Assessing the Effects of Stocking Density on Turkey Tom Health and Welfare to 16 Weeks of Age

Are turkey hens affected by light flicker? Effects on performance and health

Light flicker is a commonly overlooked factor of artificial light sources. This study aimed to determine the impacts of light-flicker frequency on performance, general health, and mortality of 11-wk Nicholas Select turkey hens. The experiment consisted of 2 trials (block) in a randomized complete block design, with 3 light-flicker frequency treatments (30, 90, or 195 Hz). Turkeys (n = 364 per replicate) were randomly placed into environmentally controlled rooms (3 room replicates per treatment per trial). Group body weight (BW) and feed consumption were measured at 0, 4, 8, and 11 wk, and feed efficiency (mortality corrected feed-to-gain; F:Gm) was calculated for each period. Mortality and culls were collected twice daily. Flock uniformity, feather condition and cleanliness, footpad score, and mobility were evaluated at 10 wk (30 birds per room). Litter quality and ocular weight and dimensions were evaluated (11 wk; 4 birds per room). Data were analyzed using Proc Mixed (SAS 9.4) and significance was declared when P < 0.05. At 8 wk, BW was lower under 30 Hz compared to 195 Hz (P = 0.03). Feed consumption was lowest under 30 Hz (0-4 wk and 4-8 wk; P < 0.01). Mortality-corrected F:G was improved under 30 Hz for 8 to 11 wk and 0 to 11 wk (P = 0.05 and P = 0.04, respectively). Total mortality was lower under 195 Hz compared to 30 Hz (P = 0.02). Uniformity, gait score, feather condition, and litter quality were unaffected by flicker. Footpad scores were improved under 90 Hz (P = 0.01), leading to an improved average footpad score (P = 0.02). Feather cleanliness was improved under 90 Hz compared to both 30 Hz and 195 Hz (P<0.01). Right eyeball dimensions differed across lighting treatments, with the dorso-ventral diameter being larger in birds under 30 Hz compared to 195 Hz (P = 0.05). The anterior-posterior size also increased in birds under 30 Hz compared to 90 Hz (P = 0.03). Light flicker impacted turkey hens, with the results demonstrating negative impacts on early growth and changes to ocular characteristics.

Do flickering lights impact turkey hen behavior, stress, and fear?

Little is known about the effect of light-flicker frequency on poultry, particularly on turkeys. This experiment examined the impact of light-flicker frequency on the behavior, stress, and fear response of Nicholas Select turkey hens reared to 11 wk. The experiment was a randomized complete block design (2 trials), with a one-way factorial analysis evaluating 3 light-flicker frequencies (30, 90, or 195 Hertz; Hz). Birds (n = 3,276 per trial) were housed in 9 individual environmentally controlled rooms (3 replicates per treatment per trial). Data collected included: behavior (4, 8, and 10 wk), incidence of aggressive damage, heterophil-to-lymphocyte ratio, and novel object test (daily d 1-7 and at 4, 8, and 11 wk). Data were analyzed using Proc Mixed (SAS 9.4), with significance declared at P ≤ 0.05. Behavior data are presented as the percentage of time spent performing the behavior. At 4 wk, gentle feather pecking and exploratory behaviors were higher under 195 Hz compared to 30 Hz (P = 0.04 and P = 0.05, respectively). Preening was higher under 90 Hz compared to 30 Hz (P = 0.05). At 8 wk, wing flapping was lowest under 195 Hz (P < 0.01). Gentle feather pecking was higher under 90 and 195 Hz compared to 30 Hz (P = 0.02). Fighting (P = 0.05), aggressive pecking (P = 0.02), and aggressive behaviors (P = 0.01) were lower under 30 Hz compared to 90 Hz. At 10 wk, preening was decreased under 30 Hz (P = 0.03). Incidences of aggressive damage were reduced under 30 Hz compared to 90 Hz (0 d-4 wk; P = 0.01) and under 30 compared to both 90 and 195 Hz (4-8 wk; P = 0.01). At 11 wk, heterophil-to-lymphocyte ratios were lowest under 30 Hz (P = 0.04). The novel object test was unaffected by flicker treatment. In conclusion, many behaviors and the stress and fear responses were unaffected by either visible or non-visible flicker. However, visible flicker (30 Hz) reduced some comfort and exploratory behaviors early in life, and the impact on preening continued to older ages, suggesting minor negative impacts of flicker, particularly early in life.

