Assessment of Welfare in Zoo Animals: Towards Optimum Quality of Life

Feeding Platforms as an Effective Strategy to Prevent the Consumption of Refuse by Urban Populations of Capuchin Monkeys (Sapajus libidinosus)

The availability of manmade foodstuffs in the environment may significantly alter the diets, behavior and health of wild animals and the ecosystems ecology. One of the principal problems faced by urban populations of capuchin monkeys is their contact with household refuse, which may provoke a number of impacts on the health of these animals. The present study tested the use of feeding platforms as a strategy to reduce the consumption of unhealthy foodstuffs by these animals and analyzed the influence of this measure on the activity patterns and social interactions of the study groups. For this, we verified the patterns of use of a feeding platform by a capuchin group in an urban park in Goiânia, central Brazil, and compared this study population with those of other parks where alternative feeding protocols are implemented, ranging from continuous provisioning to no intervention whatsoever. Behavioral data were collected using scan sampling. The data analysis was divided into two steps: (i) comparison of the different conditions found in the populations with varying types of feeding platform usage and (ii) comparison of the time budget among sites in the context of seasonal variation. The presence of feeding platforms effectively reduced the consumption of refuse in the study groups, although it did also cause an increase in agonism in the animals and altered their activity patterns, leading to a greater dependence on provisioned resources. The results of this study highlight the complex interaction between human activities and the local wildlife in the urban setting, and the need for more detailed studies, to develop more effective management strategies.

Development of a welfare assessment tool for tourist camp elephants in Asia

Background

Approximately one-third of Asian elephants are managed under human care, participating in educational, cultural, religious, and tourist activities. Management conditions vary considerably among venues, raising questions about whether welfare needs are consistently being met, particularly for Asian tourist camp elephants. To evaluate the well-being of elephants engaged in tourist activities, an evidence-based tool is needed for routine assessments to identify potential welfare risks, aid in the development of better camp standards, and enable caretakers to address specific concerns. While many animal welfare tools exist, none have been designed to consider specific environments and management practices faced by elephants living and working in tourist camps.

Methods

Using direct observations and interviews, the Elephant Welfare Assessment Tool (EWAT) was developed for tourist camp elephants using the Five Domains Model as a framework. Measures were selected based on peer-reviewed literature, existing standards and guidelines, and opinions from animal welfare experts working with zoo and tourist camp elephants. The EWAT differs from existing tools by including criteria on work activities and restraint methods (e.g., chaining and ankus use), factors common in Asia but not often encountered by western zoo elephants. Measures were scored using a 0-2 Likert Scale. The tool was tested in Thailand and determined by calculating a content validity index (CVI) and conducting inter-rater and test-retest reliability tests.

Results

The initial tool included 18 animal-based and 21 resource-based measures across four domains: Nutrition (n = 5), Environment (n = 14), Health (n = 10), and Behavior and Mental State (n = 10). Index scores of content validity (CVI) (Item CVI (0.83), Scale CVI/Average (0.98), and Scale CVI/Universal (0.89)) were high. Measures scoring less than 0.83 were removed: the opportunity to mate, the mahout-elephant relationship, and mahout job satisfaction. The final tool consisted of 42 questions related to 36 measures, including 18 animal-based and 18 resource-based measures within the Nutrition (n = 5), Environment (n = 11), Health (n = 10), and Behavior and Mental State (n = 10) domains. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) for inter-rater reliability (0.78-0.90, p < 0.05) and test-retest (0.77-0.91, p < 0.05) analyses conducted at two camps showed good agreement.

Conclusions

This new assessment tool (EWAT) is a context-specific, holistic method designed to offer a practical means of conducting individual and institutional-level assessments of elephant welfare in tourist camps. It is based on the Five Domains Model using reliable and validated animal- and resource-based measures, data collection through direct observation and interviews, and a numerical scoring system. The tool includes several criteria applicable to tourist rather than zoo venues to make it more relevant to the challenges faced by working elephants in Asia.

Enclosure design and welfare of plains zebras: Impact of enclosure design on behavior and space use of plains zebras under human care

Plains zebras are commonly hosted in zoos, but few welfare-related studies are available in the literature. This research aimed to assess the effect of enclosure design on two groups of captive zebras housed at the Giardino Zoologico di Pistoia - GZP (Italy) and Parco Faunistico Valcorba - PFV (Italy) through the analysis of behavior and enclosure use. The groups consisted of an adult pair and a male juvenile at GZP and six adult females at PFV. We collected data in 2019 over 19 sampling days using the continuous focal animal sampling technique. We performed 12 observation sessions per day, with each session lasting 30 min. We analyzed the subjects' behavioral time budget and enclosure use using Generalized Linear Mixed Models and the Electivity Index. The results showed that the time allocated to feeding behavior varied from 8-16% in the enclosure with gravel substrate (GZP) to 72-85% in the exhibit enriched with a pasture (PFV), with this last percentage resembling data reported for wild zebras. Results showed that institution was a significant predictor of feeding behavior, suggesting that the presence of a pasture can stimulate food-related behavioral patterns. Regarding enclosure use, the presence of hay and water troughs influenced the animals' space use. Our findings also suggest that evaluating both behavior and enclosure use can provide a more comprehensive overview of the welfare state of the animals. However, future studies are needed to better investigate the influence of social factors on the behavior and enclosure usage of captive Plains zebras.

Behavioral Coding of Captive African Elephants (Loxodonta africana): Utilizing DeepLabCut and Create ML for Nocturnal Activity Tracking

This study investigates the possibility of using machine learning models created in DeepLabCut and Create ML to automate aspects of behavioral coding and aid in behavioral analysis. Two models with different capabilities and complexities were constructed and compared to a manually observed control period. The accuracy of the models was assessed by comparison with manually scoring, before being applied to seven nights of footage of the nocturnal behavior of two African elephants (Loxodonta africana). The resulting data were used to draw conclusions regarding behavioral differences between the two elephants and between individually observed nights, thus proving that such models can aid researchers in behavioral analysis. The models were capable of tracking simple behaviors with high accuracy, but had certain limitations regarding detection of complex behaviors, such as the stereotyped behavior sway, and displayed confusion when deciding between visually similar behaviors. Further expansion of such models may be desired to create a more capable aid with the possibility of automating behavioral coding.

The Royal Zoological Society of Scotland's Approach to Assessing and Promoting Animal Welfare in Collaboration with Universities

Good zoos have four aims-to conserve species, educate the public, engage in research, and provide recreation-all of which can only be achieved when underpinned by high animal welfare standards. In this paper, we share the approach that The Royal Zoological Society of Scotland's (RZSS) Edinburgh Zoo and Highland Wildlife Park take to animal welfare. We highlight the role that animal welfare research, in collaboration with universities, has had in enabling the zoo to take an evidence-based approach to welfare and to put findings into practice. We share the collaborative process through which we developed and piloted the current animal welfare assessment tools, how they were validated, and how they were tested for reliability as part of a long-term collaboration between the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland and the University of Stirling: (1) the RZSS Welfare Assessment Tool, a 50-question animal welfare assessment adapted from the British and Irish Association of Zoos and Aquariums (BIAZA) Toolkit; and (2) the Stirling Toolkit, a package of evidence-based resources for behavioural-data collection. Our aim is to facilitate standardised, evidence-based approaches to assessing animal welfare which, when finalised, can be used collaboratively across zoos.

Application of Machine Learning for Automating Behavioral Tracking of Captive Bornean Orangutans (Pongo Pygmaeus)

This article applies object detection to CCTV video material to investigate the potential of using machine learning to automate behavior tracking. This study includes video tapings of two captive Bornean orangutans and their behavior. From a 2 min training video containing the selected behaviors, 334 images were extracted and labeled using Rectlabel. The labeled training material was used to construct an object detection model using Create ML. The use of object detection was shown to have potential for automating tracking, especially of locomotion, whilst filtering out false positives. Potential improvements regarding this tool are addressed, and future implementation should take these into consideration. These improvements include using adequately diverse training material and limiting iterations to avoid overfitting the model.

