Brain Organoids: Filling the Need for a Human Model of Neurological Disorder

Recent Developments in Glioblastoma-On-A-Chip for Advanced Drug Screening Applications

Glioblastoma (GBM) is an aggressive form of cancer, comprising ≈80% of malignant brain tumors. However, there are no effective treatments for GBM due to its heterogeneity and the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which restricts the delivery of therapeutics to the brain. Despite in vitro models contributing to the understanding of GBM, conventional 2D models oversimplify the complex tumor microenvironment. Organ-on-a-chip (OoC) models have emerged as promising platforms that recapitulate human tissue physiology, enabling disease modeling, drug screening, and personalized medicine. There is a sudden increase in GBM-on-a-chip models that can significantly advance the knowledge of GBM etiology and revolutionize drug development by reducing animal testing and enhancing translation to the clinic. In this review, an overview of GBM-on-a-chip models and their applications is reported for drug screening and discussed current challenges and potential future directions for GBM-on-a-chip models.

Midbrain organoids for Parkinson's disease (PD) - A powerful tool to understand the disease pathogenesis

Brain Organiods (BOs) are a promising technique for researching disease progression in the human brain. These organoids, which are produced from human induced pluripotent stem cells (HiPSCs), can construct themselves into structured frameworks. In the context of Parkinson's disease (PD), recent advancements have been made in the development of Midbrain organoids (MBOs) models that consider key pathophysiological mechanisms such as alpha-synuclein (α-Syn), Lewy bodies, dopamine loss, and microglia activation. However, there are limitations to the current use of BOs in disease modelling and drug discovery, such as the lack of vascularization, long-term differentiation, and absence of glial cells. To address these limitations, researchers have proposed the use of spinning bioreactors to improve oxygen and nutrient perfusion. Modelling PD utilising modern experimental in vitro models is a valuable tool for studying disease mechanisms and elucidating previously unknown features of PD. In this paper, we exclusively review the unique methods available for cultivating MBOs using a pumping system that mimics the circulatory system. This mechanism may aid in delivering the required amount of oxygen and nutrients to all areas of the organoids, preventing cell death, and allowing for long-term culture and using co-culturing techniques for developing glial cell in BOs. Furthermore, we emphasise some of the significant discoveries about the BOs and the potential challenges of using BOs will be discussed.

The SVZ stem cell niche-components, functions, and in vitro modelling

Neocortical development depends on the intrinsic ability of neural stem and progenitor cells to proliferate and differentiate to generate the different kinds of neurons in the adult brain. These progenitor cells can be distinguished into apical progenitors, which occupy a stem cell niche in the ventricular zone and basal progenitors, which occupy a stem cell niche in the subventricular zone (SVZ). During development, the stem cell niche provided in the subventricular zone enables the increased proliferation and self-renewal of basal progenitors, which likely underlie the expansion of the human neocortex. However, the components forming the SVZ stem cell niche in the developing neocortex have not yet been fully understood. In this review, we will discuss potential components of the SVZ stem cell niche, i.e., extracellular matrix composition and brain vasculature, and their possible key role in establishing and maintaining this niche during fetal neocortical development. We will also emphasize the potential role of basal progenitor morphology in maintaining their proliferative capacity within the stem cell niche of the SVZ. Finally, we will focus on the use of brain organoids to i) understand the unique features of basal progenitors, notably basal radial glia; ii) study components of the SVZ stem cell niche; and iii) provide future directions on how to improve brain organoids, notably the organoid SVZ, and make them more reliable models of human neocortical development and evolution studies.