Comparing different environmental enrichments for improving the welfare and walking ability of male turkeys

This study investigated age-related changes in turkey welfare measures (wounds, feather quality (FQ), feather cleanliness, and footpad condition (FCON)) and walking ability (gait) as influenced by different types of environmental enrichment (EE). Tom turkeys (n = 420) were randomly assigned to: straw bale (S), platform (P), platform + straw bale (PS), pecking block (B), tunnel (T) or control (C; no enrichment) group. Welfare measures and gait were assessed at 8, 12, 16 and 19 wk and analyzed using PROC LOGISTIC with Firth bias-correction. Better wing FQ with age was observed in turkeys in S and T groups. Turkeys in the S group had better wing FQ at 16 (P = 0.028) and 19 wk (P = 0.011) vs. 8 wk. Wing FQ (P = 0.008) was better at 19 vs. 8 wk for T turkeys. FCON worsened over time for turkeys in all treatment groups except for the S group. FCON was worse at 19 vs.8 wk for P (P = 0.024), PS (P = 0.039), B (P = 0.011), T (P = 0.004) and C (P = 0.014) turkeys and was worse at 19 vs. 12 wk for B (P = 0.038), T (P = 0.015) and C (P = 0.045) turkeys. FCON was worse at 19 vs. 16 wk for T (P = 0.007) and C (P = 0.048) turkeys. FCON was also worse at 16 vs. 8 wk for B (P = 0.046) turkeys. Gait worsened with increasing age in all treatment groups. Gait was worse at 19 wk for S (P < 0.001), P (P < 0.001), PS (P < 0.001) and B turkeys (P < 0.001) vs. earlier ages, while gait in T (P < 0.001) and C turkeys (P < 0.001) worsened starting at 16 wk.

Stocking density effects on turkey hen performance to 11 weeks of age

Stocking density (SD) affects economic return for turkey production and can impact performance parameters. In this study (2 experimental blocks), Nicholas Select hens (n = 3,550 poults/block) were randomly placed in 1 of 4 SD treatments of 30, 40, 50, or 60 kg/m2 in open rooms (67.5 m2) with 4 replications per treatment. Feeder and drinker space were equalized on a per bird basis. Air quality was measured, and ventilation was adjusted to equalize ammonia and carbon dioxide levels across all rooms. Group BW and feed consumption were measured on d 0 and wk 3, 5, 8, and 11. BW gain and mortality corrected feed-to-gain ratio were calculated. Mortality and culls were recorded daily and necropsied for cause of death. At wk 8 and 11, flock uniformity was evaluated (30 birds/replicate). Data were analyzed using regression analyses in SAS 9.4 (Proc Reg for linear regression and Proc RSReg for quadratic regression; SD as independent variable). An ANOVA was performed for air quality (Proc Mixed; SAS 9.4) and a Tukey's range test was used to separate means. Differences were considered significant when P ≤ 0.05. Carbon dioxide and ammonia were consistent across treatments for both blocks. At wk 11, BW decreased linearly as SD increased (P = 0.05). There was a tendency for overall BW gain to decrease linearly as SD increased (P = 0.06). Feed consumption decreased as SD increased during wk 8 to 11 (linear; P < 0.01) and from wk 0 to 11 (quadratic; P = 0.04). SD had no impact on feed efficiency, mortality, or uniformity. Total aggression related mortality and culls were highest in the 30 kg/m2 treatment (linear; P = 0.02). A brief economic analysis was performed utilizing commercial poult and feed costs and income at marketing. Net room income increased as SD increased (linear; P < 0.01). The results indicate that high SD negatively impacted turkey hen final BW and feed consumption, but no effect was observed on feed-to-gain ratio, percent mortality, or uniformity.

Evaluating the effects of stocking density on the behavior, health, and welfare of turkey hens to 11 weeks of age

Nicholas Select hens (n = 3,550 poults in each of 2 experimental trials) were randomly placed in 1 of 4 stocking density (SD) treatments of 30, 40, 50, or 60 kg/m² until 11 wk. Birds were housed in open rooms (67.5 m²) with 4 replications per treatment. Ventilation was adjusted in each room independently to ensure air quality measures did not differ across replicate rooms. At wk 8 and 11, footpad lesions, mobility, feather cover and cleanliness, behavior (recorded), and litter moisture were evaluated. Incidences of aggressive pecking were recorded daily. Heterophil/lymphocyte (H/L) ratios were evaluated at 3, 5, 8, and 11 wk. Data were analyzed using regression analyses in SAS 9.4 (Proc Reg and Proc RSReg; SD as independent variable). Differences were considered significant when P ≤ 0.05. Gait scores were not affected by SD. Average footpad scores worsened with increasing SD at wk 8 (linear) but were not affected at wk 11. Total feather cover scores and average feather cleanliness were poorer at high SD (linear) at wk 8 and 11. The incidence of aggressive pecking and culls for aggressive damage decreased linearly as SD increased. At 5 (linear) and 11 (quadratic) wk, H/L ratios increased as SD increased. At 8 wk, H/L ratios were highest in the 40 kg/m² treatment (quadratic). At 8 wk, the percentage of birds at the feeder, resting, and total disturbances linearly increased as SD increased. The percentage of birds standing, walking, and litter pecking decreased linearly with increasing SD, while total aggressive behaviors (sum of fighting and aggressive pecking) decreased (quadratic). At 11 wk, the percentage of birds at the drinker, and decreased with increasing SD while resting, feather pecking, and severe disturbances increased as SD increased. Litter moisture increased linearly with increasing SD (wk 11). Turkey hen health and welfare were negatively impacted by higher SD. At low SD, there was notably more aggression which may also impact welfare.