Evaluation of short-term hair follicle storage conditions for maintenance of RNA integrity

Hair follicles provide an easily accessible tissue for interrogating gene expression for multiple purposes in mammals. RNAlater® is a liquid storage solution that stabilises and preserves cellular RNA, eliminating the need to immediately process or freeze tissue specimens. The manufacturer advises storage of samples at 2-8°C overnight before transfer to -20°C. This study aimed to evaluate RNA integrity in hair follicle samples collected from horses, stabilized in RNAlater®, and stored under three short-term storage conditions. Mane hair samples complete with follicles were collected from four horses at a single time point. Approximately 15 hairs were placed in each of three 2 mL tubes containing 0.75ml RNAlater® solution. Test group A was stored at 4°C for 24-h, then decanted and stored at -20°C. Test groups B and C were stored at 4°C and 19°C (room temperature) respectively for 7 days, then decanted and stored at -20°C. RNA was isolated from all samples and RNA quantity and quality were measured. One-way ANOVA revealed no difference in RNA concentration (A:516 +/-125 ng/ml, B:273+/-93 ng/ml, C:476+/-176 ng/ml;P = 0.2) or quality (A:9.5 +/-0.19, B:9.8+/-0.09, C:9.2+/-0.35 RIN; P = 0.46) between the test groups. There were no group differences in mean Cycle Threshold values from qPCR validation assays confirming high-quality template cDNA. The results suggest that storage of hair follicles for one week in RNAlater® at cool or room temperature conditions will not compromise RNA integrity and will permit extended transport times from remote sampling locations without the need for freezing.

Quality of Life Assessment: The Value of Longitudinal Data in Making the End-of-Life Care Decision for a Macaque (Macaca Silenus/Macaca Nemestrina)

Assessing quality of life in animals is an art as much as a science. Despite the use of questionnaires and keeper reports which consider several aspects of well-being, the process often remains subjective. Keepers have unique insights, and anecdotal observations can be enhanced with objective data. We combined the art and science of assessments in this study on a geriatric macaque (1.0 lion-tailed/pig-tailed (Macaca silenus/macaca nemestrina) hybrid), using historic data to inform management decisions. Following the unexpected death of his cage mate, his activity and engagement with keepers decreased, and new concerning behaviors presented. While the zoo worked to identify new social opportunities, we used these data to develop a plan to improve his quality of life (e.g., increase training sessions, enrichment, social interactions). After intense implementation, we saw a significant increase in activity level and engagement with keepers; the frequency of unexpected behaviors suggesting a lower quality of life, however, increased over time. Our data allowed us to objectively compare changes in behavior, enabling the zoo to make the most informed animal management decision possible. [Figure: see text].

Comparison of animal welfare assessment tools and methodologies: need for an effective approach for captive elephants in Asia

Welfare is a fundamental aspect of animal management and conservation. In light of growing public awareness and welfare concerns about captive elephants, there is an urgent need for comprehensive, globally coordinated efforts for Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) that participate in religious, logging, or tourist activities in range countries where the majority reside, and where welfare issues have been identified but not addressed. This review provides a comparative analysis of available animal assessment tools. Each offers distinct features for assessment that allow institutions to select criteria for specific needs and available resources. Most are applied to general animal welfare assessments, although some are tailored to particular species, including elephants. The tools span diverse formats, from digital to primarily paper-based assessments. Assessments operate at individual and institutional levels and across multiple welfare domains. Methodologies rely on keeper ratings or expert evaluations, incorporate numerical scoring and Likert scales for welfare grading, and encompass inputs including behaviors, health, and physiological indicators. For tourist camp elephants, one challenge is that the tools were developed in zoos, which may or may not have application to non-zoological settings. Digital tools and assessment methodologies such as keeper ratings face logistical challenges when applied across tourist venues. As with any tool, reliability, validity, and repeatability are essential and must address the unique welfare challenges of diverse captive settings. We propose that a holistic, context-specific, evidence-based, and practical tool be developed to ensure high elephant welfare standards in non-zoological facilities throughout Asia.

A fast technique to induce and measure anticipatory behavior in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus)

Anticipatory behavior describes the actions taken to prepare for an upcoming event. It is considered a promising tool for welfare assessment, but it is not fully applied in zoos and other facilities. This is probably due to the need to train animals, which can take a long time and make its use impractical. In this work, we tested, on a group of six dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), the effectiveness of a new technique to induce and measure anticipatory behavior without training animals. Our results show how this new methodology, which we called The Fast Technique (TFT), has been able to induce and measure anticipatory behavior toward the event studied, i.e., the play sessions with objects (PSO). Furthermore, it has produced the same result obtained with The Classical Technique (TCT), which requires a training phase. Therefore, our finding demonstrates the efficacy of a new technique that could facilitate the use of anticipatory behavior for both research and animal welfare assessment protocols.

Perspective: Social License as a Lens for Improving Ethical and Welfare Standards in Cephalopod Research

Interest in cephalopods as comparative models in neuroscience, cognition, behavior, and ecology is surging due to recent advances in culture and experimental techniques. Although cephalopods have a long history in research, their use had remained limited due to the challenges of funding work on comparative models, the lack of modern techniques applicable to them, and the small number of labs with the facilities to keep and house large numbers of healthy animals for long periods. Breakthroughs in each of these areas are now creating new interest in cephalopods from researchers who trained and worked in other models, as well as allowing established cephalopod labs to grow and collaborate more widely. This broadening of the field is essential to its long-term health, but also brings with it new and heightened scrutiny from animal rights organizations, federal regulatory agencies, and members of the public. As a community, it is critical that scientists working with cephalopods engage in discussions, studies, and communication that promote high standards for cephalopod welfare. The concept of "social license to operate," more commonly encountered in industry, recreation, and agriculture, provides a useful lens through which to view proactive steps the cephalopod research community may take to ensure a strong future for our field. In this Perspective, I discuss recent progress in cephalopod ethics and welfare studies, and use the conceptual framework of Social License to Operate to propose a forward-looking, public-facing strategy for the parallel development of welfare-focused best practices and scientific breakthroughs.

Sensory Stimulation as a Means of Sustained Enhancement of Well-Being in Leopard Geckos, Eublepharis macularius (Eublepharidae, Squamata)

Although the private keeping of reptiles has boomed in most western countries since the millennium, studies dealing with the recognition and promotion of welfare in these reptiles seem to represent a blind spot of scientific attention. The vast majority of studies from the field of animal welfare science still concern mammals and birds. The leopard gecko is probably the most common lizard that is kept in domestic terrariums worldwide. Due to its characteristic as an ecological generalist, it is easy to keep and breed, and it is considered a good "starter reptile" for beginners as it "condones" husbandry mistakes, even for extended periods. However, being a mass species is not a second-class classification. They, too, have an equal claim to good well-being as all animals in human care. The aim of the study was to test the hypothesis of whether an increase in stimulus density leads to an increase in activity and behavioural diversity and, thus, an increase in welfare. For this purpose, 18 leopard geckos were fed insects that were ≤1 cm in size, and both the quantity and quality of behaviour was documented and analysed in the pre-intervention, intervention and post-intervention stages. In addition, it was of interest whether behavioural indicators could be identified that indicate a state of positive well-being. The results showed that this type of enrichment led to a quantitative doubling of the activity levels from the baseline (total of 12,519 behavioural elements) to the intervention (total of 25,366 behavioural elements). And even 11 months after the introduction of small insect feeding (post-intervention total of 23,267 behavioural elements), the activity level was still significantly increased. The behavioural diversity, as the absolute number of behavioural categories across all 18 leopard geckos, also increased, although less than the behavioural intensity, between the baseline (5507 behavioural categories) and intervention (6451 behavioural categories) and between the baseline and post-intervention (6079 behavioural categories). The results clearly show that feeding small insects to leopard geckos is a very efficient tool to increase the welfare of leopard geckos. Attractively, this feeding regime can be implemented by any leopard gecko keeper without significant additional cost or time, and therefore, these methods have a potentially high impact.

