Neuroadaptive changes associated with smoking: structural and functional neural changes in nicotine dependence

Disruption of relapse to cocaine and morphine seeking by LiCl-induced aversive counterconditioning following memory retrieval

Substance use disorder is conceptualized as a form of maladaptive learning, whereby drug-associated memories, elicited by the presence of stimuli related to drug contexts or cues, contribute to the persistent recurrence of craving and the reinstatement of drug-seeking behavior. Hence, use of pharmacology or non-pharmacology way to disrupt drug-related memory holds promise to prevent relapse. Several studies have shown that memories can be unstable and susceptible to modification during the retrieval reactivation phase, termed the "reconsolidation time window". In this study, we use the classical conditioned place preference (CPP) model to investigate the role of aversive counterconditioning on drug-related memories during reconsolidation. Specifically, we uncovered that reconditioning drug cues through counterconditioning with LiCl-induced aversive outcomes following drug memory retrieval reduces subsequent drug-seeking behavior. Notably, the recall of cocaine- or morphine-CPP was eliminated when LiCl-induced aversive counterconditioning was performed 10 min, but not 6 h (outside the reconsolidation time window) after cocaine or morphine memory retrieval. In addition, the effect of LiCl-induced aversive counterconditioning could last for about 14 days. These results suggest that aversive counterconditioning during the reconsolidation of cocaine or morphine memory can prevent the re-seeking of cocaine or morphine, presumably by updating or replacing cocaine or morphine memories with aversive information.

Physiologic Effects of Substance Use

Physiologic and psychological effects of substance use are common occurrences. They may be the proximate purpose of the exposure or related to an unintended complication. Acute short-term exposure effects may not be the same as long-term effects. These effects are mediated by different receptors they act on and the homeostatic changes that occur due to repeat exposure. We review in this article the physiologic and psychological effects from exposure to commonly encountered drugs, ethanol, sedative hypnotics, cocaine, amphetamines, marijuana, opioids, nicotine, hydrocarbons (halogenated and non-halogenated), and nitrous oxide.

Hyperconnectivity of Two Separate Long-Range Cholinergic Systems Contributes to the Reorganization of the Brain Functional Connectivity during Nicotine Withdrawal in Male Mice

Chronic nicotine results in dependence with withdrawal symptoms on discontinuation of use, through desensitization of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and altered cholinergic neurotransmission. Nicotine withdrawal is associated with increased whole-brain functional connectivity and decreased network modularity; however, the role of cholinergic neurons in those changes is unknown. To identify the contribution of nicotinic receptors and cholinergic regions to changes in the functional network, we analyzed the contribution of the main cholinergic regions to brain-wide activation of the immediate early-gene Fos during withdrawal in male mice and correlated these changes with the expression of nicotinic receptor mRNA throughout the brain. We show that the main functional connectivity modules included the main long-range cholinergic regions, which were highly synchronized with the rest of the brain. However, despite this hyperconnectivity, they were organized into two anticorrelated networks that were separated into basal forebrain-projecting and brainstem-thalamic-projecting cholinergic regions, validating a long-standing hypothesis of the organization of the brain cholinergic systems. Moreover, baseline (without nicotine) expression of Chrna2, Chrna3, Chrna10, and Chrnd mRNA of each brain region correlated with withdrawal-induced changes in Fos expression. Finally, by mining the Allen Brain mRNA expression database, we were able to identify 1755 gene candidates and three pathways (Sox2-Oct4-Nanog, JAK-STAT, and MeCP2-GABA) that may contribute to nicotine withdrawal-induced Fos expression. These results identify the dual contribution of the basal forebrain and brainstem-thalamic cholinergic systems to whole-brain functional connectivity during withdrawal; and identify nicotinic receptors and novel cellular pathways that may be critical for the transition to nicotine dependence.

Hyperconnectivity of two separate long-range cholinergic systems contributes to the reorganization of the brain functional connectivity during nicotine withdrawal in male mice

