1
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Najihah AZ, Hassan MZ, Ismail Z. Current trend on preparation, characterization and biomedical applications of natural polysaccharide-based nanomaterial reinforcement hydrogels: A review. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 271:132411. [PMID: 38821798 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.132411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2024] [Revised: 05/12/2024] [Accepted: 05/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/02/2024]
Abstract
The tunable properties of hydrogels have led to their widespread use in various biomedical applications such as wound treatment, drug delivery, contact lenses, tissue engineering and 3D bioprinting. Among these applications, natural polysaccharide-based hydrogels, which are fabricated from materials like agarose, alginate, chitosan, hyaluronic acid, cellulose, pectin and chondroitin sulfate, stand out as preferred choices due to their biocompatibility and advantageous fabrication characteristics. Despite the inherent biocompatibility, polysaccharide-based hydrogels on their own tend to be weak in physiochemical and mechanical properties. Therefore, further reinforcement in the hydrogel is necessary to enhance its suitability for specific applications, ensuring optimal performance in diverse settings. Integrating nanomaterials into hydrogels has proven effective in improving the overall network and performance of the hydrogel. This approach also addresses the limitations associated with pure hydrogels. Next, an overview of recent trends in the fabrication and applications of hydrogels was presented. The characterization of hydrogels was further discussed, focusing specifically on the reinforcement achieved with various hydrogel materials used so far. Finally, a few challenges associated with hydrogels by using polysaccharide-based nanomaterial were also presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Z Najihah
- Faculty of Artificial Intelligence, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Yahya Petra, 54100 Kuala Lumpur, Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Mohamad Zaki Hassan
- Faculty of Artificial Intelligence, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Yahya Petra, 54100 Kuala Lumpur, Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
| | - Zarini Ismail
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia, Bandar Baru Nilai, 71800 Nilai, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia
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2
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Sacramento MMA, Oliveira MB, Gomes JRB, Borges J, Freedman BR, Mooney DJ, Rodrigues JMM, Mano JF. Natural Polymer-Polyphenol Bioadhesive Coacervate with Stable Wet Adhesion, Antibacterial Activity, and On-Demand Detachment. Adv Healthc Mater 2024; 13:e2304587. [PMID: 38334308 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202304587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Revised: 02/02/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
Medical adhesives are emerging as an important clinical tool as adjuvants for sutures and staples in wound closure and healing and in the achievement of hemostasis. However, clinical adhesives combining cytocompatibility, as well as strong and stable adhesion in physiological conditions, are still in demand. Herein, a mussel-inspired strategy is explored to produce adhesive coacervates using tannic acid (TA) and methacrylate pullulan (PUL-MA). TA|PUL-MA coacervates mainly comprise van der Waals forces and hydrophobic interactions. The methacrylic groups in the PUL backbone increase the number of interactions in the adhesives matrix, resulting in enhanced cohesion and adhesion strength (72.7 Jm-2), compared to the non-methacrylated coacervate. The adhesive properties are kept in physiologic-mimetic solutions (72.8 Jm-2) for 72 h. The photopolymerization of TA|PUL-MA enables the on-demand detachment of the adhesive. The poor cytocompatibility associated with the use of phenolic groups is here circumvented by mixing reactive oxygen species-degrading enzyme in the adhesive coacervate. This addition does not hamper the adhesive character of the materials, nor their anti-microbial or hemostatic properties. This affordable and straightforward methodology, together with the tailorable adhesivity even in wet environments, high cytocompatibility, and anti-bacterial activity, enables foresee TA|PUL-MA as a promising ready-to-use bioadhesive for biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margarida M A Sacramento
- CICECO - Aveiro Institute of Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, Aveiro, 3810-193, Portugal
| | - Mariana B Oliveira
- CICECO - Aveiro Institute of Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, Aveiro, 3810-193, Portugal
| | - José R B Gomes
- CICECO - Aveiro Institute of Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, Aveiro, 3810-193, Portugal
| | - João Borges
- CICECO - Aveiro Institute of Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, Aveiro, 3810-193, Portugal
| | - Benjamin R Freedman
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
| | - David J Mooney
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - João M M Rodrigues
- CICECO - Aveiro Institute of Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, Aveiro, 3810-193, Portugal
| | - João F Mano
- CICECO - Aveiro Institute of Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, Aveiro, 3810-193, Portugal
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3
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Li H, Shang Y, Zeng J, Matsusaki M. Technology for the formation of engineered microvascular network models and their biomedical applications. NANO CONVERGENCE 2024; 11:10. [PMID: 38430377 PMCID: PMC10908775 DOI: 10.1186/s40580-024-00416-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2023] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/03/2024]
Abstract
Tissue engineering and regenerative medicine have made great progress in recent decades, as the fields of bioengineering, materials science, and stem cell biology have converged, allowing tissue engineers to replicate the structure and function of various levels of the vascular tree. Nonetheless, the lack of a fully functional vascular system to efficiently supply oxygen and nutrients has hindered the clinical application of bioengineered tissues for transplantation. To investigate vascular biology, drug transport, disease progression, and vascularization of engineered tissues for regenerative medicine, we have analyzed different approaches for designing microvascular networks to create models. This review discusses recent advances in the field of microvascular tissue engineering, explores potential future challenges, and offers methodological recommendations.