Wing condition does not negatively impact time budget, enclosure usage, or social bonds in a flock of both full-winged and flight-restrained greater flamingos

Zoo management techniques for captive birds, such as flight restraint and enclosure type, may affect behavioral performance and are consequently worthy of investigation. Flamingos are amongst the most popular of zoo-housed birds and, as such, research into their captive management and associated behavioral responses are widely applicable to many thousands of individuals. As a highly social species, understanding social bonds and behavior of the individual bird and the flock overall can help inform decisions that support husbandry and population management. In this project, 41 greater flamingos at Bristol Zoo Gardens were observed for 49 days across spring and summer 2013 to assess the following: (i) social associations within the flock, (ii) overall activity patterns, and (iii) distribution of time within specific enclosure zones for both full-winged and flight-restrained birds living in the same enclosure. Results showed that pinioning interacted with age in regard to flamingo time-activity patterns, but wing condition did not significantly influence association patterns, performance of social interactions, or performance of breeding behavior. Social network analysis revealed that associations were nonrandom and flamingos, of either wing condition, displayed different roles within the network. Birds of similar age formed the strongest bonds. Enclosure usage was not even, suggesting that the flamingos favored specific areas of the enclosure during the observation period. This study showed that wing condition does not affect flamingo behavior, social bonds, or space use, and that age and sex have more of an overall influence on what flamingos do, and with whom they chose to do it. Further research should extend this study into other, larger captive flocks to further refine behavioral measures of welfare for these popular zoo birds.

Quality-of-Life Assessments in Zoo Animals: Not Just for the Aged and Charismatic

Zoos should aim to provide all of their animals with a good quality of life (QoL) throughout all life stages. In parallel with the evolution of QoL assessment questionnaires and tools in human and domestic animal settings, in recent times, some individual zoos and zoo industry associations have incorporated such instruments into their animal management practices. This has been conducted predominantly to inform, monitor, and document end-of-life decision-making for large, charismatic mammals. There is scope to expand the use of these tools to improve their utility, validity, reliability, and value to an animal welfare program. Assessment of QoL is a complex task given that the notion being measured is abstract and self-determined, and the design and purpose of the tools to do this require careful consideration. This review explores the QoL concept as it applies to animals, the assessment indications and methodologies relevant to a zoo setting, and the importance of considering QoL at any life stage across species. An overview of current thinking and the applications and limitations of QoL evaluation of captive wild animals is offered to promote and aid facility practice reviews and to help direct future innovations that leverage concurrent and converging advances in zoo animal welfare science.

Assessing the Welfare of Captive Group-Housed Cockroaches, Gromphadorhina oblongonota

The welfare of invertebrates under human care is of growing concern, particularly with the increasing interest in insect farming as an environmentally sustainable means of producing food. Additionally, individual welfare monitoring systems can be time-consuming and impractical for larger groups, particularly when individual animals are difficult to identify. It is, therefore, imperative to develop a validated system for monitoring terrestrial invertebrate welfare at a group level. The Animal Welfare Assessment Grid (AWAG) is an objective welfare-monitoring tool that has been approved for use with a wide range of species. This study modified the AWAG for large group-level welfare assessments and successfully trialled it on a terrestrial invertebrate species, a group of captive male Gromphadorhina oblongonota. The modified template evaluated the group's welfare by scoring changes to 12 factors that could be tracked over time. The results highlight that the welfare of G. oblongonota is likely to be influenced by environmental and social factors, and inform practical improvements in G. oblongonota care that will result in improved welfare. The findings also demonstrate an efficient way to assess the welfare of invertebrates at the group level, and given the recent UK legislation (Animal Welfare (Sentience) Bill, 2022) plus the emerging interest in invertebrate farming, our findings hold timely significance.

The perception of felid welfare by zookeepers in North America and the implications for zoo managers

Zookeepers working with felids were asked to complete an online survey to examine their perceptions of animal welfare. A total of 121 zookeepers in an AZA-accredited zoo completed the survey. Results from this study suggest that institutional offerings of professional development programming in animal welfare have the greatest potential to influence zookeeper perceptions of animal welfare. Participants also identified four areas of improvement for felid welfare, including 1) larger and more dynamic spaces, 2) increased attention to behavioral husbandry, 3) more unique diet presentations, and 4) the ability for the animal to remain out of the view of the public. In addition, there appear to be differences in perception between traditionally described "small cat" and "large cat" keepers in terms of the ability to deliver the Five Freedoms.

Comparison of Cortisol Concentrations in Different Matrices in Alpine Ibex (Capra ibex) at the Zoo

The usefulness of blood collection using venipuncture versus kissing bugs or medicinal leeches and the collection of saliva, faeces, hair, urine, and tears for measuring "immunoreactive" C (iC) concentration in Alpine ibexes was verified using commercial enzyme immunoassays. The mean value of serum C was highest in serum collected using venipuncture and lowest in serums collected using kissing bugs. Statistically significant differences were observed between venipuncture and kissing bugs and between leeches and kissing bugs. However, no statistically significant difference was found in C concentrations between samples collected with venipuncture and those collected with leeches. The highest mean value of C concentration was measured in serum (all three methods), followed by that in hair and faeces, and the lowest mean value was found in saliva. Statistically significant differences were found between saliva and faeces samples and between saliva and hair samples. The difference between the concentrations for faeces and hair was not statistically significant. A significant difference in C concentration between males and females was found in saliva. A significant difference in C concentration among different ages was measured in serum obtained using venipuncture in all three groups and in faeces between the groups older than ten years and younger than 10 months. Highly significant differences in C concentrations were also found between hair sampled in summer and hair sampled in autumn. Collecting tear and urine samples is a laborious procedure and is therefore less acceptable for C determination. Due to the small number of samples, statistical values are not given for these two matrices.

Don't use it? Don't lose it! Why active use is not required for stimuli, resources or "enrichments" to have welfare value

Current frameworks for designing and evaluating good enclosures and "enrichments" typically focus on animals' active interactions with these features. This has undoubtedly improved the welfare of zoo-housed animals over the last 30 years or more. However, literature reviews from this same period identify persistent gaps in how such frameworks are applied: experiences and behaviors that do not rely on active interaction with stimuli or resources are largely ignored, when evaluating the welfare value of enclosures and enrichments within them. Here, we review research evidence demonstrating that active interaction is not always a reliable measure of welfare value, showing that items that elicit little or no interaction can nevertheless still reduce stress and improve well-being. This evidence largely comes from research on humans, lab animals and farm animals, but also from some zoo studies too. We then investigate why. We review psychology and ethology literatures to show that such welfare benefits can arise from five, non-mutually exclusive, processes or mechanisms that are well-understood in humans and domestic animals: (1) some motivations are sated quickly by interaction with resources, yet still have large welfare benefits; (2) active interaction may just be a way to achieve a goal or solve a problem, without being beneficial for welfare in itself; (3) having opportunities for choice and control may be inherently beneficial, even when not acted on; (4) some enclosure features meet social needs for structure, landmarks, and blocked sightlines; and (5) some stimuli may be preferred because they signaled good environments to an animal's ancestors. We use this information to identify  improved ways of enhancing and assessing zoo animal welfare. Incorporating these concepts should expand the scope of behaviors and subjective experiences that are targeted, to now include those that involve little active interaction and yet still are important for good welfare.

Acoustic Monitoring of Professionally Managed Marine Mammals for Health and Welfare Insights

Research evaluating marine mammal welfare and opportunities for advancements in the care of species housed in a professional facility have rapidly increased in the past decade. While topics, such as comfortable housing, adequate social opportunities, stimulating enrichment, and a high standard of medical care, have continued to receive attention from managers and scientists, there is a lack of established acoustic consideration for monitoring the welfare of these animals. Marine mammals rely on sound production and reception for navigation and communication. Regulations governing anthropogenic sound production in our oceans have been put in place by many countries around the world, largely based on the results of research with managed and trained animals, due to the potential negative impacts that unrestricted noise can have on marine mammals. However, there has not been an established best practice for the acoustic welfare monitoring of marine mammals in professional care. By monitoring animal hearing and vocal behavior, a more holistic view of animal welfare can be achieved through the early detection of anthropogenic sound sources, the acoustic behavior of the animals, and even the features of the calls. In this review, the practice of monitoring cetacean acoustic welfare through behavioral hearing tests and auditory evoked potentials (AEPs), passive acoustic monitoring, such as the Welfare Acoustic Monitoring System (WAMS), as well as ideas for using advanced technologies for utilizing vocal biomarkers of health are introduced and reviewed as opportunities for integration into marine mammal welfare plans.