From CGRP to PACAP, VIP, and Beyond: Unraveling the Next Chapters in Migraine Treatment

Migraine is a neurovascular disorder that can be debilitating for individuals and society. Current research focuses on finding effective analgesics and management strategies for migraines by targeting specific receptors and neuropeptides. Nonetheless, newly approved calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) have a 50% responder rate ranging from 27 to 71.0%, whereas CGRP receptor inhibitors have a 50% responder rate ranging from 56 to 71%. To address the need for novel therapeutic targets, researchers are exploring the potential of another secretin family peptide, pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP), as a ground-breaking treatment avenue for migraine. Preclinical models have revealed how PACAP affects the trigeminal system, which is implicated in headache disorders. Clinical studies have demonstrated the significance of PACAP in migraine pathophysiology; however, a few clinical trials remain inconclusive: the pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide 1 receptor mAb, AMG 301 showed no benefit for migraine prevention, while the PACAP ligand mAb, Lu AG09222 significantly reduced the number of monthly migraine days over placebo in a phase 2 clinical trial. Meanwhile, another secretin family peptide vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) is gaining interest as a potential new target. In light of recent advances in PACAP research, we emphasize the potential of PACAP as a promising target for migraine treatment, highlighting the significance of exploring PACAP as a member of the antimigraine armamentarium, especially for patients who do not respond to or contraindicated to anti-CGRP therapies. By updating our knowledge of PACAP and its unique contribution to migraine pathophysiology, we can pave the way for reinforcing PACAP and other secretin peptides, including VIP, as a novel treatment option for migraines.

Brain organoids for hypoxic-ischemic studies: from bench to bedside

Our current knowledge regarding the development of the human brain mostly derives from experimental studies on non-human primates, sheep, and rodents. However, these studies may not completely simulate all the features of human brain development as a result of species differences and variations in pre- and postnatal brain maturation. Therefore, it is important to supplement the in vivo animal models to increase the possibility that preclinical studies have appropriate relevance for potential future human trials. Three-dimensional brain organoid culture technology could complement in vivo animal studies to enhance the translatability of the preclinical animal studies and the understanding of brain-related disorders. In this review, we focus on the development of a model of hypoxic-ischemic (HI) brain injury using human brain organoids to complement the translation from animal experiments to human pathophysiology. We also discuss how the development of these tools provides potential opportunities to study fundamental aspects of the pathophysiology of HI-related brain injury including differences in the responses between males and females.

Effects of acute low-moderate dose ionizing radiation to human brain organoids

Human exposure to low-to-moderate dose ionizing radiation (LMD-IR) is increasing via environmental, medical, occupational sources. Acute exposure to LMD-IR can cause subclinical damage to cells, resulting in altered gene expression and cellular function within the human brain. It has been difficult to identify diagnostic and predictive biomarkers of exposure using traditional research models due to factors including lack of 3D structure in monolayer cell cultures, limited ability of animal models to accurately predict human responses, and technical limitations of studying functional human brain tissue. To address this gap, we generated brain/cerebral organoids from human induced pluripotent stem cells to study the radiosensitivity of human brain cells, including neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes. While organoids have become popular models for studying brain physiology and pathology, there is little evidence to confirm that exposing brain organoids to LMD-IR will recapitulate previous in vitro and in vivo observations. We hypothesized that exposing brain organoids to proton radiation would (1) cause a time- and dose-dependent increase in DNA damage, (2) induce cell type-specific differences in radiosensitivity, and (3) increase expression of oxidative stress and DNA damage response genes. Organoids were exposed to 0.5 or 2 Gy of 250 MeV protons and samples were collected at 30 minute, 24 hour, and 48 hour timepoints. Using immunofluorescence and RNA sequencing, we found time- and dose-dependent increases in DNA damage in irradiated organoids; no changes in cell populations for neurons, oligodendrocytes, and astrocytes by 24 hours; decreased expression of genes related to oligodendrocyte lineage, astrocyte lineage, mitochondrial function, and cell cycle progression by 48 hours; increased expression of genes related to neuron lineage, oxidative stress, and DNA damage checkpoint regulation by 48 hours. Our findings demonstrate the possibility of using organoids to characterize cell-specific radiosensitivity and early radiation-induced gene expression changes within the human brain, providing new avenues for further study of the mechanisms underlying acute neural cell responses to IR exposure at low-to-moderate doses.