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Affiliation(s)
- He Li
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, 2-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
| | - Yucheng Shang
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, 2-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
| | - Jinfeng Zeng
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, 2-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
| | - Michiya Matsusaki
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, 2-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan.
- Joint Research Laboratory (TOPPAN) for Advanced Cell Regulatory Chemistry, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan.
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4
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Borges J, Zeng J, Liu XQ, Chang H, Monge C, Garot C, Ren KF, Machillot P, Vrana NE, Lavalle P, Akagi T, Matsusaki M, Ji J, Akashi M, Mano JF, Gribova V, Picart C. Recent Developments in Layer-by-Layer Assembly for Drug Delivery and Tissue Engineering Applications. Adv Healthc Mater 2024; 13:e2302713. [PMID: 38116714 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202302713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Revised: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
Surfaces with biological functionalities are of great interest for biomaterials, tissue engineering, biophysics, and for controlling biological processes. The layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly is a highly versatile methodology introduced 30 years ago, which consists of assembling complementary polyelectrolytes or biomolecules in a stepwise manner to form thin self-assembled films. In view of its simplicity, compatibility with biological molecules, and adaptability to any kind of supporting material carrier, this technology has undergone major developments over the past decades. Specific applications have emerged in different biomedical fields owing to the possibility to load or immobilize biomolecules with preserved bioactivity, to use an extremely broad range of biomolecules and supporting carriers, and to modify the film's mechanical properties via crosslinking. In this review, the focus is on the recent developments regarding LbL films formed as 2D or 3D objects for applications in drug delivery and tissue engineering. Possible applications in the fields of vaccinology, 3D biomimetic tissue models, as well as bone and cardiovascular tissue engineering are highlighted. In addition, the most recent technological developments in the field of film construction, such as high-content liquid handling or machine learning, which are expected to open new perspectives in the future developments of LbL, are presented.
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Grants
- GA259370 ERC "BIOMIM"
- GA692924 ERC "BioactiveCoatings"
- GA790435 ERC "Regenerbone"
- ANR-17-CE13-022 Agence Nationale de la Recherche "CODECIDE", "OBOE", "BuccaVac"
- ANR-18-CE17-0016 Agence Nationale de la Recherche "CODECIDE", "OBOE", "BuccaVac"
- 192974 Agence Nationale de la Recherche "CODECIDE", "OBOE", "BuccaVac"
- ANR-20-CE19-022 BIOFISS Agence Nationale de la Recherche "CODECIDE", "OBOE", "BuccaVac"
- ANR22-CE19-0024 SAFEST Agence Nationale de la Recherche "CODECIDE", "OBOE", "BuccaVac"
- DOS0062033/0 FUI-BPI France
- 883370 European Research Council "REBORN"
- 2020.00758.CEECIND Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology
- UIDB/50011/2020,UIDP/50011/2020,LA/P/0006/2020 FCT/MCTES (PIDDAC)
- 751061 European Union's Horizon 2020 "PolyVac"
- 11623 Sidaction
- 20H00665 JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research
- 3981662 BPI France Aide Deep Tech programme
- ECTZ60600 Agence Nationale de Recherches sur le Sida et les Hépatites Virales
- 101079482 HORIZON EUROPE Framework Programme "SUPRALIFE"
- 101058554 Horizon Europe EIC Accelerator "SPARTHACUS"
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Affiliation(s)
- João Borges
- CICECO - Aveiro Institute of Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, Aveiro, 3810-193, Portugal
| | - Jinfeng Zeng
- Division of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, 2-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
| | - Xi Qiu Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Hao Chang
- Hangzhou Institute of Medicine, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310022, China
| | - Claire Monge
- Laboratory of Tissue Biology and Therapeutic Engineering (LBTI), UMR5305 CNRS/Universite Claude Bernard Lyon 1, 7 Passage du Vercors, Lyon, 69367, France
| | - Charlotte Garot
- Université de Grenoble Alpes, CEA, INSERM U1292 Biosanté, CNRS EMR 5000 Biomimetism and Regenerative Medicine (BRM), 17 avenue des Martyrs, Grenoble, F-38054, France
| | - Ke-Feng Ren
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
| | - Paul Machillot
- Université de Grenoble Alpes, CEA, INSERM U1292 Biosanté, CNRS EMR 5000 Biomimetism and Regenerative Medicine (BRM), 17 avenue des Martyrs, Grenoble, F-38054, France
| | - Nihal E Vrana
- SPARTHA Medical, 1 Rue Eugène Boeckel, Strasbourg, 67000, France
| | - Philippe Lavalle
- SPARTHA Medical, 1 Rue Eugène Boeckel, Strasbourg, 67000, France
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Inserm UMR_S 1121 Biomaterials and Bioengineering, Centre de Recherche en Biomédecine de Strasbourg, 1 rue Eugène Boeckel, Strasbourg, 67000, France
- Université de Strasbourg, Faculté de Chirurgie Dentaire, 1 place de l'Hôpital, Strasbourg, 67000, France
| | - Takami Akagi
- Building Block Science Joint Research Chair, Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, 1-3 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
