Elucidation of Antiviral and Antioxidant Potential of C-Phycocyanin against HIV-1 Infection through In Silico and In Vitro Approaches

ROS Chronicles in HIV Infection: Genesis of Oxidative Stress, Associated Pathologies, and Therapeutic Strategies

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are widely regarded as signaling molecules and play essential roles in various cellular processes, but when present in excess, they can lead to oxidative stress (OS). Growing evidence suggests that the OS plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of HIV infection and is associated with several comorbidities in HIV-infected individuals. ROS, generated both naturally during mitochondrial oxidative metabolism and as a response to various cellular processes, can trigger host antiviral responses but can also promote viral replication. While the multifaceted roles of ROS in HIV pathophysiology clearly need more investigation, this review paper unravels the mechanisms of OS generation in the context of HIV infections, offering insights into HIV viral protein-mediated and antiretroviral therapy-generated OS. Though the viral protein Tat is significantly attributed to the endogenous cellular increase in ROS post HIV infection, this paper sums up the contribution of other viral proteins in HIV-mediated elicitation of ROS. Given the investigations recognizing the significant role of ROS in the onset and progression of diverse pathologies, the paper also explores the critical function of ROS in the mediation of an of array of pathologies associated with HIV infection and retroviral therapy. HIV patients are observed with disruption to the antioxidant defense system, the antioxidant therapy is gaining focus as a potential therapeutic intervention and is well discussed. While ROS play a significant role in the HIV scenario, further exploratory studies are imperative to identifying alternative therapeutic strategies that could mitigate the toxicities and pathologies associated with ART-induced OS.

A nanoemulsified formulation of dolutegravir and epigallocatechin gallate inhibits HIV-1 replication in cellular models

Nanotechnology offers promising avenues for enhancing drug delivery systems, particularly in HIV-1 treatment. This study investigates a nanoemulsified formulation combining epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) with dolutegravir (DTG) for managing HIV-1 infection. The combinatorial interaction between EGCG and DTG was explored through cellular, enzymatic, and molecular studies. In vitro assays demonstrated the potential of a dual drug-loaded nanoemulsion, NE-DTG-EGCG, in inhibiting HIV-1 replication, with EGCG serving as a supplementary treatment containing DTG. In silico molecular interaction studies highlighted EGCG's multifaceted inhibitory potential against HIV-1 integrase and reverse transcriptase enzymes. Further investigations are needed to validate the formulation's efficacy across diverse contexts. Overall, by integrating nanotechnology into drug delivery systems, this study represents a significant advancement in managing HIV-1 infection.

Antiretroviral action of Rosemary oil-based atazanavir formulation and the role of self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system in the management of HIV-1 infection

Atazanavir or ATV is an FDA-approved, HIV-1 protease inhibitor that belongs to the azapeptide group. Over time, it has been observed that ATV can cause multiple adverse side effects in the form of liver diseases including elevations in serum aminotransferase, indirect hyper-bilirubinemia, and idiosyncratic acute liver injury aggravating the underlying chronic viral hepatitis. Hence, there is an incessant need to explore the safe and efficacious method of delivering ATV in a controlled manner that may reduce the proportion of its idiosyncratic reactions in patients who are on antiretroviral therapy for years. In this study, we assessed ATV formulation along with Rosemary oil to enhance the anti-HIV-1 activity and its controlled delivery through self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system or SNEDDS to enhance its oral bioavailability. While the designing, development, and characterization of ATV-SNEDDS were addressed through various evaluation parameters and pharmacokinetic-based studies, in vitro cell-based experiments assured the safety and efficacy of the designed ATV formulation. The study discovered the potential of ATV-SNEDDS to inhibit HIV-1 infection at a lower concentration as compared to its pure counterpart. Simultaneously, we could also demonstrate the ATV and Rosemary oil providing leads for designing and developing such formulations for the management of HIV-1 infections with the alleviation in the risk of adverse reactions.