Integrating Individual Animal and Population Welfare in Zoos and Aquariums

Over the last 50 years, animal welfare science has advanced dramatically, especially in zoos and aquariums. A shifting focus from population-level welfare parameters such as reproductive success and longevity (macroscopic, big-picture concepts) to the subjective experience of individual animals (microscopic, focused concepts) has led to more effective animal welfare assessments and improvements in animal welfare. The interplay between individual animal and population welfare for captive animals is critical to the way zoos and aquariums operate to realize their welfare and conservation missions, especially when these missions conflict with one another. In this report, we explore the intersection of individual animal and population welfare in zoos and aquariums and how these two concepts may support one another or be in conflict.

Skin Cortisol and Acoustic Activity: Potential Tools to Evaluate Stress and Welfare in Captive Cetaceans

As people's focus broadens from animals on farms to zoos and aquaria, the field of welfare science and the public's concern for animal welfare continue to grow. In captive animals, stress and its causes are topics of interest in welfare issues, and the identification of an objective method that can be used to assess animals' stress as a physiological state is essential. Both behavioral and physiological parameters can be used as indicators in order to assess animal stress quantitatively. To validate this approach, acoustic activity and the sloughed scrape skin cortisol concentration were used to evaluate the animal welfare of captive beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas). The acoustic activity (5 min at 10:00 am) of three captive D. leucas was routinely recorded by a transducer and analyzed using audio editing software. The calls were separated into three main categories: whistles, pulses, and combo calls. The sloughed scrape skin samples were collected non-invasively once a week from all three animals' fluke and/or flipper. Cortisol was extracted using a modified skin steroid extraction technique, and detected via commercially available enzyme immunoassays. The results showed that the cortisol concentration increased by varying levels when the whales encountered the same event. In addition, the number and distribution of the calls changed along with the events. This indicated that the changes in the cortisol concentration and acoustic behavior may have reflected the fluctuations in the environment and body condition. Therefore, the scrape cortisol measurement and acoustic recordings could be used to monitor stress levels in captive beluga whales. We recommend that aquaria consider incorporating skin scrape cortisol and acoustic activity monitoring into their standards for animal welfare.

The Impact of Visitors on Non-Primate Species in Zoos: A Quantitative Review

Visitors are a prominent feature in the lives of zoo animals, and their presence can cause a range of impacts on zoo animals (typically classed as positive, negative or neutral impacts), commonly referred to as the ‘visitor effect’. This paper quantitatively collates the literature on the visitor effect in non-primate species, investigates the types of measures used to assess impacts of visitors on animals and considers whether impacts vary across non-primate species in zoos. In total, there were 105 papers which had investigated the impact of zoo visitors on 252 non-primate species/species groups. There has been a steady increase in visitor effect research in zoos since 2012 and this body of work incorporates species from avian (28% study species), reptilian (9%), amphibian (2%), fish (4%) and invertebrate taxa (1%). However, there is still a bias towards mammalian species (56%). The response to visitors varied across taxa. Amphibians responded negatively to visitors more frequently than would be expected by chance (p < 0.05), birds responded neutrally more frequently than would be expected by chance (p < 0.05) and fish responded neutrally and ‘unknown’ more frequently than would be expected by chance (p < 0.05). This review highlighted a number of animal-based metrics which have been used to assess the impacts of visitors on animals, with measures used varying across taxa. Moving forwards, it is recommended that moving forwards researchers incorporate a suite of measures, incorporating those which are meaningful in terms of being representative of individual animal experiences and animal welfare, collected in a manner which should capture those metrics accurately.

The Effect of Enrichment on Leopard Geckos (Eublepharis macularius) Housed in Two Different Maintenance Systems (Rack System vs. Terrarium)

The aim of this study was to test the usefulness of environmental enrichment for Eublepharis macularius depending on the maintenance method (terrarium vs. rack system). The hypothesis was that reptiles kept in an extremely low-stimulus environment (rack system) would be more prone to interact with environmental enrichment items than those kept in a biotope terrarium. During the study, 21 female geckos were kept in two types of captive enclosures: 9 in terrariums, and 12 in rack system boxes in groups of 3 animals per enclosure. During the enrichment sessions, geckos were observed for 45 min while enrichment items (dry and wet hides, a new feeding method, a new object) were present in the enclosure. All geckos showed interest in enrichment items that enabled hiding and climbing. Animals kept in the rack system showed significantly lower latency in approaching enrichment items and a higher frequency of enrichment interactions than lizards in biotope terrariums. However, no significant differences were found in the total time spent interacting with enrichment items between geckos in the two settings.

Locomotion as a Measure of Well-Being in Captive Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)

Locomotion in non-human primates, including walking, climbing, and brachiating among other types of movement (but not pacing), is a species-typical behavior that varies with age, social housing conditions, and environmental factors (e.g., season, food availability, physical housing conditions). Given that captive primates are typically observed to engage in lower levels of locomotor behaviors than their wild counterparts, increases in locomotion are generally considered to be indicative of improved welfare in captivity. However, increases in locomotion do not always occur with improvements in welfare, and sometimes occur under conditions of negative arousal. The use of time spent in locomotion as a welfare indicator in studies of well-being is relatively limited. We conducted focal animal observations on 120 captive chimpanzees across a series of studies and found higher percentages of time spent in locomotion (1) upon transfer to a new enclosure type, (2) in larger groups with wider within-group age ranges, and fewer males, and (3) with participation in an experimental medication choice paradigm. We also found that, among geriatric chimpanzees, those housed in nongeriatric groups exhibited more locomotion than those living in geriatric groups. Lastly, locomotion was significantly negatively correlated with several indicators of poor welfare and significantly positively correlated with behavioral diversity, one indicator of positive welfare. Overall, the increases in time spent in locomotion observed in these studies were part of an overall behavioral pattern indicative of enhanced welfare, suggesting that an increase in time spent in locomotion itself may be an indicator of enhanced welfare. As such, we suggest that levels of locomotion, which are typically assessed in most behavioral experiments, may be used more explicitly as indicators of welfare in chimpanzees.

The Societal Value of the Modern Zoo: A Commentary on How Zoos Can Positively Impact on Human Populations Locally and Globally

Modern zoos and aquariums have evolved greatly since the end of the Second World War, to become centres of conservation excellence and scientific institutions for the study of animal behaviour, ecology, husbandry management. Whilst the impact of zoos and aquariums to biodiversity conservation, population management and advancement of species care is well documented, their positive impacts on society (including the communities that they are located within) is less well known. The four established aims of the modern zoo—Conservation, Education, Recreation (Engagement) and Research—provide a strong foundation for wider review and critique of the societal value of zoos and aquariums. This article synthesises what such value may be, and how it could be measured, from a systematic review of the literature pertaining to each of these four established aims. It also recommends areas of future scientific inquiry to further study the wider impact of zoos on their local communities and on human populations and behaviour more generally. Including Wellbeing as a fifth aim of the modern zoo would also cement their wider societal value. Further scrutiny of the societal value of the modern zoo enhances the value of the zoo’s living collection and the green spaces that it manages to provide accessibility to biodiversity and nature-centric education essential to long-term, planetary friendly human behaviour change.