| | - Michiya Matsusaki
- Division of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, 2-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
| | - Jian Ji
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
| | - Mitsuru Akashi
- Building Block Science Joint Research Chair, Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, 1-3 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
| | - João F Mano
- CICECO - Aveiro Institute of Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, Aveiro, 3810-193, Portugal
| | - Varvara Gribova
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Inserm UMR_S 1121 Biomaterials and Bioengineering, Centre de Recherche en Biomédecine de Strasbourg, 1 rue Eugène Boeckel, Strasbourg, 67000, France
- Université de Strasbourg, Faculté de Chirurgie Dentaire, 1 place de l'Hôpital, Strasbourg, 67000, France
| | - Catherine Picart
- Université de Grenoble Alpes, CEA, INSERM U1292 Biosanté, CNRS EMR 5000 Biomimetism and Regenerative Medicine (BRM), 17 avenue des Martyrs, Grenoble, F-38054, France
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5
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Alsalhi A. Applications of selected polysaccharides and proteins in dentistry: A review. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 260:129215. [PMID: 38185301 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.129215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/09/2024]
Abstract
In the last ten years, remarkable characteristics and a variety of functionalities have been created in biopolymeric materials for clinical dental applications. This review gives an overview of current knowledge of natural biopolymers (biological macromolecules) in terms of structural, functional, and property interactions. Natural biopolymers such as polysaccharides (chitosan, bacterial cellulose, hyaluronic acid, and alginate) and polypeptides (collagen and silk fibroin) have been discussed for dental uses. These biopolymers exhibit excellent properties alone and when employed with other composite molecules making them ideal for treatment of periodontitis, endodontics, dental pulp regeneration and oral wound healing. These biopolymers together with the composite materials exhibit better biocompatibility, inertness, elasticity and flexibility which makes them a leading candidate to be used for other dental applications like caries management, oral appliances, dentures, dental implants and oral surgeries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdullah Alsalhi
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, P.O. Box 114, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia.
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6
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Berezina OV, Rykov SV, Schwarz WH, Liebl W. Xanthan: enzymatic degradation and novel perspectives of applications. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2024; 108:227. [PMID: 38381223 PMCID: PMC10881899 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-024-13016-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Revised: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
The extracellular heteropolysaccharide xanthan, synthesized by bacteria of the genus Xanthomonas, is widely used as a thickening and stabilizing agent across the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical sectors. Expanding the scope of its application, current efforts target the use of xanthan to develop innovative functional materials and products, such as edible films, eco-friendly oil surfactants, and biocompatible composites for tissue engineering. Xanthan-derived oligosaccharides are useful as nutritional supplements and plant defense elicitors. Development and processing of such new functional materials and products often necessitate tuning of xanthan properties through targeted structural modification. This task can be effectively carried out with the help of xanthan-specific enzymes. However, the complex molecular structure and intricate conformational behavior of xanthan create problems with its enzymatic hydrolysis or modification. This review summarizes and analyzes data concerning xanthan-degrading enzymes originating from microorganisms and microbial consortia, with a particular focus on the dependence of enzymatic activity on the structure and conformation of xanthan. Through a comparative study of xanthan-degrading pathways found within various bacterial classes, different microbial enzyme systems for xanthan utilization have been identified. The characterization of these new enzymes opens new perspectives for modifying xanthan structure and developing innovative xanthan-based applications. KEY POINTS: • The structure and conformation of xanthan affect enzymatic degradation. • Microorganisms use diverse multienzyme systems for xanthan degradation. • Xanthan-specific enzymes can be used to develop xanthan variants for novel applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oksana V Berezina
- National Research Centre «Kurchatov Institute», Academician Kurchatov Sq. 1, 123182, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Sergey V Rykov
- National Research Centre «Kurchatov Institute», Academician Kurchatov Sq. 1, 123182, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Wolfgang H Schwarz
- Chair of Microbiology, Technical University of Munich, TUM School of Life Sciences, Emil-Ramann-Str. 4, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Liebl
- Chair of Microbiology, Technical University of Munich, TUM School of Life Sciences, Emil-Ramann-Str. 4, 85354, Freising, Germany.