Novel model of cortical-meningeal organoid co-culture system improves human cortical brain organoid cytoarchitecture

Human cortical organoids (hCOs), derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), provide a platform to interrogate mechanisms of human brain development and diseases in complex three- dimensional tissues. However, current hCO development methods lack important non-neural tissues, such as the surrounding meningeal layer, that have been shown to be essential for normal corticogenesis and brain development. Here, we first generated hCOs from a single rosette to create more homogenous organoids with consistent size around 250 µm by day 5. We then took advantage of a 3D co-culture system to encapsulate brain organoids with a thin layer of meningeal cells from the very early stages of cortical development. Immunostaining analysis was performed to display different cortical layer markers during different stages of development. Real-time monitoring of organoid development using IncuCyte displayed enhanced morphology and increased growth rate over time. We found that meningeal-encapsulated organoids illustrated better laminar organization by exhibiting higher expression of REELIN by Cajal-Retzius neurons. Presence of meningeal cells resulted in a greater expansion of TBR2 intermediate progenitor cells (IPCs), the deep cortical layer (CTIP2) and upper cortical layer (BRN2). Finally, meningeal-encapsulated organoids enhanced outer radial glial and astrocyte formation illustrated by stronger expression of HOPX and GFAP markers, respectively. This study presents a novel 3D co-culture platform to more closely mimic the in vivo cortical brain structure and enable us to better investigating mechanisms underlying the neurodevelopmental disorders during embryonic development.

Hyaluronic Acid as Bioink and Hydrogel Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering Applications

Bioprinting is an additive manufacturing technique that focuses on developing living tissue constructs using bioinks. Bioink is crucial in determining the stability of printed patterns, which remains a major challenge in bioprinting. Thus, the choices of bioink composition, modifications, and cross-linking methods are being continuously researched to augment the clinical translation of bioprinted constructs. Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a naturally occurring polysaccharide with the repeating unit of N-acetyl-glucosamine and d-glucuronic acid disaccharides. It is present in the extracellular matrix (ECM) of tissues (skin, cartilage, nerve, muscle, etc.) with a wide range of molecular weights. Due to the nature of its chemical structure, HA could be easily subjected to chemical modifications and cross-linking that would enable better printability and stability. These interesting properties have made HA an ideal choice of bioinks for developing tissue constructs for regenerative medicine applications. In this Review, the physicochemical properties, reaction chemistry involved in various cross-linking strategies, and biomedical applications of HA have been elaborately discussed. Further, the features of HA bioinks, emerging strategies in HA bioink preparations, and their applications in 3D bioprinting have been highlighted. Finally, the current challenges and future perspectives in the clinical translation of HA-based bioinks are outlined.

Human Brain Organoids in Migraine Research: Pathogenesis and Drug Development

Human organoids are small, self-organized, three-dimensional (3D) tissue cultures that have started to revolutionize medical science in terms of understanding disease, testing pharmacologically active compounds, and offering novel ways to treat disease. Organoids of the liver, kidney, intestine, lung, and brain have been developed in recent years. Human brain organoids are used for understanding pathogenesis and investigating therapeutic options for neurodevelopmental, neuropsychiatric, neurodegenerative, and neurological disorders. Theoretically, several brain disorders can be modeled with the aid of human brain organoids, and hence the potential exists for understanding migraine pathogenesis and its treatment with the aid of brain organoids. Migraine is considered a brain disorder with neurological and non-neurological abnormalities and symptoms. Both genetic and environmental factors play essential roles in migraine pathogenesis and its clinical manifestations. Several types of migraines are classified, for example, migraines with and without aura, and human brain organoids can be developed from patients with these types of migraines to study genetic factors (e.g., channelopathy in calcium channels) and environmental stressors (e.g., chemical and mechanical). In these models, drug candidates for therapeutic purposes can also be tested. Here, the potential and limitations of human brain organoids for studying migraine pathogenesis and its treatment are communicated to generate motivation and stimulate curiosity for further research. This must, however, be considered alongside the complexity of the concept of brain organoids and the neuroethical aspects of the topic. Interested researchers are invited to join the network for protocol development and testing the hypothesis presented here.