The Impacts of Evening Events in Zoos: A Christmas Event at Knowsley Safari

It is important to examine the animal welfare implications of all aspects of zoo operations, including out-of-hours public events. Research to date has indicated variable responses across species and event types. The current research aimed to understand and quantify the impact of a Christmas lights event. Four species of ungulates: Rothschild giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi; n = 2) in one exhibit and capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris; n = 4), lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris; n = 3) and vicuña (Lama vicugna; n = 5) in a mixed species exhibit were observed. Data were collected from 16:00–20:00 between 28 October 2021 and 11 January 2022. The event ran from mid-November to the end of December 2021. Five-minute behavioural observations were undertaken once per hour using instantaneous scan sampling with a one-minute inter-scan interval. A further six days of 12 h observations were conducted to enable a more detailed investigation post-event. Data collected were compared on non-event and event days using Mann–Whitney U tests (event vs. non-event) and Kruskal–Wallis tests (pre-event, event, post-event periods). Kruskal–Wallis tests and one-way ANOVAs were undertaken to compare behaviours during three time periods (12:00–16:00, 16:00–20:00, 20:00–00:00) over 12 h. Mixed behavioural responses were seen across the study species. Capybara spent more time in their house from 16:00–20:00 on event nights compared to non-event nights (p < 0.001) and tapir only engaged in vigilant behaviour from 16:00–20:00 when the event was held, (p = 0.044). There were no differences in frequency of behaviour between pre-event, event, and post-event observation periods, with the exception of capybara, who spent more time OOS in the pre-event period than during (p < 0.001) or after the event (p < 0.001). The results of the project, undertaken as part of an evidence-based management programme, highlighted that the event did not have any overtly negative impacts on the ungulates studied. Except for the giraffe, all individuals had free access to inside and outside environments, and it is believed this choice enabled animals to be active in managing their response to the event. It is recommended that future work observe animals over 24 h to understand whether events lead to behavioural changes the day after events or if animals reverted to normal activity once the event ended.

Ethical reasoning and participatory approach towards achieving regulatory processes for animal-visitor interactions (AVIs) in South Africa

South Africa's wide range of animal facilities offers many different types of Animal-Visitor Interactions, wild animal encounters where animals and visitors come closer than in normal circumstances. The aim of this study was to provide a map of the ethically relevant aspects involved in AVIs in South Africa as a first step towards regulating these activities. A participative approach based on the ethical matrix, a tool which organizes the ethical standings of the stakeholders by three bearing ethical principles (wellbeing, autonomy, fairness), was applied. The matrix was populated through a top-down approach and refined by engaging stakeholders in a workshop and two online self-administrated surveys. The outcome is a map of the value demands concerning Animal Visitor Interactions. This map shows how the ethical acceptability of AVIs is linked to different relevant issues like animal welfare, education, biodiversity conservation, sustainability, human competency, facility mission, impact on scientific research and socio-economic outcomes. In addition, results highlighted the importance of cooperation among stakeholders and suggested that attention for animal welfare can inform decision making and inspire a multidisciplinary approach in implementing a regulatory frame for South African wildlife facilities.

Positive Aspects of Welfare in Sheep: Current Debates and Future Opportunities

The concept of positive welfare is an expansion of the traditional understanding that animal welfare is defined by minimizing stress, pain, suffering, and disease. Positive welfare shifts the animal welfare narrative from a focus on reducing negative experiences to proactively providing animals with opportunities to have positive experiences and feelings. The concept, although around for several decades, is in its infancy in terms of developing ways of assessing positive welfare on farms, especially in extensive systems, and there are challenges in the adoption of positive welfare practices and the monitoring of continuous improvement at the farm level. Using an iterative approach, this critical review aims to explore the extent to which positive welfare interventions and indicators are positioned and have been developed within the animal welfare literature for sheep. This paper critiques existing positive welfare indicators, such as choices in food and the physical environment, conspecific social synchronization, maternal bonds, intergenerational knowledge transfer, positive human-animal relationships, etc., as currently assessed by the 'good life framework'. It also reviews the characteristics of scientific measures for (positive) affective states in the current sheep literature and their potential contribution to understanding positive welfare states in sheep. In conclusion, this paper provides recommendations for future research regarding sheep welfare.

Behavioural Changes in Zoo Animals during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Long-Term, Multi Species Comparison

Visitors are a prominent feature of the zoo environment and lives of zoo animals. The COVID-19 pandemic led to repeated and extended closure periods for zoos worldwide. This unique period in zoological history enabled the opportunity to investigate the consistency of behavioural responses of zoo animals to closures and subsequent reopenings. Bennett’s wallabies (Notamacropus rufogriseus), meerkats (Suricata suricatta), macaws (red and green: Ara chloropterus; blue and yellow: Ara ararauna; military: Ara militaris) and rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus domesticus) held at four zoological collections in the United Kingdom were studied during COVID-19 closures and subsequent reopening periods. Facilities were closed for three time periods during 2020 and 2021: March–June/July 2020; November–December 2020; January–April/May 2021. Behavioural data were captured during closures (maximum n = 3) and reopening periods (maximum n = 3) during five-min scans using instantaneous scan sampling with a one-minute inter-scan interval. General linear models (GLMs) and general linear mixed models (GLMMs) were used to investigate the relationship between observed behaviours and open/closed periods. Changes were observed in behaviour between open and closure periods in all species, and in some instances changes were also observed over time, with animals responding differently to different closure and reopening periods. However, no overt positive or negative impacts of the closures or reopening periods were identified for these species. The study species may have different relationships with zoo visitors, but no clear differences were seen across the species studied. The unique opportunity to study animals over a long period of time during repeated closure periods enabled a greater understanding of the impact of zoo visitors on animals. As with other work in this sphere, these data support the adaptability of zoo animals to zoo visitors. This work contributes to the growing field of research undertaken during the COVID-19 periods and enhances our understanding of the impact that these zoological closures had on a wider body of species in a number of facilities.

Comparing Data Collection Tools for Zoo Management Decision-Making: A Case Study Examining Behavioral Measures of Humboldt Penguin Bond Strength

Systematic data collection has become increasingly important in zoos as it facilitates evidence-based decision-making. Here, we describe the results of a two-year study on exhibit use and pair-bonding in a colony of Humboldt penguins. We used two different data collection apps to evaluate their effectiveness and suitability for evaluating pair-bond strength. Data were collected using instantaneous scan sampling and all-occurrence sampling 2-3 times per week for 2 years for a total of nearly 240 h of observation (19 h with one system and 219 h with the other system). The activity patterns (in particular, time spent in the water) differed amongst penguins and between the two data collection tools. Patterns of courtship-related behaviors varied tremendously across individuals. The longer pairs had been bonded, the more time they spent in close proximity. We highlight two important considerations for institutions aiming to collect such systematic data. First, it is critical to interpret all findings in context by incorporating husbandry details and keeper insights to highlight explanations that may not be readily apparent from the data. Second, one must explore all aspects of any data collection system before committing to its use-system setup, ease of data collection, format and accessibility of exported data. Not doing so may negate the value of systematic data collection by limiting the use and interpretability of the data.

Value Ranges and Clinical Comparisons of Serum DHEA-S, IL-6, and TNF-α in Western Lowland Gorillas

Physiological data can provide valuable information about the health and welfare of animals. Unfortunately, few validated assays and a lack of information on species-typical levels of circulating biomarkers for wildlife make the measurement, interpretation, and practical application of such data difficult. We validated commercially available kits and calculated reference intervals (herein called "value ranges") for dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate (DHEA-S), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) in a sample of zoo-housed western lowland gorillas due to the roles these biomarkers play in stress and immune responses. For each biomarker, we present species-specific value ranges for a sample of gorillas in human care (n = 57). DHEA-S did not vary significantly by sex or age, while IL-6 was higher in males and older gorillas and TNF-α was higher in females but not associated with age. We also compared non-clinical with clinical samples (n = 21) to explore whether these biomarkers reflect changes in health status. There was no significant difference between clinical and non-clinical samples for DHEA-S, but both IL-6 and TNF-α were significantly higher in gorillas showing clinical symptoms or prior to death. Additional work is needed to improve our understanding of normal versus clinical variation in these biomarkers, and we encourage continued efforts to identify and validate additional biomarkers that can be used to inform assessments of health and welfare in wildlife.