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7
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Bülow A, Schäfer B, Beier JP. Three-Dimensional Bioprinting in Soft Tissue Engineering for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. Bioengineering (Basel) 2023; 10:1232. [PMID: 37892962 PMCID: PMC10604458 DOI: 10.3390/bioengineering10101232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2023] [Revised: 10/05/2023] [Accepted: 10/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Skeletal muscle tissue engineering (TE) and adipose tissue engineering have undergone significant progress in recent years. This review focuses on the key findings in these areas, particularly highlighting the integration of 3D bioprinting techniques to overcome challenges and enhance tissue regeneration. In skeletal muscle TE, 3D bioprinting enables the precise replication of muscle architecture. This addresses the need for the parallel alignment of cells and proper innervation. Satellite cells (SCs) and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been utilized, along with co-cultivation strategies for vascularization and innervation. Therefore, various printing methods and materials, including decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM), have been explored. Similarly, in adipose tissue engineering, 3D bioprinting has been employed to overcome the challenge of vascularization; addressing this challenge is vital for graft survival. Decellularized adipose tissue and biomimetic scaffolds have been used as biological inks, along with adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs), to enhance graft survival. The integration of dECM and alginate bioinks has demonstrated improved adipocyte maturation and differentiation. These findings highlight the potential of 3D bioprinting techniques in skeletal muscle and adipose tissue engineering. By integrating specific cell types, biomaterials, and printing methods, significant progress has been made in tissue regeneration. However, challenges such as fabricating larger constructs, translating findings to human models, and obtaining regulatory approvals for cellular therapies remain to be addressed. Nonetheless, these advancements underscore the transformative impact of 3D bioprinting in tissue engineering research and its potential for future clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid Bülow
- Department of Plastic Surgery, Hand Surgery, Burn Center, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, 52074 Aachen, Germany; (B.S.); (J.P.B.)
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8
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Sousa CFV, Monteiro LPG, Rodrigues JMM, Borges J, Mano JF. Marine-origin polysaccharides-based free-standing multilayered membranes as sustainable nanoreservoirs for controlled drug delivery. J Mater Chem B 2023. [PMID: 37377032 DOI: 10.1039/d3tb00796k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/29/2023]
Abstract
The layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly technology has been widely used to functionalise surfaces and precisely engineer robust multilayered bioarchitectures with tunable structures, compositions, properties, and functions at the nanoscale by resorting to a myriad of building blocks exhibiting complementary interactions. Among them, marine-origin polysaccharides are a sustainable renewable resource for the fabrication of nanostructured biomaterials for biomedical applications owing to their wide bioavailability, biocompatibility, biodegradability, non-cytotoxicity, and non-immunogenic properties. Chitosan (CHT) and alginate (ALG) have been widely employed as LbL ingredients to shape a wide repertoire of size- and shape-tunable electrostatic-driven multilayered assemblies by exploring their opposite charge nature. However, the insolubility of CHT in physiological conditions intrinsically limits the range of bioapplications of the as-developed CHT-based LbL structures. Herein, we report the preparation of free-standing (FS) multilayered membranes made of water-soluble quaternised CHT and ALG biopolymers for controlled release of model drug molecules. The influence of the film structure in the drug release rate is studied by assembling two distinct set-ups of FS membranes, having the model hydrophilic drug fluorescein isothiocyanate-labelled bovine serum albumin (FITC-BSA) either as an intrinsic building block or added as an outer layer after the LbL assembly process. Both FS membranes are characterised for their thickness, morphology, in vitro cytocompatibility, and release profile, with those having FITC-BSA as an intrinsic LbL ingredient denoting a more sustained release rate. This work opens up new avenues for the design and development of a wide array of CHT-based devices for biomedical applications, overcoming the limitations associated with the insolubility of native CHT under physiological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristiana F V Sousa