Recent Advances in Brain Organoid Technology for Human Brain Research

Brain organoids are self-assembled three-dimensional aggregates with brain-like cell types and structures and have emerged as new model systems that can be used to investigate human neurodevelopment and neurological disorders. However, brain organoids are not as mature and functional as real human brains due to limitations of the culture system with insufficient developmental patterning signals and a lack of components that are important for brain development and function, such as the non-neural population and vasculature. In addition, establishing the desired brain-like environment and monitoring the complex neural networks and physiological functions of the brain organoids remain challenging. The current protocols to generate brain organoids also have problems with heterogeneity and batch variation due to spontaneous self-organization of brain organoids into complex architectures of the brain. To address these limitations of current brain organoid technologies, various engineering platforms, such as extracellular matrices, fluidic devices, three-dimensional bioprinting, bioreactors, polymeric scaffolds, microelectrodes, and biochemical sensors, have been employed to improve neuronal development and maturation, reduce structural heterogeneity, and facilitate functional analysis and monitoring. In this review, we provide an overview of the latest engineering techniques that overcome these limitations in the production and application of brain organoids.

Brain organoid-on-a-chip: A next-generation human brain avatar for recapitulating human brain physiology and pathology

Neurodegenerative diseases and neurodevelopmental disorders have become increasingly prevalent; however, the development of new pharmaceuticals to treat these diseases has lagged. Animal models have been extensively utilized to identify underlying mechanisms and to validate drug efficacies, but they possess inherent limitations including genetic heterogeneity with humans. To overcome these limitations, human cell-based in vitro brain models including brain-on-a-chip and brain organoids have been developed. Each technique has distinct advantages and disadvantages in terms of the mimicry of structure and microenvironment, but each technique could not fully mimic the structure and functional aspects of the brain tissue. Recently, a brain organoid-on-a-chip (BOoC) platform has emerged, which merges brain-on-a-chip and brain organoids. BOoC can potentially reflect the detailed structure of the brain tissue, vascular structure, and circulation of fluid. Hence, we summarize recent advances in BOoC as a human brain avatar and discuss future perspectives. BOoC platform can pave the way for mechanistic studies and the development of pharmaceuticals to treat brain diseases in future.

Cortical Organoids to Model Microcephaly

How the brain develops and achieves its final size is a fascinating issue that questions cortical evolution across species and man's place in the animal kingdom. Although animal models have so far been highly valuable in understanding the key steps of cortical development, many human specificities call for appropriate models. In particular, microcephaly, a neurodevelopmental disorder that is characterized by a smaller head circumference has been challenging to model in mice, which often do not fully recapitulate the human phenotype. The relatively recent development of brain organoid technology from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) now makes it possible to model human microcephaly, both due to genetic and environmental origins, and to generate developing cortical tissue from the patients themselves. These 3D tissues rely on iPSCs differentiation into cortical progenitors that self-organize into neuroepithelial rosettes mimicking the earliest stages of human neurogenesis in vitro. Over the last ten years, numerous protocols have been developed to control the identity of the induced brain areas, the reproducibility of the experiments and the longevity of the cultures, allowing analysis of the later stages. In this review, we describe the different approaches that instruct human iPSCs to form cortical organoids, summarize the different microcephalic conditions that have so far been modeled by organoids, and discuss the relevance of this model to decipher the cellular and molecular mechanisms of primary and secondary microcephalies.

Human Cerebral Organoid Implantation Alleviated the Neurological Deficits of Traumatic Brain Injury in Mice

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) causes a high rate of mortality and disability, and its treatment is still limited. Loss of neurons in damaged area is hardly rescued by relative molecular therapies. Based on its disease characteristics, we transplanted human embryonic stem cell- (hESC-) derived cerebral organoids in the brain lesions of controlled cortical impact- (CCI-) modeled severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) mice. Grafted organoids survived and differentiated in CCI-induced lesion pools in mouse cortical tissue. Implanted cerebral organoids differentiated into various types of neuronal cells, extended long projections, and showed spontaneous action, as indicated by electromyographic activity in the grafts. Induced vascularization and reduced glial scar were also found after organoid implantation, suggesting grafting could improve local situation and promote neural repair. More importantly, the CCI mice's spatial learning and memory improved after organoid grafting. These findings suggest that cerebral organoid implanted in lesion sites differentiates into cortical neurons, forms long projections, and reverses deficits in spatial learning and memory, a potential therapeutic avenue for TBI.