Nutraceutical Features of the Phycobiliprotein C-Phycocyanin: Evidence from Arthrospira platensis (Spirulina)

Arthrospira platensis, commonly known as Spirulina, is a photosynthetic filamentous cyanobacterium (blue-green microalga) that has been utilized as a food source since ancient times. More recently, it has gained significant popularity as a dietary supplement due to its rich content of micro- and macro-nutrients. Of particular interest is a water soluble phycobiliprotein derived from Spirulina known as phycocyanin C (C-PC), which stands out as the most abundant protein in this cyanobacterium. C-PC is a fluorescent protein, with its chromophore represented by the tetrapyrrole molecule phycocyanobilin B (PCB-B). While C-PC is commonly employed in food for its coloring properties, it also serves as the molecular basis for numerous nutraceutical features associated with Spirulina. Indeed, the comprehensive C-PC, and to some extent, the isolated PCB-B, has been linked to various health-promoting effects. These benefits encompass conditions triggered by oxidative stress, inflammation, and other pathological conditions. The present review focuses on the bio-pharmacological properties of these molecules, positioning them as promising agents for potential new applications in the expanding nutraceutical market.

Innovative Bioactive Products with Medicinal Value from Microalgae and Their Overall Process Optimization through the Implementation of Life Cycle Analysis-An Overview

Microalgae are being recognized as valuable sources of bioactive chemicals with important medical properties, attracting interest from multiple industries, such as food, feed, cosmetics, and medicines. This review study explores the extensive research on identifying important bioactive chemicals from microalgae, and choosing the best strains for nutraceutical manufacturing. It explores the most recent developments in recovery and formulation strategies for creating stable, high-purity, and quality end products for various industrial uses. This paper stresses the significance of using Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) as a strategic tool with which to improve the entire process. By incorporating LCA into decision-making processes, researchers and industry stakeholders can assess the environmental impact, cost-effectiveness, and sustainability of raw materials of several approaches. This comprehensive strategy will allow for the choosing of the most effective techniques, which in turn will promote sustainable practices for developing microalgae-based products. This review offers a detailed analysis of the bioactive compounds, strain selection methods, advanced processing techniques, and the incorporation of LCA. It will serve as a valuable resource for researchers and industry experts interested in utilizing microalgae for producing bioactive products with medicinal properties.

Sustainable approach towards isolation of photosynthetic pigments from Spirulina and the assessment of their prooxidant and antioxidant properties

Carotenoids, chlorophyll and phycocyanin are three types of photosynthetic pigments found in Spirulina that differ in colour, composition, stability, solubility, and commercial importance. Such diversity of structures creates a challenge to extract these pigments simultaneously from the same batch of raw material in an efficient and sustainable manner. This study demonstrates that water can be successfully used as a single solvent together with combined (non)mechanical cell membrane disruption techniques (ultrasonication, centrifugation, freezing/thawing cycle) to extract these photosynthetic pigments from the same batch. This water-based approach delivers a significant improvement in isolating green pigments, which are often overlooked during extraction due to a preference for blue and yellow pigments. Chlorophyll was quantitatively converted to its stable derivatives to carry out a comparative analysis of antioxidant properties (DPPH, TEAC, FRAP), singlet oxygen production and intracellular activities (MTT, ROS assays) using Caco-2 cells.

Role of diosgenin extracted from Helicteres isora L in suppression of HIV-1 replication: An in vitro preclinical study

Background

Diosgenin, an essential sapogenin steroid with significant biological implications, is composed of a hydrophilic sugar moiety intricately linked to a hydrophobic steroid aglycone. While the antiviral properties of diosgenin against numerous RNA viruses have been extensively documented, its potential in combating Human Immunodeficiency Virus infections remains unexplored.

Experimental procedure

This current investigation presents a comprehensive and systematic analysis of extracts derived from the leaves of Helicteres isora, which are notably enriched with diosgenin. Rigorous methodologies, including established chromatographic techniques and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy were employed for the characterization of the active diosgenin compound followed by molecular interaction analyses with the key HIV enzymes and mechanistic validation of HIV inhibition.