- CICECO - Aveiro Institute of Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - Luís P G Monteiro
- CICECO - Aveiro Institute of Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - João M M Rodrigues
- CICECO - Aveiro Institute of Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - João Borges
- CICECO - Aveiro Institute of Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - João F Mano
- CICECO - Aveiro Institute of Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
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9
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Petroni S, Tagliaro I, Antonini C, D’Arienzo M, Orsini SF, Mano JF, Brancato V, Borges J, Cipolla L. Chitosan-Based Biomaterials: Insights into Chemistry, Properties, Devices, and Their Biomedical Applications. Mar Drugs 2023; 21:md21030147. [PMID: 36976196 PMCID: PMC10059909 DOI: 10.3390/md21030147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2023] [Revised: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Chitosan is a marine-origin polysaccharide obtained from the deacetylation of chitin, the main component of crustaceans’ exoskeleton, and the second most abundant in nature. Although this biopolymer has received limited attention for several decades right after its discovery, since the new millennium chitosan has emerged owing to its physicochemical, structural and biological properties, multifunctionalities and applications in several sectors. This review aims at providing an overview of chitosan properties, chemical functionalization, and the innovative biomaterials obtained thereof. Firstly, the chemical functionalization of chitosan backbone in the amino and hydroxyl groups will be addressed. Then, the review will focus on the bottom-up strategies to process a wide array of chitosan-based biomaterials. In particular, the preparation of chitosan-based hydrogels, organic–inorganic hybrids, layer-by-layer assemblies, (bio)inks and their use in the biomedical field will be covered aiming to elucidate and inspire the community to keep on exploring the unique features and properties imparted by chitosan to develop advanced biomedical devices. Given the wide body of literature that has appeared in past years, this review is far from being exhaustive. Selected works in the last 10 years will be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Petroni
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milano, Italy
| | - Irene Tagliaro
- Department of Materials Science, University of Milano-Bicocca, 20125 Milano, Italy
| | - Carlo Antonini
- Department of Materials Science, University of Milano-Bicocca, 20125 Milano, Italy
| | | | - Sara Fernanda Orsini
- Department of Materials Science, University of Milano-Bicocca, 20125 Milano, Italy
| | - João F. Mano
- CICECO–Aveiro Institute of Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Virginia Brancato
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milano, Italy
| | - João Borges
- CICECO–Aveiro Institute of Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
- Correspondence: (J.B.); (L.C.); Tel.: +351-234372585 (J.B.); +39-0264483460 (L.C.)
| | - Laura Cipolla
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milano, Italy
- Correspondence: (J.B.); (L.C.); Tel.: +351-234372585 (J.B.); +39-0264483460 (L.C.)
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10
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Application of Hydrogels as Three-Dimensional Bioprinting Ink for Tissue Engineering. Gels 2023; 9:gels9020088. [PMID: 36826258 PMCID: PMC9956898 DOI: 10.3390/gels9020088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Revised: 01/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The use of three-dimensional bioprinting technology combined with the principle of tissue engineering is important for the construction of tissue or organ regeneration microenvironments. As a three-dimensional bioprinting ink, hydrogels need to be highly printable and provide a stiff and cell-friendly microenvironment. At present, hydrogels are used as bioprinting inks in tissue engineering. However, there is still a lack of summary of the latest 3D printing technology and the properties of hydrogel materials. In this paper, the materials commonly used as hydrogel bioinks; the advanced technologies including inkjet bioprinting, extrusion bioprinting, laser-assisted bioprinting, stereolithography bioprinting, suspension bioprinting, and digital 3D bioprinting technologies; printing characterization including printability and fidelity; biological properties, and the application fields of bioprinting hydrogels in bone tissue engineering, skin tissue engineering, cardiovascular tissue engineering are reviewed, and the current problems and future directions are prospected.