Chronic nicotine results in dependence with withdrawal symptoms upon discontinuation of use, through desensitization of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and altered cholinergic neurotransmission. Nicotine withdrawal is associated with increased whole-brain functional connectivity and decreased network modularity, however, the role of cholinergic neurons in those changes is unknown. To identify the contribution of nicotinic receptors and cholinergic regions to changes in the functional network, we analyzed the contribution of the main cholinergic regions to brain-wide activation of the immediate early-gene FOS during withdrawal in male mice and correlated these changes with the expression of nicotinic receptor mRNA throughout the brain. We show that the main functional connectivity modules included the main long-range cholinergic regions, which were highly synchronized with the rest of the brain. However, despite this hyperconnectivity they were organized into two anticorrelated networks that were separated into basal forebrain projecting and brainstem-thalamic projecting cholinergic regions, validating a long-standing hypothesis of the organization of the brain cholinergic systems. Moreover, baseline (without nicotine) expression of Chrna2 , Chrna3 , Chrna10 , and Chrnd mRNA of each brain region correlated with withdrawal-induced changes in FOS expression. Finally, by mining the Allen Brain mRNA expression database, we were able to identify 1755 gene candidates and three pathways (Sox2-Oct4-Nanog, JAK-STAT, and MeCP2-GABA) that may contribute to nicotine withdrawal-induced FOS expression. These results identify the dual contribution of the basal forebrain and brainstem-thalamic cholinergic systems to whole-brain functional connectivity during withdrawal; and identify nicotinic receptors and novel cellular pathways that may be critical for the transition to nicotine dependence.

Significance Statement

Discontinuation of nicotine use in dependent users is associated with increased whole-brain activation and functional connectivity and leads to withdrawal symptoms. Here we investigated the contribution of the nicotinic cholinergic receptors and main cholinergic projecting brain areas in the whole-brain changes associated with withdrawal. This not only allowed us to visualize and confirm the previously described duality of the cholinergic brain system using this novel methodology, but also identify nicotinic receptors together with 1751 other genes that contribute, and could thus be targets for treatments against, nicotine withdrawal and dependence.

Indigenous-Amazonian Traditional Medicine's Usage of the Tobacco Plant: A Transdisciplinary Ethnopsychological Mixed-Methods Case Study

Harmful usage of tobacco is a global public health problem associated with adverse health effects and addiction. Yet, in the Peruvian Amazon, the native region of Nicotiana rustica L., this plant is used in remarkably different manners: it is considered a potent medicinal plant, applied in liquid form for oral ingestion to treat mental health problems, a common and ancient healing practice in this region. Using a transdisciplinary field research approach with mixed ethnopsychological methods, this work aimed to report for the first time a case study in this context. The intervention took place in the Peruvian Amazon (Loreto) and involved ritual tobacco ingestion in a weeklong retreat-like frame, administered by a specialized traditional Amazonian healer. The patient was a 37-year-old woman with diagnosed mood, anxiety, and attention deficit disorders, as well as a chronic somatic condition. We applied qualitative experience-sampling during and quantitative symptom assessments pre- and post-treatment. Our findings offer a detailed description of the experiential therapeutic process during the treatment week and suggest clinically relevant improvements in patient well-being. This work is significant in view of the globally prevalent harmful uses of tobacco and the current scientific trend of revisiting herbal psychoactives (e.g., cannabis, psilocybin) for their therapeutic potentials.

Nicotine dependence and quitting stages of smokers in Nepal: A community based cross-sectional study

INTRODUCTION

Nicotine dependence is an addiction to tobacco products caused by the chemical nicotine present in tobacco. 80% of premature deaths due to nicotine dependence come from low-and middle-income countries. Since most of the public health studies have focused solely on psychological and behavioral factors associated with tobacco smoking, this study aims to assess the nicotine dependence and stages of change of quitting smoking.

METHODOLOGY

A community based quantitative cross-sectional study was conducted among 280 smokers aged 15-69 years in Bharatpur metropolitan, Nepal. A semi-structured and validated questionnaire was used during the face-to-face interviews. Nicotine dependence among participants was assessed using the six-item Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND). Chi-square test and multivariate logistic regression analysis were performed to assess the associations between variables at the significance level α = 0.05.

RESULT

In the study population, the mean score of FTND was 5.15 ± 2.34. 33.9% participants had a high level of nicotine dependence and nearly half of the participants felt difficulty to refrain smoking even in No-smoking areas. Almost three out of ten respondents were prepared for smoking cessation. It was found that age group 20-39 years were more likely to have nicotine dependence (AOR 3.308, 95% CI = 1.039-10.534), those who initiated smoking before age of 15 were associated with a greater risk of nicotine dependence (AOR 3.68, 95% CI = 1.826-7.446), participants spending more on tobacco products (more than Rs 2400 monthly) were associated with an increased risk of nicotine dependence (AOR 4.47, 95% CI = 2.225-8.991), those who initiated smoking due to mental stress were more likely to have nicotine addiction (AOR 2.522, 95% CI = 1.004-6.028), and those who had no thought of quitting smoking were more associated with nicotine dependence (AOR 4.935, 95% CI = 1.458-16.699).