Key results

The inhibitory effects of extracted diosgenin on the replication of HIV-1 were demonstrated using a permissive cellular system, encompassing two distinct subtypes of HIV-1 strains. Computational analyses involving molecular interactions highlighted the substantial occupancy of critical active site pocket residues within the key HIV-1 proteins by diosgenin. Additionally, the mechanistic underpinnings of diosgenin activity in conjunction with standard controls were elucidated through specialized colorimetric assays, evaluating its impact on HIV-1 Reverse Transcriptase and Integrase enzymes.

Conclusions

To our current state of knowledge, this study represents the inaugural demonstration of the anti-HIV efficacy inherent to diosgenin found in the leaves of Helicteres isora, and can be taken further for drug design and development for the management of HIV infection.

Investigation of the Potential of Selected Food-Derived Antioxidants to Bind and Stabilise the Bioactive Blue Protein C-Phycocyanin from Cyanobacteria Spirulina

Blue C-phycocyanin (C-PC), the major Spirulina protein with innumerable health-promoting benefits, is an attractive colourant and food supplement. A crucial obstacle to its more extensive use is its relatively low stability. This study aimed to screen various food-derived ligands for their ability to bind and stabilise C-PC, utilising spectroscopic techniques and molecular docking. Among twelve examined ligands, the protein fluorescence quenching revealed that only quercetin, coenzyme Q10 and resveratrol had a moderate affinity to C-PC (Ka of 2.2 to 3.7 × 105 M-1). Docking revealed these three ligands bind more strongly to the C-PC hexamer than the trimer, with the binding sites located at the interface of two (αβ)3 trimers. UV/VIS absorption spectroscopy demonstrated the changes in the C-PC absorption spectra in a complex with quercetin and resveratrol compared to the spectra of free protein and ligands. Selected ligands did not affect the secondary structure content, but they induced changes in the tertiary protein structure in the CD study. A fluorescence-based thermal stability assay demonstrated quercetin and coenzyme Q10 increased the C-PC melting point by nearly 5 °C. Our study identified food-derived ligands that interact with C-PC and improve its thermal stability, indicating their potential as stabilising agents for C-PC in the food industry.

Anti-CD4 antibody and dendrimeric peptide based targeted nano-liposomal dual drug formulation for the treatment of HIV infection

AIMS

Development and characterization of LAM and DTG loaded liposomes conjugated anti-CD4 antibody and peptide dendrimer (PD2) to improve the therapeutic efficacy and to achieve targeted treatment for HIV infection.

MAIN METHODS

A 2-level full factorial design was used to optimize the preparation of dual drug loaded liposomes. Optimized dual drug loaded ligand conjugated liposomes were assessed for their cytotoxicity and cell internalization on TZM-bl cells. Anti-HIV efficiency of the dual drug loaded liposomes were screened for their inhibitory potential in TZM-bl cells and the activities were confirmed using Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells (PBMCs).

KEY FINDINGS

The particle size of the optimized dual drug-loaded liposomes was 133.7 ± 4.04 nm, and the spherical morphology of the liposomes was confirmed by TEM analysis. The entrapment efficiency was 34 ± 4.9 % and 54 ± 1.8 % for LAM and DTG, respectively, and a slower in vitro release of LAM and DTG was observed when entrapped into liposomes. The cytotoxicity of the dual drug loaded liposomes was similar to the cytotoxicity of free drug solutions. Conjugation of anti-CD4 antibody and PD2 did not significantly influence the cytotoxicity but it enhanced the uptake of liposomes into the cells. Conjugated dual drug loaded liposomes exhibited better HIV inhibition with lower IC50 values (0.0003 ± 0.0002 μg/mL) compared to their free drug solutions (0.002 ± 0.001 μg/mL). The liposomal formulations have shown similar activities in both screening and confirmatory cell-based assays.

SIGNIFICANCE

The results demonstrated the cell targeting ability of dual drug loaded liposomes conjugated with anti-CD4 antibody and peptide dendrimer. Conjugated liposomes also improved anti-HIV efficiency of LAM and DTG.