The influence of stocking density on behaviour, health, and production in commercial fattening turkeys - a review

Worldwide, there are various regulations and recommendations on the maximum stocking density. While stocking density can be determined based on the space covered by the body, a more appropriate method considers space requirements for natural behaviour.Turkeys are less likely disturbed at low stocking density as seen by increased sitting, lying, and preening behaviours, compared to animals housed at high stocking density. Furthermore, lower stocking density, together with smaller group size, species-appropriate light conditions and suitable structuring of barn housing, have been repeatedly mentioned as good strategies to prevent injurious pecking.Increased stocking density - in terms of weight and animal number per floor area - is related to increased litter moisture, which can have negative impact on animal welfare. High stocking density can lead to poor body mass gain and increased mortality, which are indicators of impaired welfare and economic losses.Based on the available scientific literature and economic aspects with regard to the above criteria, maximum stocking density for turkeys appears to be 40 kg live weight per m² of usable floor space. However, the number of animals per square space should be limited to avoid increased litter moisture and reduced health and welfare.

Evaluation of Welfare in Commercial Turkey Flocks of Both Sexes Using the Transect Walk Method

The study was conducted between March and September 2019 in six meat-type turkey flocks with similar management standard procedures using the transect walk method. The concept of the method is based on visual observation of the birds while slowly walking across the entire farm in predetermined transects. Each flock was evaluated at three different times during the fattening cycle: at 3 to 4, 12 to 13, and 19 to 20 weeks of age, and total number of males and females that were immobile or lame, had visible head, vent, or back wounds, were small, featherless, dirty, or sick, had pendulous crop, or showed aggression toward birds or humans were recorded. At each visit, NH₃ and CO₂ were measured within the facilities. In the first assessment, the most frequently observed welfare indicators were small size (0.87%) and immobility (0.08%). Males showed a significantly higher prevalence of small size (p < 0.01), sickness (p < 0.05), and dirtiness (p < 0.1) compared to females. In the second assessment, the most common findings in both sexes were dirtiness (1.65%) and poor feather condition (1.06%), followed by immobility (0.28%). Males were significantly dirtier (p < 0.001), had more immobile birds (p < 0.01) and birds with vent wounds (p < 0.1), but had fewer sick birds (p < 0.05). In the last assessment, an increase in immobile, lame, sick, and dead birds was recorded, indicating an increase in health problems. Higher CO₂ (3000 and 4433 ppm) and NH₃ (40 and 27.6 ppm) values were noted only at the first assessment in two facilities. Further analyses showed that slightly elevated NH₃ and CO₂ levels did not influence the occurrence of welfare indicators. This study is the first description of the welfare of commercial turkey flocks in Slovenia.

Effects of stocking density on large white, commercial tom turkeys reared to 20 weeks of age: 1. growth and performance

Industry standards for turkey stocking densities are variable and may not represent the more rapidly growing strains currently available. Therefore, a study was completed to evaluate 4 stocking densities: a nominal density (0.3525 m²/bird), 10% tighter density (0.3169 m²/bird), 10% looser density (0.3882 m²/bird), and 20% looser density (0.4238 m²/bird) on the effects on large white, commercial male turkeys with regard to performance from 5 to 20 wk of age. Brooding stocking density was fixed for all pens of birds with 60 birds per replicate pen at 0.46 m²/bird to 5 wk of age. Density treatments were applied from 5 to 20 wk by altering pen size with pen population held constant at 60 per pen. There were 4 pens of birds per density treatment. Birds were weighed individually at 0, 5, and 20 wk of age and performance parameters were calculated. There were no differences in bird performance at 5 wk, which was expected because stocking density was fixed. From 5 to 20 wk and at 20 wk, birds that were reared at the nominal standard (0.3525 m²/bird) and 10% tighter density (0.3169 m²/bird) had significantly lower body weight compared with the 10% looser density (0.3882 m²/bird) and 20% looser density (0.4238 m²/bird) (P = 0.03 and 0.01, respectfully). The feed conversion ratio (FCR) tended (P = 0.08) to be improved for birds reared at looser density. In addition, based on linear regression, as stocking density decreased (i.e., m²/bird increased), BW (P < 0.05) increased, and FCR (P = 0.10) tended to decrease (improve) at 20 wk. It was concluded that birds reared at looser density had improved performance.