An Improvement in Enclosure Design Can Positively Impact Welfare, Reduce Aggressiveness and Stabilise Hierarchy in Captive Galapagos Giant Tortoises

The interest in the welfare of zoo animals, from both the public and the scientific community, has long been biased towards mammals. However, growing evidence of the complex behavioural repertoires of less charismatic animals, such as reptiles, reveals the necessity to better comply with their welfare needs in captivity. Here, we present the effects of an enclosure change towards a more natural habitat in captive Galapagos tortoises (Chelonoidis spp.) held at ZSL London Zoo. Using behavioural observations, we found that the tortoises habituated to their new enclosure in six days. This represents the first quantification of habituation latency to a new enclosure in a reptile model to our knowledge—which is important information to adapt policies governing animal moves. The tortoises expressed time budgets more similar to those of wild individuals after their transition to the new enclosure. Interestingly, the hierarchy between the individuals was inverted and more stable after this change in environment. The tortoises interacted less often, which led to a decrease in the frequency of agonistic encounters. We also found that higher ambient sound volume was associated with increased likelihood of interactions turning into fights. Taken together, our results demonstrate the potential of appropriate enclosure design to improve reptile welfare.

Looking beyond the Shoal: Fish Welfare as an Individual Attribute

Simple Summary

The fish farming industry is characterized by settings where large numbers of fishes are raised together at high stocking densities, effectively obliterating the individual. Given that animal welfare is an individual attribute that refers to how an animal experiences her world, it follows that ensuring good welfare for the different individuals is difficult in fish farms. In this paper we review evidence supporting the notion that fishes are individuals and fish welfare should thus also be considered at the individual level, examine the ways that animal welfare is assessed in fish farms, evaluate these practices in light of individualized terrestrial animal welfare assessment methods, and make recommendations regarding research that could lead to a better understanding of how to provide each individual fish with good welfare in captivity.

Abstract

Welfare is an individual attribute. In general, providing captive nonhuman animals with conditions conducive to good welfare is an idea more easily applied when dealing with few individuals. However, this becomes much harder—if not impossible—under farming conditions that may imply high numbers of animals living in large group sizes. Although this is a problem inherent to intensive animal farming, it is possibly best exemplified in fish farming, for these practices often rely on extremely high numbers. In this paper we review evidence supporting the notion that fishes are individuals and fish welfare should thus also be considered at the individual level, examine the current state of welfare assessment in the aquaculture industry, evaluate these practices in light of individualized terrestrial animal welfare assessment methods, and make recommendations regarding research that could lead to a better understanding of how to provide each individual fish with good welfare in captivity.

Environmental and Social Influences on the Behaviour of Free-Living Mandarin Ducks in Richmond Park

Simple Summary

Collecting information on how wild animals behave in the free-living environment can be useful for improving how such species are managed when under human care (e.g., in the zoo). Mandarin Ducks are an example of a species with a large captive population where research into the behaviour of wild birds can help with explaining and evaluating how this species is coping in captivity. This research collected data on free-living Mandarins in a large public park and compared such data to published research on captive Mandarins to evaluate any differences in time budgets. The overall aim of this research was to provide information on what behaviours are commonest amongst free-living Mandarin Ducks to help others with the assessment of behavioural normality of captive birds.

Abstract

Many species of birds are housed in zoos globally and are some of the most popular of animals kept under human care. Careful observations of how species live and behave in their natural habitats can provide us with important knowledge about their needs, adaptations, and internal states, allowing identification of those behaviours that are most important to the individual’s physical health and wellbeing. For this study, Mandarin Ducks (Aix galericulata) were chosen as a study species because, like many species of waterfowl, they are widely kept in both private institutions and zoos, yet little research has been conducted on their core needs in captivity. A free-living population of naturalised Mandarin Ducks living in Richmond Park was used for this research. Data on state behaviours (resting, swimming, foraging, perching, preening, and vigilance) were collected five days a week (08:00–18:00) from the 26 March to 26 May 2021. Secondly, temporal, seasonal, environmental, and animal-centric factors (e.g., Sex) were recorded to assess any impact on the Mandarin’s time-activity budget. Lastly, a comparison between free-living anmd captive activity was conducted (via the literature) to evaluate whether captive behaviours differ to how they are expressed in the wild. Results showed that free-living Mandarins predominantly rested (19.88% ± 28.97), swam (19.57% ± 19.43) and foraged (19.47% ± 25.82), with variations in activity related to factors such as vegetation cover and pond size. Results also showed differences between the time-budgets of free-living and captive Mandarins, suggesting that captive birds may not always have the opportunity to express species-typical behaviours. This research indicated that study of natural behaviours performed in the wild may help to evaluate “normal” behaviour patterns of zoo-housed individuals and provide evidence for environmental and husbandry alterations that can promote good welfare. However, any potential impact on the activity patterns of free-living species due to human interactions should be considered when assessing deviations between the behaviour of wild and captive individuals.

Preliminary validation of a novel tool to assess dog welfare: The Animal Welfare Assessment Grid

Animal welfare monitoring is a vital part of veterinary medicine and can be challenging due to a range of factors that contribute to the perception of welfare. Tools can be used, however; there are few validated and objective methods available for veterinary and animal welfare professionals to assess and monitor the welfare of dogs over their lifetime. This study aimed to adapt a framework previously validated for other species, The Animal Welfare Assessment Grid (AWAG), for dogs and to host the tool on an accessible, easy to use online platform. Development of the AWAG for dogs involved using the scientific literature to decide which factors were relevant to score welfare in dogs and to also write the factor descriptors. The primary tool was trialed with veterinary professionals to refine and improve the AWAG. Content validity was assessed by subject matter experts by rating the validity of the factors for assessing dog welfare using the item-level content validity index (I-CVI) and scale-level content validity index based on the average method (S-CVI/Ave). Construct validity was evaluated by users of the tool scoring healthy and sick dogs, as well as healthy dogs undergoing neutering procedures. Mann Whitney tests demonstrate that the tool can differentiate between healthy and sick dogs, and healthy and healthy dogs post elective surgery. Test re-test reliability was tested by users conducting multiple assessments on individual dogs under non-changing conditions. Inter-rater reliability was assessed by two users scoring an individual dog at the same time in veterinary referral practice. Repeated measures ANOVA for test re-test and inter-rater reliability both show no statistical difference between scores and that the scores are highly correlated. This study provides evidence that the AWAG for dogs has good content and construct validity, alongside good test re-test and inter-rater reliability.

The common guitarfish Rhinobatos rhinobatos: A descriptive anatomical study and proposed dissection techniques

The common guitarfish (Rhinobatos rhinobatos) is an endangered species and included in the red list of the International Union for Conservation of Nature as "critically endangered, cr." Although guitarfish are displayed and protected in public aquaria, only limited information is available on the external and internal anatomy of this species and dissection methods applicable to it. In this study, common guitarfish kept in a public aquarium were dissected with an appropriate method and the internal and external organs of the fish were identified. The general examination of the external organs showed that the animals had the typical anatomical structure of guitarfish. The internal organs, including the stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, gall bladder, epigonal organ, testicles, brain, cerebellum, optic lobes and heart were also observed.

An Approach to Assessing Zoo Animal Welfare in a Rarely Studied Species, the Common Cusimanse Crossarchus obscurus

Objective welfare assessments play a fundamental role in ensuring that positive welfare is achieved and maintained for animals in captivity. The Animal Welfare Assessment Grid (AWAG), a welfare assessment tool, has been validated for use with a variety of both domestic and exotic species. It combines both resource- and animal-based measures but relies heavily on knowledge of the species to effectively assess welfare. Many zoo species are understudied in the wild due to their cryptic nature or habitat choice; therefore, the published literature needs to be supported with captive behavioural observations and zoo records. Here we adapted previously published AWAG templates to assess the welfare of Crossarchus obscurus. A total of 21 factors were identified, and the final template was used to retrospectively score the welfare of two male and two female C. obscurus at Marwell Zoo, UK, validating the use of this process for preparing a welfare assessment for a species where the published literature is scarce.