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11
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Sacramento MMA, Borges J, Correia FJS, Calado R, Rodrigues JMM, Patrício SG, Mano JF. Green approaches for extraction, chemical modification and processing of marine polysaccharides for biomedical applications. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:1041102. [PMID: 36568299 PMCID: PMC9773402 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.1041102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the past few decades, natural-origin polysaccharides have received increasing attention across different fields of application, including biomedicine and biotechnology, because of their specific physicochemical and biological properties that have afforded the fabrication of a plethora of multifunctional devices for healthcare applications. More recently, marine raw materials from fisheries and aquaculture have emerged as a highly sustainable approach to convert marine biomass into added-value polysaccharides for human benefit. Nowadays, significant efforts have been made to combine such circular bio-based approach with cost-effective and environmentally-friendly technologies that enable the isolation of marine-origin polysaccharides up to the final construction of a biomedical device, thus developing an entirely sustainable pipeline. In this regard, the present review intends to provide an up-to-date outlook on the current green extraction methodologies of marine-origin polysaccharides and their molecular engineering toolbox for designing a multitude of biomaterial platforms for healthcare. Furthermore, we discuss how to foster circular bio-based approaches to pursue the further development of added-value biomedical devices, while preserving the marine ecosystem.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - João Borges
- CICECO–Aveiro Institute of Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Fernando J. S. Correia
- Laboratory of Scientific Illustration, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Ricardo Calado
- Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM), Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - João M. M. Rodrigues
- CICECO–Aveiro Institute of Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal,*Correspondence: João M. M. Rodrigues, ; Sónia G. Patrício, ; João F. Mano,
| | - Sónia G. Patrício
- CICECO–Aveiro Institute of Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal,*Correspondence: João M. M. Rodrigues, ; Sónia G. Patrício, ; João F. Mano,
| | - João F. Mano
- CICECO–Aveiro Institute of Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal,*Correspondence: João M. M. Rodrigues, ; Sónia G. Patrício, ; João F. Mano,
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12
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Biopolymer-Based Wound Dressings with Biochemical Cues for Cell-Instructive Wound Repair. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14245371. [PMID: 36559739 PMCID: PMC9783382 DOI: 10.3390/polym14245371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2022] [Revised: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Regenerative medicine is an active research sphere that focuses on the repair, regeneration, and replacement of damaged tissues and organs. A plethora of innovative wound dressings and skin substitutes have been developed to treat cutaneous wounds and are aimed at reducing the length or need for a hospital stay. The inception of biomaterials with the ability to interact with cells and direct them toward desired lineages has brought about innovative designs in wound healing and tissue engineering. This cellular engagement is achieved by cell cues that can be biochemical or biophysical in nature. In effect, these cues seep into innate repair pathways, cause downstream cell behaviours and, ultimately, lead to advantageous healing. This review will focus on biomolecules with encoded biomimetic, instructive prompts that elicit desired cellular domino effects to achieve advanced wound repair. The wound healing dressings covered in this review are based on functionalized biopolymeric materials. While both biophysical and biochemical cues are vital for advanced wound healing applications, focus will be placed on biochemical cues and in vivo or clinical trial applications. The biochemical cues aforementioned will include peptide therapy, collagen matrices, cell-based therapy, decellularized matrices, platelet-rich plasma, and biometals.
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13
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Bertsch P, Diba M, Mooney DJ, Leeuwenburgh SCG. Self-Healing Injectable Hydrogels for Tissue Regeneration. Chem Rev 2022; 123:834-873. [PMID: 35930422 PMCID: PMC9881015 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 88.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Biomaterials with the ability to self-heal and recover their structural integrity offer many advantages for applications in biomedicine. The past decade has witnessed the rapid emergence of a new class of self-healing biomaterials commonly termed injectable, or printable in the context of 3D printing. These self-healing injectable biomaterials, mostly hydrogels and other soft condensed matter based on reversible chemistry, are able to temporarily fluidize under shear stress and subsequently recover their original mechanical properties. Self-healing injectable hydrogels offer distinct advantages compared to traditional biomaterials. Most notably, they can be administered in a locally targeted and minimally invasive manner through a narrow syringe without the need for invasive surgery. Their moldability allows for a patient-specific intervention and shows great prospects for personalized medicine. Injected hydrogels can facilitate tissue regeneration in multiple ways owing to their viscoelastic and diffusive nature, ranging from simple mechanical support, spatiotemporally controlled delivery of cells or therapeutics, to local recruitment and modulation of host cells to promote tissue regeneration. Consequently, self-healing injectable hydrogels have been at the forefront of many cutting-edge tissue regeneration strategies. This study provides