Analysis of risk factors for dermatitis and cellulitis in turkeys using abattoir post mortem data

1. Cellulitis and dermatitis are often seen in turkeys at slaughter and are, in many cases, reasons for rejection at meat inspection. Using the results of meat inspections and information about the housing conditions of the animals may provide information on causative factors in the development of cellulitis and dermatitis. 2. A census of two years of turkey production in a company including both fattening farms and an abattoir in the north of England was used to study the relationship between the prevalence of cellulitis/dermatitis and mechanical versus natural ventilation in the poultry house, litter type (long straw, short straw and wood shavings) and stocking density. 3. The overall prevalence of cellulitis and dermatitis in this population was 0.12 %, which was extremely low compared to reports in the literature. In mechanically ventilated houses, the odds of developing cellulitis and/or dermatitis was significantly higher than in naturally ventilated houses (Odds Ratio 3.18). Long straw had a protective effect compared to wood shavings (Odds Ratio 0.18). 4. The study showed that using slaughter data can be helpful in studying on-farm risk factors for disease development.

Sound Analysis to Predict the Growth of Turkeys

Protocols for manual weighing of turkeys are not practical on turkey farms because of the large body sizes, heavy weights and flighty nature of turkeys. The sounds turkeys make may be a proxy for bird weights, but the relationship between turkey sounds and bird weights has not been studied. The aim of this study was to correlate peak frequency (PF) of vocalization with the age and weight of the bird and examine the possibility using PF to predict the weight of turkeys. The study consisted of four trials in Egypt. Sounds of birds and their weights were recorded for 11 days during the growth period in each trial. A total 2200 sounds were manually analyzed and labelled by extracting individual and general sounds on the basis of the amplitude and frequency of the sound signal. The PF of vocalizations in each trial, as well as in pooled trails, were evaluated to determine the relationship between PF and the age and weight of the turkey. PF exhibited a highly significant negative correlation with the weight and age of the turkeys showing that PF of vocalizations can be used for predicting the weight of turkeys. Further studies are necessary to refine the procedure.

The effects of stocking density on turkey tom performance and environment to 16 weeks of age

Stocking density (SD) of turkey toms (n = 2,868 Nicholas Select) was evaluated in 2 16-wk trials. Poults were randomly allocated to 1 of 8 independently ventilated rooms (6.71 × 10.06 m) for each trial, to reach a final target SD of 30, 40, 50, or 60 kg/m2. Air quality was monitored (carbon dioxide and ammonia) throughout the trial, and ventilation was adjusted to balance these parameters across all rooms. Within each trial, body weight and feed consumption were recorded (0, 4, 8, 12, and 16 wk of age). Body weight gain and mortality-corrected feed-to-gain ratio (F: Gm) were calculated for each 4-wk interval. Uniformity was assessed at 12 and 16 wk of age (20 birds per replicate). Mortality and culled birds were recorded daily and necropsied to determine cause of death or illness. Room temperature was recorded hourly, and litter moisture and temperature (trial 2) were evaluated weekly from 12 to 16 wk. A 1-way ANOVA was performed to evaluate the effects of SD on room temperature. Regression analyses were performed to determine the relationship between SD and all other measured variables (linear, Proc Reg; quadratic, Proc RSReg in SAS 9.4). Differences were considered significant when P ≤ 0.05. Body weight decreased as SD increased at 12 (quadratic) and 16 wk (linear). Body weight gain decreased in the last 4 wk (12 to 16, linear) and over the course of the trial (0 to 12, quadratic; 0 to 16, linear) as SD increased. Feed consumption demonstrated a linear relationship with increasing SD, increasing from week 4 to 8 and decreasing from week 12 to 16. The F: Gm ratio increased linearly with increasing SD for all time periods beginning at week 4. Flock uniformity and total percent mortality were unaffected by SD. Litter moisture demonstrated a quadratic effect and litter temperature increased (quadratic) as SD increased. Overall, increasing SD negatively impacted aspects of bird performance, including body weight, body weight gain, and feed efficiency. Feed consumption was negatively impacted later in production (week 12 to 16). Finally, overall mortality and uniformity were not affected.