CONCLUSION

Our study showed that high level of nicotine dependence is a major public health problem in low-and middle-income countries like Nepal. It also highlights that effective smoking cessation programs should be developed considering the level of nicotine dependence with more focus on early interventions of its associated factors.

"Tobacco Is the Chief Medicinal Plant in My Work": Therapeutic Uses of Tobacco in Peruvian Amazonian Medicine Exemplified by the Work of a Maestro Tabaquero

Introduction

Harmful usage of tobacco is a public health problem of global concern and, in many countries, the main risk factor for non-communicable diseases. Yet, in the Peruvian Amazon, the geographical region believed to be tobacco’s historical birthplace, this plant is associated with a strikingly different usage and repute: Tobacco (especially Nicotiana rustica L.) in this area is described as a potent medicinal plant, used topically or via ingestion to treat a variety of health conditions. The goal of this transdisciplinary field study was to investigate clinical applications of the tobacco plant as per Amazonian medicine exemplified in the practice of a reputed Maestro Tabaquero, an Amazonian traditional healer whose medical specialization focuses on tobacco-based treatments.

Methods

Using a transdisciplinary clinical approach, we conducted in-depth interviews with the tabaquero applying the systematizing expert interview method, in order to map modes of preparation and administration, indications, contraindications, effects, risks, adverse effects, and systemic aspects of tobacco-based remedies.

Results

The informant’s descriptions revealed refined knowledge on this plant’s therapeutic properties and scope, safety profile, and application techniques. The main indications mentioned included “problems of the mind,” of the respiratory system, parasitic illnesses (intestinal/skin), gout, and Amazonian epistemic conditions described as spiritual-energetic in nature. A liquid remedy taken orally was his most commonly used preparation, with acute/sub-acute effects involving a pronounced psychoactive component (altered state of consciousness) and physiological response (emesis, nausea). A skilled tabaquero that knows how to dose, administer, and intervene in case of adverse effects was considered imperative for safe treatment delivery.

Conclusions

To our knowledge, this is the first study employing a transdisciplinary clinical approach to examine therapeutic applications of tobacco by an Amazonian tabaquero. Our findings significantly contribute to the growing research literature on Amazonian medicine and emergent psychedelic-assisted therapies and could, in the long-term, open new treatment avenues in several domains. Forthcoming studies should assess toxicity/safety and clinical outcomes of patients receiving Amazonian tobacco-based treatment.

Effect of 4-Fluoro-N-(4-Sulfamoylbenzyl) Benzene Sulfonamide on Acquisition and Expression of Nicotine-Induced Behavioral Sensitization and Striatal Adenosine Levels

Introduction

Behavioral sensitization is a phenomenon that develops from intermittent exposure to nicotine and other psychostimulants, which often leads to heightened locomotor activity and then relapse. Sulfonamides that act as carbonic anhydrase inhibitors have a documented role in enhancing dopaminergic tone and normalizing neuroplasticity by stabilizing glutamate release.

Objective

The aim of the current study was to explore synthetic sulfonamides derivative 4-fluoro-N-(4-sulfamoylbenzyl) benzene-sulfonamide (4-FBS) (with documented carbonic anhydrase inhibitory activity) on acquisition and expression of nicotine-induced behavioral sensitization.

Methods

In the acquisition phase, selected 5 groups of mice were exposed to saline or nicotine 0.5mg/kg intraperitoneal (i.p) for 7 consecutive days. Selected 3 groups were administered with 4-FBS 20, 40, and 60 mg/kg p.o. along with nicotine. After 3 days of the drug-free period, ie, day 11, a challenge dose of nicotine was injected to all groups except saline and locomotor activity was recorded for 30 minutes. In the expression phase, mice were exposed to saline and nicotine only 0.5 mg/kg i.p for 7 consecutive days. After 3 days of the drug-free period, ie, day 11, 4-FBS at 20, 40, and 60 mg/kg were administered to the selected groups, one hour after drug a nicotine challenge dose was administered, and locomotion was recorded. At the end of behavioral experiments, all animals were decapitated and the striatum was excised and screened for changes in adenosine levels, using HPLC-UV.

Results

Taken together, our findings showed that 4-FBS in all 3 doses, in both sets of experiments significantly attenuated nicotine-induced behavioral sensitization in mice. Additionally, 4-FBS at 60mg/kg significantly lowered the adenosine level in the striatum.

