the cells can be categorised into different regimes based on their spreading and adhesion behaviour on nanopillars. A quantitative analysis suggests that cells seeded on dense nanopillar arrays are suspended on top of the pillars with focal adhesions forming closer to the cell periphery compared to flat surfaces or sparse pillar arrays. This change is analogous to similar responses for cells seeded on soft substrates.

CONCLUSION

Overall, we show that the combination of high throughput nanofabrication, advanced optical microscopy, molecular biology tools to visualise cellular processes and data analysis can be used to investigate how cells interact with nanostructured surfaces and will in the future help to create culture substrates that induce particular cell function.

Decompartmentalisation as a simple color manipulation of plant-based marbling meat alternatives

Recent efforts for cell-based meat cuts focus on engineering edible scaffolds, with visual cues which are key to enhancing consumer acceptance, receiving less attention Here, we employed artificial intelligence (AI)-based screening of potential plant materials and discovered that jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) has the natural structures to recapitulate marbling visuals of meat cuts. Plant tissue compositions are exploited for its differential polyphenol adsorption to produce complex marbling patterns. A one-step colour control method by varying oxidation and incubation conditions of polyphenols was developed to produce permanent meat-like colours resembling chicken, pork, and beef. The scaffold exhibits a meat-like browning behaviour when cooked and is shown to support high-density porcine myoblasts culture without masking the marbled appearance. Surveys with 78 volunteers found that marbled jackfruit scaffolds improved consumer perception of cell-based meat by ∼8%. Our approach of combining AI, tissue engineering, and sensory science unlocks the possibility of creating a range of novel cell-based meat cuts with consumer focus.

The Business of Cultured Meat

Cultured meats (CMs) are produced by in vitro culture of animal cells. Since the first CM burger patty was created in 2013, many companies have been founded to commercialize CM products. We discuss the meat focus and geographical spread of CM companies, the funding landscape, and challenges for commercialization.

Scaffolds for the manufacture of cultured meat

The cultured meat market has been growing at an accelerated space since the first creation of cultured meat burger back in 2013. Substantial efforts have been made to reduce costs by eliminating serum in growth media and improving process efficiency by employing bioreactors. In parallel, efforts are also being made on scaffolding innovations to offer better cells proliferation, differentiation and tissue development. So far, scaffolds used in cultured meat research are predominantly collagen and gelatin, which are animal-derived. To align with cell-based meat vision i.e. environment conservation and animal welfare, plant-derived biomaterials for scaffolding are being intensively explored. This paper reviews and discusses the advantages and disadvantages of scaffold materials and potential scaffolding related to scale-up solution for the production of cultured meat.

Decellularized grass as a sustainable scaffold for skeletal muscle tissue engineering

Scaffold materials suitable for the scale-up and subsequent commercialization of tissue engineered products should ideally be cost effective and accessible. For the in vitro culture of certain adherent cells, synthetic fabrication techniques are often employed to produce micro- or nano-patterned substrates to influence cell attachment, morphology, and alignment via the mechanism of contact guidance. Here we present a natural scaffold, in the form of decellularized amenity grass, which retains its natural striated topography and supports the attachment, proliferation, alignment and differentiation of murine C2C12 myoblasts, without the need for additional functionalization. This presents an inexpensive, sustainable scaffold material and structure for tissue engineering applications capable of influencing cell alignment, a desired property for the culture of skeletal muscle and other anisotropic tissues.

Recent developments in sustainably sourced protein-based biomaterials

Research into the development of sustainable biomaterials is increasing in both interest and global importance due to the increasing demand for materials with decreased environmental impact. This research field utilises natural, renewable resources to develop innovative biomaterials. The development of sustainable biomaterials encompasses the entire material life cycle, from desirable traits, and environmental impact from production through to recycling or disposal. The main objective of this review is to provide a comprehensive definition of sustainable biomaterials and to give an overview of the use of natural proteins in biomaterial development. Proteins such as collagen, gelatin, keratin, and silk, are biocompatible, biodegradable, and may form materials with varying properties. Proteins, therefore, provide an intriguing source of biomaterials for numerous applications, including additive manufacturing, nanotechnology, and tissue engineering. We give an insight into current research and future directions in each of these areas, to expand knowledge on the capabilities of sustainably sourced proteins as advanced biomaterials.