a critical review of the current state of self-healing injectable hydrogels for tissue regeneration. As key challenges toward further maturation of this exciting research field, we identify (i) the trade-off between the self-healing and injectability of hydrogels vs their physical stability, (ii) the lack of consensus on rheological characterization and quantitative benchmarks for self-healing injectable hydrogels, particularly regarding the capillary flow in syringes, and (iii) practical limitations regarding translation toward therapeutically effective formulations for regeneration of specific tissues. Hence, here we (i) review chemical and physical design strategies for self-healing injectable hydrogels, (ii) provide a practical guide for their rheological analysis, and (iii) showcase their applicability for regeneration of various tissues and 3D printing of complex tissues and organoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascal Bertsch
- Department
of Dentistry-Regenerative Biomaterials, Radboud Institute for Molecular
Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical
Center, 6525 EX Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Mani Diba
- Department
of Dentistry-Regenerative Biomaterials, Radboud Institute for Molecular
Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical
Center, 6525 EX Nijmegen, The Netherlands,John
A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States,Wyss
Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering at Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - David J. Mooney
- John
A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States,Wyss
Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering at Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Sander C. G. Leeuwenburgh
- Department
of Dentistry-Regenerative Biomaterials, Radboud Institute for Molecular
Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical
Center, 6525 EX Nijmegen, The Netherlands,
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14
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Huang Y, Zhang M, Wang J, Xu D, Zhong C. Engineering microbial systems for the production and functionalization of biomaterialsBiomaterials engineering with microorganisms. Curr Opin Microbiol 2022; 68:102154. [PMID: 35568018 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2022.102154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2022] [Revised: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
A new trend in biomaterials synthesis is harnessing the production of microorganisms, owing to the low cost and sustainability. Because microorganisms use DNA as a production code, it is possible for humans to reprogram these cells and thus build living factories for the production of biomaterials. Over the past decade, advances in genetic engineering have enabled the development of various intriguing biomaterials with useful properties, with commercially available biomaterials representing only a few of these. In this review, we discuss the common strategies for the production of bulk and commodity biogenic polymers, and highlight several notable approaches such as modular protein engineering and pathway optimization in achieving these goals. We finally investigate the available synthetic biology tools that allow engineering of living materials, and discuss how this emerging class of materials has expanded the application scope of biomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanyuan Huang
- Center for Materials Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China; Cas Key Laboratory of Quantitative Engineering Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China
| | - Mingyi Zhang
- Center for Materials Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China; Cas Key Laboratory of Quantitative Engineering Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jie Wang
- Center for Materials Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China; Cas Key Laboratory of Quantitative Engineering Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China; Shenyang National Laboratory for Materials Science, Northeastern University, Shenyang, China; Electrobiomaterials Institute, Key Laboratory for Anisotropy and Texture of Materials (Ministry of Education), Northeastern University, Shenyang, China
| | - Dake Xu
- Shenyang National Laboratory for Materials Science, Northeastern University, Shenyang, China; Electrobiomaterials Institute, Key Laboratory for Anisotropy and Texture of Materials (Ministry of Education), Northeastern University, Shenyang, China
| | - Chao Zhong
- Center for Materials Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China; Cas Key Laboratory of Quantitative Engineering Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China.
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15
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Advancements in Fabrication and Application of Chitosan Composites in Implants and Dentistry: A Review. Biomolecules 2022; 12:biom12020155. [PMID: 35204654 PMCID: PMC8961661 DOI: 10.3390/biom12020155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Revised: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 01/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Chitosan is a biopolymer that is found in nature and is produced from chitin deacetylation. Chitosan has been studied thoroughly for multiple applications with an interdisciplinary approach. Antifungal antibacterial activities, mucoadhesion, non-toxicity, biodegradability, and biocompatibility are some of the unique characteristics of chitosan-based biomaterials. Moreover, chitosan is the only widely-used natural polysaccharide, and it is possible to chemically modify it for different applications and functions. In various fields, chitosan composite and compound manufacturing has acquired much interest in developing several promising products. Chitosan and its derivatives have gained attention universally in biomedical and pharmaceutical industries as a result of their desired characteristics. In the present mini-review, novel methods for preparing chitosan-containing materials for dental and implant engineering applications along with challenges and future perspectives are discussed.