Conclusion

The behavioral and adenosine modulation is promising, and more receptors level studies are warranted to explore the exact mechanism of action of 4-FBS.

Profile of the Nicotinic Cholinergic Receptor Alpha 7 Subunit Gene Expression is Associated with Response to Varenicline Treatment

INTRODUCTION

Smoking is considered the leading cause of preventable morbidity and mortality worldwide. Studies have sought to identify predictors of response to smoking cessation treatments. The aim of this study was to analyze a possible association of target gene expression for smoking cessation with varenicline.

METHODS

We included 74 smokers starting treatment with varenicline. Gene expression analysis was performed through the custom RT² Profiler qPCR array assay, including 17 genes. Times for sample collection were before the start of therapy (T0) and two weeks (T2) and four weeks (T4) after the start of treatment.

RESULTS

For gene expression analysis, we selected 14 patients who had success and 13 patients resistant to varenicline treatment. Success was considered to be when a patient achieved tobacco abstinence until the fourth week of treatment and resistant was when a patient had not stopped smoking as of the fourth week of treatment. We observed a significant difference for CHRNA7 gene expression: in the resistant group, samples from T2 and T4 had lower expression compared with T0 (fold change: 0.38, P = 0.007; fold change: 0.67, P = 0.004; respectively).

CONCLUSION

This exploratory clinical study, searching for a possible predictor of effectiveness for varenicline, reaffirmed the association of the α7 nAChR subunit for nicotine dependence and smoking therapy effectiveness with varenicline.

12-h abstinence-induced functional connectivity density changes and craving in young smokers: a resting-state study

Studying the neural correlates of craving to smoke is of great importance to improve treatment outcomes in smoking addiction. According to previous studies, the critical roles of striatum and frontal brain regions had been revealed in addiction. However, few studies focused on the hub of brain regions in the 12 h abstinence induced craving in young smokers. Thirty-one young male smokers were enrolled in the present study. A within-subject experiment design was carried out to compare functional connectivity density between 12-h smoking abstinence and smoking satiety conditions during resting state in young adult smokers by using functional connectivity density mapping (FCDM). Then, the functional connectivity density changes during smoking abstinence versus satiety were further used to examine correlations with abstinence-induced changes in subjective craving. We found young adult smokers in abstinence state (vs satiety) had higher local functional connectivity density (lFCD) and global functional connectivity density (gFCD) in brain regions including striatal subregions (i.e., bilateral caudate and putamen), frontal regions (i.e., anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and orbital frontal cortex (OFC)) and bilateral insula. We also found higher lFCD during smoking abstinence (vs satiety) in bilateral thalamus. Additionally, the lFCD changes of the left ACC, bilateral caudate and right OFC were positively correlated with the changes in craving induced by abstinence (i.e., abstinence minus satiety) in young adult smokers. The present findings improve the understanding of the effects of acute smoking abstinence on the hubs of brain gray matter in the abstinence-induces craving and may contribute new insights into the neural mechanism of abstinence-induced craving in young smokers in smoking addiction.

Striatal responsiveness to reward under threat-of-shock and working memory load: A preliminary study

INTRODUCTION

Reward and stress are important determinants of motivated behaviors. Striatal regions play a crucial role in both motivation and hedonic processes. So far, little is known on how cognitive effort interacts with stress to modulate reward processes. This study examines how cognitive effort (load) interacts with an unpredictable acute stressor (threat-of-shock) to modulate motivational and hedonic processes in healthy adults.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A reward task, involving stress with unpredictable mild electric shocks, was conducted in 23 healthy adults aged 20-37 (mean age: 24.7 ± 0.9; 14 females) during functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Manipulation included the use of (a) monetary reward for reinforcement, (b) threat-of-shock as the stressor, and (c) a spatial working memory task with two levels of difficulty (low and high load) for cognitive load. Reward-related activation was investigated in a priori three regions of interest, the nucleus accumbens (NAcc), caudate nucleus, and putamen.

RESULTS

During anticipation, threat-of-shock or cognitive load did not affect striatal responsiveness to reward. Anticipated reward increased activation in the ventral and dorsal striatum. During feedback delivery, both threat-of-shock and cognitive effort modulated striatal activation. Higher working memory load blunted NAcc responsiveness to reward delivery, while stress strengthened caudate nucleus reactivity regardless reinforcement or load.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings provide initial evidence that both stress and cognitive load modulate striatal responsiveness during feedback delivery but not during anticipation in healthy adults. Of clinical importance, sustained stress exposure might go along with dysregulated arousal, increasing therefore the risk for the development of maladaptive incentive-triggered motivation. This study brings new insight that might help to build a framework to understand common stress-related disorders, given that these psychiatric disorders involve disturbances of the reward system, cognitive deficits, and abnormal stress reactivity.