A Comparative Review of Natural and Synthetic Biopolymer Composite Scaffolds

Tissue engineering (TE) and regenerative medicine integrate information and technology from various fields to restore/replace tissues and damaged organs for medical treatments. To achieve this, scaffolds act as delivery vectors or as cellular systems for drugs and cells; thereby, cellular material is able to colonize host cells sufficiently to meet up the requirements of regeneration and repair. This process is multi-stage and requires the development of various components to create the desired neo-tissue or organ. In several current TE strategies, biomaterials are essential components. While several polymers are established for their use as biomaterials, careful consideration of the cellular environment and interactions needed is required in selecting a polymer for a given application. Depending on this, scaffold materials can be of natural or synthetic origin, degradable or nondegradable. In this review, an overview of various natural and synthetic polymers and their possible composite scaffolds with their physicochemical properties including biocompatibility, biodegradability, morphology, mechanical strength, pore size, and porosity are discussed. The scaffolds fabrication techniques and a few commercially available biopolymers are also tabulated.

Oxygen Plasma Treated-Electrospun Polyhydroxyalkanoate Scaffolds for Hydrophilicity Improvement and Cell Adhesion

Poly(hydroxyalkanoates) (PHAs) with differing material properties, namely, the homopolymer poly(3-hydroxybutyrate), P(3HB), the copolymer poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate), P(3HB-co-3HV), with a 3HV content of 25 wt.% and a medium chain length PHA, and mcl-PHA, mainly composed of 3-hydroxydecanoate, were studied as scaffolding material for cell culture. P(3HB) and P(3HB-co-3HV) were individually spun into fibers, as well as blends of the mcl-PHA with each of the scl-PHAs. An overall biopolymer concentration of 4 wt.% was used to prepare the electrospinning solutions, using chloroform as the solvent. A stable electrospinning process and good quality fibers were obtained for a solution flow rate of 0.5 mL h⁻¹, a needle tip collector distance of 20 cm and a voltage of 12 kV for P(3HB) and P(3HB-co-3HV) solutions, while for the mcl-PHA the distance was increased to 25 cm and the voltage to 15 kV. The scaffolds’ hydrophilicity was significantly increased under exposure to oxygen plasma as a surface treatment. Complete wetting was obtained for the oxygen plasma treated scaffolds and the water uptake degree increased in all treated scaffolds. The biopolymers crystallinity was not affected by the electrospinning process, while their treatment with oxygen plasma decreased their crystalline fraction. Human dermal fibroblasts were able to adhere and proliferate within the electrospun PHA-based scaffolds. The P(3HB-co-3HV): mcl-PHA oxygen plasma treated scaffold highlighted the most promising results with a cell adhesion rate of 40 ± 8%, compared to 14 ± 4% for the commercial oxygen plasma treated polystyrene scaffold Alvetex^TM. Scaffolds based on P(3HB-co-3HV): mcl-PHA blends produced by electrospinning and submitted to oxygen plasma exposure are therefore promising biomaterials for the development of scaffolds for tissue engineering.

Cellular Agriculture: Opportunities and Challenges

Cellular agriculture is the controlled and sustainable manufacture of agricultural products with cells and tissues without plant or animal involvement. Today, microorganisms cultivated in bioreactors already produce egg and milk proteins, sweeteners, and flavors for human nutrition as well as leather and fibers for shoes, bags, and textiles. Furthermore, plant cell and tissue cultures provide ingredients that stimulate the immune system and improve skin texture, with another precommercial cellular agriculture product, in vitro meat, currently receiving a great deal of attention. All these approaches could assist traditional agriculture in continuing to provide for the dietary requirements of a growing world population while freeing up important resources such as arable land. Despite early successes, challenges remain and are discussed in this review, with a focus on production processes involving plant and animal cell and tissue cultures.