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16
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Shafiee S, Shariatzadeh S, Zafari A, Majd A, Niknejad H. Recent Advances on Cell-Based Co-Culture Strategies for Prevascularization in Tissue Engineering. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2021; 9:745314. [PMID: 34900955 PMCID: PMC8655789 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2021.745314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Currently, the fabrication of a functional vascular network to maintain the viability of engineered tissues is a major bottleneck in the way of developing a more advanced engineered construct. Inspired by vasculogenesis during the embryonic period, the in vitro prevascularization strategies have focused on optimizing communications and interactions of cells, biomaterial and culture conditions to develop a capillary-like network to tackle the aforementioned issue. Many of these studies employ a combination of endothelial lineage cells and supporting cells such as mesenchymal stem cells, fibroblasts, and perivascular cells to create a lumenized endothelial network. These supporting cells are necessary for the stabilization of the newly developed endothelial network. Moreover, to optimize endothelial network development without impairing biomechanical properties of scaffolds or differentiation of target tissue cells, several other factors, including target tissue, endothelial cell origins, the choice of supporting cell, culture condition, incorporated pro-angiogenic factors, and choice of biomaterial must be taken into account. The prevascularization method can also influence the endothelial lineage cell/supporting cell co-culture system to vascularize the bioengineered constructs. This review aims to investigate the recent advances on standard cells used in in vitro prevascularization methods, their co-culture systems, and conditions in which they form an organized and functional vascular network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sepehr Shafiee
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Siavash Shariatzadeh
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Zafari
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Alireza Majd
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hassan Niknejad
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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17
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Exploiting the fundamentals of biological organization for the advancement of biofabrication. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2021; 74:42-54. [PMID: 34798447 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2021.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Revised: 09/26/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The field of biofabrication continues to progress, offering higher levels of spatial control, reproducibility, and functionality. However, we remain far from recapitulating what nature has achieved. Biological systems such as tissues and organs are assembled from the bottom-up through coordinated supramolecular and cellular processes that result in their remarkable structures and functionalities. In this perspective, we propose that incorporating such biological assembling mechanisms within fabrication techniques, offers an opportunity to push the boundaries of biofabrication. We dissect these mechanisms into distinct biological organization principles (BOPs) including self-assembly, compartmentalization, diffusion-reaction, disorder-to-order transitions, and out-of-equilibrium processes. We highlight recent work demonstrating the viability and potential of these approaches to enhance scalability, reproducibility, vascularization, and biomimicry; as well as current challenges to overcome.
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18
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Teixeira-Costa BE, Andrade CT. Chitosan as a Valuable Biomolecule from Seafood Industry Waste in the Design of Green Food Packaging. Biomolecules 2021; 11:1599. [PMID: 34827597 PMCID: PMC8615795 DOI: 10.3390/biom11111599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Revised: 10/24/2021] [Accepted: 10/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Chitosan is a versatile biomolecule with a broad range of applications in food and pharmaceutical products. It can be obtained by the alkaline deacetylation of chitin. This biomolecule can be extracted using conventional or green methods from seafood industry residues, e.g., shrimp shells. Chitin has limited applications because of its low solubility in organic solvents. Chitosan is soluble in acidified solutions allowing its application in the food industry. Furthermore, biological properties, such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, as well as its biodegradability, biocompatibility and nontoxicity have contributed to its increasing application as active food packaging. Nevertheless, some physical and mechanical features have limited a broader range of applications of chitosan-based films. Green approaches may be used to address these limitations, leading to well-designed chitosan-based food packaging, by employing principles of a circular and sustainable economy. In this review, we summarize the properties of chitosan and present a novel green technology as an alternative to conventional chitin extraction and to design environmentally friendly food packaging based on chitosan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara E. Teixeira-Costa
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciência de Alimentos, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Avenida Moniz Aragão 360, Bloco 8G/CT2, Rio de Janeiro 21941-594, RJ, Brazil;
- Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias, Universidade Federal do Amazonas, Avenida General Rodrigo Otávio 6200, Manaus 69077-000, AM, Brazil
| | - Cristina T. Andrade
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciência de Alimentos, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Avenida Moniz Aragão 360, Bloco 8G/CT2, Rio de Janeiro 21941-594, RJ, Brazil;
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19
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Polyelectrolyte Multilayer Films Based on Natural Polymers: From Fundamentals to Bio-Applications. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13142254. [PMID: 34301010 PMCID: PMC8309355 DOI: 10.3390/polym13142254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 07/06/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Natural polymers are of great interest in the biomedical field due to their intrinsic properties such as biodegradability, biocompatibility, and non-toxicity. Layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly of natural polymers is a versatile, simple, efficient, reproducible, and flexible bottom-up technique for the development of nanostructured materials in a controlled manner. The multiple morphological and structural advantages of LbL compared to traditional coating methods (i.e., precise control over the thickness and compositions at the nanoscale, simplicity, versatility, suitability, and flexibility to coat surfaces with irregular shapes and sizes), make LbL one of the most useful techniques for building up advanced multilayer polymer structures for application in several fields, e.g., biomedicine, energy, and optics. This review article collects the main advances concerning multilayer assembly of natural polymers employing the most used LbL techniques (i.e., dipping, spray, and spin coating) leading to multilayer polymer structures and the influence of several variables (i.e., pH, molar mass, and method of preparation) in this LbL assembly process. Finally, the employment of these multilayer biopolymer films as platforms for tissue engineering, drug delivery, and thermal therapies will be discussed.
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