Island Life: Use of Activity Budgets and Visibility to Evaluate a Multi-Species Within-Zoo Exhibit Move

Modern zoos strive to construct habitats which both enable and encourage animals to engage in species-specific behaviour, without compromising their visibility to visitors. Here, we present the findings of a within-zoo move to a custom-built exhibit (Islands at Chester Zoo, UK) with respect to the behaviour of four mammal species; the Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii), crested macaque (Macaca nigra), Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus) and the Malayan sun bear (Helarctos malayanus). We used full activity budgets along with Compositional Data Analysis (CoDA) to gain insight into how the move to a more naturalistic exhibit influenced behaviour. Engagement in abnormal behaviour remained low during the study period for all four species, suggesting no adverse responses to the change in environment. Following the move, both the non-human primate species spent more time engaged in positive social interactions with conspecifics, highlighting the importance of social support during enclosure moves. Time spent visible to the public was largely unaffected by the enclosure move for the Sumatran orangutan, whilst the movement to a new environment increased visibility for the Malayan sun bear and decreased visibility for the crested macaque and Malayan tapir. We demonstrate the value of monitoring behaviour throughout the translocation of zoo-housed species and outline the positive behavioral impacts of providing individuals with naturalistic, species-appropriate environments.

Confronting Back-of-House Traditions: Primates as a Case Study

This review commentary focuses on traditional management practices and facility design with suggested improvements in non-public primate management areas, often called “back-of-house”, (henceforth BOH) in zoos, sanctuaries, and research facilities. Progress has been made toward improving animal quality of life in larger, more naturalistic, and enriched indoor and outdoor display areas. However, the quality of life in BOH areas has improved little in comparison. Basic management, regulatory, structural, and spatial BOH environments are lagging, especially in the developing world, and animals may be confined in less enriching spaces for substantial periods of the 24 h day. We reviewed traditional management policy and practice, as well as newer training, enrichment, and welfare policies and actions, and suggested alternatives for structural environments and spatial environments. The suggestions included using more animal-friendly construction materials and animal–computer interaction, providing greater control of the ambient environment and choice of access to multiple areas by the animals themselves, and designing for optimal animal wellbeing at all times, including when caregivers are no longer present. Case studies focused on primates were included. We concluded by suggesting a new, integrated design model based not upon rote standards and old models but building on empirical foundations while embracing empathy and innovation.

Differing animal welfare conceptions and what they mean for the future of zoos and aquariums, insights from an animal welfare audit

Animal welfare is a growing public concern that has the potential to undermine the social license of zoos and aquariums. The lack of consensus on how animal welfare is defined across such a diverse sector combined with and a widespread belief that commercial priorities such as entertaining visitors conflicts with animal welfare, hinders efforts to effectively address this fundamental issue for the sector. Data derived from an audit of habitats across a major North American wildlife attraction revealed that holistic animal welfare assessments undertaken by animal carers embracing three principal constructs of animal welfare, correlated strongly with visitor perceptions of animal happiness. Visitor assessments of animal happiness also correlated with animal carer assessments of social, behavioural and locomotor opportunities and inversely with the prevalence of stereotypic behaviours, supporting the proposition that folk conceptions of animal welfare are more accurate than may have previously been considered to be the case. However, the holistic animal welfare assessment inversely correlated with assessments of a habitat's capacity to safeguard welfare as determined by the facility's veterinary staff, supporting the proposition that tensions exist between physical and psychological components of captive animal welfare provisioning. This further underlines the importance of clarity on how animal welfare is conceived when developing institutional animal welfare strategies. Finally, the data also showed that both holistic animal welfare assessments and visitor perceptions of animal happiness strongly correlated with the level of enjoyment experienced by visitors, challenging the belief that animal welfare competes with the commercial priorities of zoos and aquariums. The audit supports the case that maintaining high animal welfare is a commercial imperative as well as a moral obligation for zoos and aquariums and underlines the necessity to utilize conceptions of animal welfare that acknowledge the centrality of the affective states of animals in maintaining those standards.

Welfare Assessment of Invertebrates: Adapting the Animal Welfare Assessment Grid (AWAG) for Zoo Decapods and Cephalopods

Consumer demand for invertebrates is on the rise as their numbers in the wild dwindle. However, with the growing conservation efforts of modern zoos and aquariums, and evidence from over 300 studies showing that invertebrates are capable of sentience, public interest, and moral concern for welfare of invertebrates have increased. The challenge for zoos and aquariums is in developing an objective and repeatable method for evaluating welfare that can be applied to invertebrates in zoological collections. Recently introduced into zoological collection management is the Animal Welfare Assessment Grid (AWAG). The AWAG helps to identify negative and positive welfare states, through assessing animal- and environmental-based indicators to make changes that lead to a better quality of life. Originally developed for the assessment of laboratory primates, the system has been successfully adapted to assess a variety of taxa across different environments, facilitated by the development of cloud-based software. In this study, the AWAG has been adapted to assess the cumulative lifetime experience of captive decapods and cephalopods at two different institutions, Marwell Zoo and National Marine Aquarium. This study has provided further evidence that the AWAG is adaptable and demonstrates the first time any objective scoring system has been successfully adapted for use in invertebrates. Through graphical representation, the results show that the AWAG identifies changes in welfare scores that can be attributed to specific events and can be used to predict the future vulnerability of species to welfare changes and suggest alternative management methods. This monitoring tool provides a versatile method of implementing practical welfare monitoring in zoos and aquariums.

The Impact of COVID-19 Zoo Closures on Behavioural and Physiological Parameters of Welfare in Primates

Primates are some of the most cognitively advanced species held in zoos, and their interactions with visitors are complex. The COVID-19 pandemic provided a unique opportunity to understand the impact of zoo visitors on animals, in comparison to "empty zoos". This study sought to understand the impact of facility closures and subsequent reopenings on behavioural and physiological parameters of welfare in four primate species housed in the UK: bonobos (Pan paniscus) (n = 8), chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) (n = 11), and western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) (n = 6) held at Twycross Zoo (TZ); and olive baboons (Papio anubis) (n = 192) held at Knowsley Safari (KS). Behavioural data were collected from April-September 2020 (KS) and November 2020-January 2021 (TZ). Faecal samples were collected during morning checks from October-November (TZ) and July-November 2020 (KS). Faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGMs) were measured using ELISA kits. Statistical analysis for behavioural observations was undertaken using general linear models. Enclosure usage was assessed using t-tests and Mann-Whitney U-tests as appropriate. Bonobos and gorillas spent less time alone when facilities were open to the public (p = 0.004, p = 0.02 respectively). Gorillas spent less time resting when the facility was open to the public (p = 0.04), and chimpanzees engaged in more feeding (p = 0.02) and engagement with enrichment (p = 0.03) when the zoo was open to the public than when it was closed. Olive baboons performed less sexual and dominance behaviour and approached visitor cars more frequently when the safari park was opened to the public than they did the ranger's vehicle during closure periods. There were no significant changes in physiological parameters for any of the study species. The results suggest variable impacts of the zoo closures on zoo-housed primates. We recommend future work that seeks to understand the impact of individual-level differences on "visitor effects" and that differences between animal experiences in zoos and safari parks are further explored in a range of species.

Personality matters: exploring the relationship between personality and stress physiology in captive African lions

Background

Considering animals as individuals and not as species is becoming increasingly essential to animal welfare management in captive settings. Recent studies on big cat personalities and coping strategies suggest personality can help big cats cope in their surroundings. Yet a large portion of the published literature focuses on understanding either the personality or stress physiology of big cats. Our research shows how integrating an improved understanding of the personality of big cats with stress physiology may enhance welfare, especially for endangered species like African lions. By using a wild cat personality checklist, this study compared the key personality dimensions of 22 African lions with its faecal glucocorticoids and assessed factors influencing their personality and stress physiology.

Results

We found two reliable personality dimensions for African lions (dominance and agreeableness) and identified key factors (sex, age and location) that may influence their personality. Further, on testing if these factors influenced the stress physiology through variations in glucocorticoid levels, there was no significant difference. However, there was a strong negative association between agreeableness and glucocorticoid levels. These results suggest that the behavioural traits loading positively and higher for agreeableness are associated with lower glucocorticoid stress levels, which may assist a lion to cope with stressors in its surroundings.