Withania somnifera extracts induced attenuation of HIV-1: a mechanistic approach to restrict viral infection

BACKGROUND

Several anti-retroviral drugs are available against Human immunodeficiency virus type-1, but have multiple adverse side effects. Hence, there is an incessant compulsion for effectual anti-retroviral agents with minimal or no intricacy. Traditionally, natural products have been the most successful source for the development of new medications. Withania somnifera, also known as Ashwagandha, is the utmost treasured medicinal plant used in Ayurveda, which holds the potential to give adaptogenic, immunomodulatory, and antiviral effects. However, its effect on HIV-1 replication at the cellular level has never been explored. Herein, we focused on the anti-HIV-1 activity and the probable mechanism of action of hydroalcoholic and aqueous extracts of Withania somnifera roots and its phytomolecules.

METHODS

The cytotoxicity of the extracts was determined through MTT assay, while the in vitro anti-HIV-1 activity was assessed in TZM-bl cells against the HIV-1 strains of X4 and R5 subtypes. Results were confirmed in peripheral blood mononuclear cells, using the HIV-1 p24 antigen assay. Additionally, the mechanism of action was determined through the Time of Addition assay, which was further validated through the series of enzymatic assays, i.e. HIV-1 Integrase, Reverse transcriptase, and Protease assays. To explore the role of the identified active metabolites of Withania somnifera in antiretroviral activity, molecular docking analyses were performed against these key HIV-1 replication enzymes.

RESULTS

The hydroalcoholic and aqueous extracts of Withania somnifera roots were found to be safer at the sub-cytotoxic concentrations and exhibited their ability to inhibit replication of two primary isolates of HIV-1 through cell-associated and cell-free assays, in dose-dependent kinetics. Several active phytomolecules found in Withania somnifera successfully established hydrogens bonds in the active binding pocket site residues responsible for the catalytic activity of HIV replication and therefore, signifying their role in the attenuation of HIV-1 infection as implied through the in silico molecular docking studies.

CONCLUSIONS

Our research identified both the hydroalcoholic and aqueous extracts of Withania somnifera roots as potent inhibitors of HIV-1 infection. The in silico analyses also indicated the key components of Withania somnifera with the highest binding affinity against the HIV-1 Integrase by 12-Deoxywithastramonolide and 27-Hydroxywithanone, HIV-1 Protease by Ashwagandhanolide and Withacoagin, and HIV-1 Reverse transcriptase by Ashwagandhanolide and Withanolide B, thereby showing possible mechanisms of HIV-1 extenuation. Overall, this study classified the role of Withania somnifera extracts and their active compounds as potential agents against HIV-1 infection.

Antiviral and ROS scavenging potential of Carica papaya Linn and Psidium guajava leaves extract against HIV-1 infection

Antiretroviral therapy is the only treatment option for HIV-infected patients; however, it has certain drawbacks in terms of developing multiple toxic side effects. Thus, there is a continuous need to explore safe and efficacious anti-retroviral agents. Carica papaya Linn and Psidium guajava are known for their various biological activities. In this study, we characterized the bioactive fractions of methanolic leaves extract from both plants using the High-resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (HR-ESI-MS) technique, followed by the investigation of their potential as anti-HIV-1 and antioxidant agents through in vitro mechanistic assays. The anti-HIV-1 activity was examined in TZM-bl cells through luciferase gene assay against two different clades of HIV-1 strains, whereas the intracellular ROS generation was analyzed by Fluorescence-Activated Cell Sorting. Additionally, the mechanisms of action of these phyto-extracts were determined through the Time-of-addition assay. The characterization of Carica papaya Linn and Psidium guajava leaves extract through HR-ESI-MS fragmentation showed high enrichment of various alkaloids, glycosides, lipids, phenolic compounds, terpenes, and fatty acids like bioactive constituents. Both the phyto-extracts were found to be less toxic and exhibited potent antiviral activity against HIV-1 strains. Furthermore, the phyto-extracts also showed a decreased intracellular ROS in HIV-1 infected cells due to their high antioxidant potential. Overall, our study suggests the anti-HIV-1 potential of Carica papaya Linn and Psidium guajava leaves extract due to the synergistic action of multiple bioactive constituents.