Muscle stem cell isolation and in vitro culture for meat production: A methodological review

Cultured muscle tissue-based protein products, also known as cultured meat, are produced through in vitro myogenesis involving muscle stem cell culture and differentiation, and mature muscle cell processing for flavor and texture. This review focuses on the in vitro myogenesis for cultured meat production. The muscle stem cell-based in vitro muscle tissue production consists of a sequential process: (1) muscle sampling for stem cell collection, (2) muscle tissue dissociation and muscle stem cell isolation, (3) primary cell culture, (4) upscaled cell culture, (5) muscle differentiation and maturation, and (6) muscle tissue harvest. Although muscle stem cell research is a well-established field, the majority of these steps remain to be underoptimized to enable the in vitro creation of edible muscle-derived meat products. The profound understanding of the process would help not only cultured meat production but also business sectors that have been seeking new biomaterials for the food industry. In this review, we discuss comprehensively and in detail each step of cutting-edge methods for cultured meat production. This would be meaningful for both academia and industry to prepare for the new era of cellular agriculture.

Plant Biosystems Design Research Roadmap 1.0

Human life intimately depends on plants for food, biomaterials, health, energy, and a sustainable environment. Various plants have been genetically improved mostly through breeding, along with limited modification via genetic engineering, yet they are still not able to meet the ever-increasing needs, in terms of both quantity and quality, resulting from the rapid increase in world population and expected standards of living. A step change that may address these challenges would be to expand the potential of plants using biosystems design approaches. This represents a shift in plant science research from relatively simple trial-and-error approaches to innovative strategies based on predictive models of biological systems. Plant biosystems design seeks to accelerate plant genetic improvement using genome editing and genetic circuit engineering or create novel plant systems through de novo synthesis of plant genomes. From this perspective, we present a comprehensive roadmap of plant biosystems design covering theories, principles, and technical methods, along with potential applications in basic and applied plant biology research. We highlight current challenges, future opportunities, and research priorities, along with a framework for international collaboration, towards rapid advancement of this emerging interdisciplinary area of research. Finally, we discuss the importance of social responsibility in utilizing plant biosystems design and suggest strategies for improving public perception, trust, and acceptance.

Bioreactivity of decellularized animal, plant, and fungal scaffolds: perspectives for medical applications

Numerous biomedical applications imply supportive materials to improve protective, antibacterial, and regenerative abilities upon surgical interventions, oncotherapy, regenerative medicine, and others. With the increasing variability of the possible sources, the materials of natural origin are among the safest and most accessible biomedical tools. Animal, plant, and fungal tissues can further undergo decellularization to improve their biocompatibility. Decellularized scaffolds lack the most reactive cellular material, nuclear and cytoplasmic components, that predominantly trigger immune responses. At the same time, the outstanding initial three-dimensional microarchitecture, biomechanical properties, and general composition of the scaffolds are preserved. These unique features make the scaffolds perfect ready-to-use platforms for various biomedical applications, implying cell growth and functionalization. Decellularized materials can be repopulated with various cells upon request, including epithelial, endothelial, muscle and neuronal cells, and applied for structural and functional biorepair within diverse biological sites, including the skin and musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, and central nervous systems. However, the molecular and cellular mechanisms behind scaffold and host tissue interactions remain not fully understood, which significantly restricts their integration into clinical practice. In this review, we address the essential aspects of decellularization, scaffold preparation techniques, and its biochemical composition and properties, which determine the biocompatibility and immunogenicity of the materials. With the integrated evaluation of the scaffold profile in living systems, decellularized animal, plant, and fungal scaffolds have the potential to become essential instruments for safe and controllable biomedical applications.