Conclusions

Our findings highlight this integrated approach of linking personality and stress physiology of big cats can be beneficial for caretakers. For example, during stressful veterinary procedures or in reintroduction programs, recognizing the personality of lions can help in designing or providing them with resources that will alleviate stress. Thus, there is a need for more interdisciplinary approaches that will contribute towards enhancing the individual and overall welfare of big cats.

Bridging pure cognitive research and cognitive enrichment

Cognitive enrichment is a growing subset of environmental enrichment for captive animals. However, it has been difficult for practitioners to design, implement, and evaluate relevant and appropriate cognitive challenges. Even though pure comparative cognition researchers focus on fundamental evolutionary questions, their knowledge and expertise can also shape the future of cognitive enrichment. This paper describes the motive, means, and opportunity to do so. Taxon-specific summaries of animal cognition (including inter-individual variation in skill and effects of motivation), and experimental designs (including the task itself, training, and reward) need to be accessible to practitioners in applied settings, such as farms, zoos, and sanctuaries. Furthermore, I invite pure researchers to directly evaluate their cognitive research program as enrichment and thus bridge the disciplines of animal cognition and welfare.

Animal Welfare Assessment in 16 Zoos in South Korea Using the Modified Animal Welfare Assessment Grid

Various assessment tools that have been proposed thus far have disadvantages in that they are complex, time-consuming, non-objective, and not convenient for assessing multiple zoos. This study aimed to develop a simple, objective, and reliable welfare assessment tool, the modified Animal Welfare Assessment Grid (AWAG), that can be applied in South Korea, where there is no licensing system for zoos. The AWAG has four main sections: physical, psychological, environmental, and procedural. These four sections include 23 welfare factors like general conditions, behaviors, housing, and restraints, for which each individual or group of animals is given a score. The modified AWAG system was applied by converting the 10-point rating scale of the original AWAG to a 6-point Likert scale. Sixteen zoos in Korea were selected based on the zoos with the most animals. Three inspectors assessed the scores of each animal and then averaged the results. The total data surveyed included 16,065 items. Zoos were largely classified into four grades based on the size of the zoo, animal species, and operating organization. In a relatively short period of 14 days, all the zoos were successfully assessed. Despite the shortened and modified assessment tool, the inter-rater reliability among inspectors was 0.942 with high objectivity. The modified AWAG could identify welfare differences between grades of Korean zoos. There were large differences between zoos in most environmental sections and some zoos were evaluated as having inadequate welfare levels. The modified AWAG showed high usability and objectivity. In addition, it was possible to determine which environmental or procedural sections could potentially help improve physical and psychological scores. The modified AWAG is an objective method that could set the direction for the improvement of zoo welfare in the future.

Does Observer Presence Modify the Behavior and Enclosure Use of Captive Edwards’ Pheasants?

It is well known that captive animals alter their behavior and space use when observed by visitors, with the concept coined the ‘visitor effect’. The ‘observer effect’, described as any alteration in behavior and enclosure use as a result of a quiet, stationary observer, has been less studied. This study investigates the observer effect in two pairs of Edwards’ pheasants (Lophura edwardsi) and their offspring at Sparsholt College, United Kingdom. The impact of an observer (as opposed to camera) on behavior and enclosure use of pheasants was observed, using instantaneous focal sampling. Enclosure use was measured by converting both enclosures into unequal zones and then assessing the evenness of enclosure use through modified Spread of Participation Index. Poisson regression analysis was used to investigate observer impact, alongside the additional variables of keeper and visitor presence, temperature, and individual bird differences. Overall, the behaviors of resting and clustering were significantly increased during observer presence, whereas feeding and locomotion were significantly decreased. The behaviors of preening and standing were not affected by observer presence, though they were influenced by keeper and visitor presence. Enclosure use was also affected by observer presence, though the effect size was small. This suggests that pheasants may perceive the presence of humans near their enclosures as a potential threat, and may alter their behavior to reduce detection, similar to their wild counterparts. Animal researchers should consider the potential impact of observer presence on their subjects, particularly when observing species such as pheasants.

The Neurobiology of Behavior and Its Applicability for Animal Welfare: A Review

Simple Summary

Animal welfare is the result of physical and psychological well-being and is expected to occur if animals are free: (1) from hunger, thirst and malnutrition, (2) from discomfort, (3) from pain, (4) to express normal behavior, and (5) from fear and distress. Nevertheless, well-being is not a constant state but rather the result of certain brain dynamics underlying innate motivated behaviors and learned responses. Thus, by understanding the foundations of the neurobiology of behavior we fathom how emotions and well-being occur in the brain. Herein, we discuss the potential applicability of this approach for animal welfare. First, we provide a general view of the basic responses coordinated by the central nervous system from the processing of internal and external stimuli. Then, we discuss how those stimuli mediate activity in seven neurobiological systems that evoke innate emotional and behavioral responses that directly influence well-being and biological fitness. Finally, we discuss the basic mechanisms of learning and how it affects motivated responses and welfare.

Abstract

Understanding the foundations of the neurobiology of behavior and well-being can help us better achieve animal welfare. Behavior is the expression of several physiological, endocrine, motor and emotional responses that are coordinated by the central nervous system from the processing of internal and external stimuli. In mammals, seven basic emotional systems have been described that when activated by the right stimuli evoke positive or negative innate responses that evolved to facilitate biological fitness. This review describes the process of how those neurobiological systems can directly influence animal welfare. We also describe examples of the interaction between primary (innate) and secondary (learned) processes that influence behavior.

Welfare Assessment Tools in Zoos: From Theory to Practice

Zoos are increasingly implementing formalized animal welfare assessment programs to allow monitoring of welfare over time, as well as to aid in resource prioritization. These programs tend to rely on assessment tools that incorporate resource-based and observational animal-focused measures. A narrative review of the literature was conducted to bring together recent studies examining welfare assessment methods in zoo animals. A summary of these methods is provided, with advantages and limitations of the approaches presented. We then highlight practical considerations with respect to implementation of these tools into practice, for example scoring schemes, weighting of criteria, and innate animal factors for consideration. It is concluded that there would be value in standardizing guidelines for development of welfare assessment tools since zoo accreditation bodies rarely prescribe these. There is also a need to develop taxon or species-specific assessment tools to complement more generic processes and more directly inform welfare management.

Harmonisation of welfare indicators for macaques and marmosets used or bred for research

Background: Accurate assessment of the welfare of non-human primates (NHPs) used and bred for scientific purposes is essential for effective implementation of obligations to optimise their well-being, for validation of refinement techniques and novel welfare indicators, and for ensuring the highest quality data is obtained from these animals. Despite the importance of welfare assessment in NHP research, there is little consensus on what should be measured. Greater harmonisation of welfare indicators between facilities would enable greater collaboration and data sharing to address welfare-related questions in the management and use of NHPs. Methods: A Delphi consultation was used to survey attendees of the 2019 NC3Rs Primate Welfare Meeting (73 respondents) to build consensus on which welfare indicators for macaques and marmosets are reliable, valid, and practicable, and how these can be measured. Results: Self-harm behaviour, social enrichment, cage dimensions, body weight, a health monitoring programme, appetite, staff training, and positive reinforcement training were considered valid, reliable, and practicable indicators for macaques (≥70% consensus) within a hypothetical scenario context involving 500 animals. Indicators ranked important for assessing marmoset welfare were body weight, NHP induced and environmentally induced injuries, cage furniture, huddled posture, mortality, blood in excreta, and physical enrichment. Participants working with macaques in infectious disease and breeding identified a greater range of indicators as valid and reliable than did those working in neuroscience and toxicology, where animal-based indicators were considered the most important. The findings for macaques were compared with a previous Delphi consultation, and the expert-defined consensus from the two surveys used to develop a prototype protocol for assessing macaque welfare in research settings. Conclusions: Together the Delphi results and proto-protocol enable those working with research NHPs to more effectively assess the welfare of the animals in their care and to collaborate to advance refinement of NHP management and use.