Effects of Financial Incentives for Smoking Cessation on Mood and Anxiety Symptoms Among Pregnant and Newly Postpartum Women

Introduction

Financial incentives for smoking cessation increase smoking abstinence and decrease Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) scores among depression-prone pregnant and postpartum women. The present study is a secondary analysis using the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI) to examine whether this treatment impacts a broader array of mood and anxiety symptoms.

Methods

Participants (N = 253) were pregnant cigarette smokers who participated in four controlled clinical trials examining the efficacy of financial incentives for smoking cessation. Women were assigned to an intervention wherein they earned vouchers exchangeable for retail items contingent on smoking abstinence (Contingent, n = 143) or a control condition wherein they received comparable vouchers independent of smoking status (Noncontingent, n = 110). Participants were categorized as depression-prone (n = 105) or depression-negative (n = 148) based on self-reported history of depression and BDI scores at intake. A prior study demonstrated that financial incentives decreased depressive symptoms among depression-prone women in this sample. The present study examined whether those effects extended to a broader array of mood and anxiety symptoms using the BSI. Effects of treatment, time, and depression status were examined using repeated measures analyses of covariance.

Results

In addition to depressive symptoms, financial incentives reduced a multitude of BSI scores among depression-prone women, including the BSI global measure of distress and seven symptom subscales. Treatment effects were discernible by late pregnancy, peaked at 8 weeks postpartum, and dissipated by 24 weeks postpartum.

Discussion

In addition to reducing smoking, this financial incentives treatment appears to reduce a range of mood and anxiety symptoms among depression-prone pregnant and postpartum women.

Implications

This study adds evidence that providing financial incentives contingent on smoking cessation lowers a broad array of psychiatric symptoms, as measured by the BSI, among depression-prone pregnant and newly postpartum women during a time of heightened risk for peripartum mood disorders.

Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation on symptoms of nicotine dependence: A systematic review and meta-analysis

The purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to investigate the effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on symptoms of nicotine dependence in treatment-seeking smokers. Twelve studies qualified for this meta-analysis, and we used 15 total comparisons from the included studies for the data synthesis. Primary outcome measures were changes in (a) cue-provoked craving and (b) smoking intake (i.e., the number of cigarettes smoked) between active tDCS stimulation and sham control groups. Random-effects model meta-analyses revealed significant positive effects of tDCS on seven cue-provoked craving comparisons (effect size = 0.422; P = .004) and eight smoking intake comparisons (effect size = 0.557; P = .004). Moderator variable analyses indicated that applying anodal-tDCS on the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) revealed significant positive effects on the cue-provoked craving with minimal heterogeneity. Further, applying cathodal-tDCS on DLPFC regions showed more positive effects on both cue-provoked craving and smoking intake than cathodal-tDCS on other brain regions. These findings suggested that tDCS modulating DLPFC activity can be an effective option for decreasing individual's smoking dependence symptoms.

Cigarette smoking and cerebral blood flow in a cohort of middle-aged adults

Cigarette smoking is often associated with dementia. This association is thought to be mediated by hypoperfusion; however, how smoking behavior relates to cerebral blood flow (CBF) remains unclear. Using data from the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) cohort (mean age = 50; n = 522), we examined the association between smoking behavior (status, cumulative pack-years, age at smoking initiation, and years since cessation) and CBF (arterial spin labeling) in brain lobes and regions linked to dementia. We used adjusted linear regression models and tested whether associations differed between current and former-smokers. Compared to never-smokers, former-smokers had lower CBF in the parietal and occipital lobes, cuneus, precuneus, putamen, and insula; in contrast, current-smokers did not have lower CBF. The relationship between pack-years and CBF was different between current and former-smokers (p for interaction < 0.05): Among current-smokers, higher pack-years were associated with higher occipital, temporal, cuneus, putamen, insula, hippocampus, and caudate CBF; former-smokers had lower caudate CBF with increasing pack-years. Results show links between smoking and CBF at middle-age in regions implicated in cognitive and compulsive/addictive processes. Differences between current and former smoking suggest that distinct pathological and/or compensatory mechanisms may be involved depending on the timing and history of smoking exposure.

Cigarette smoking and gray matter brain volumes in middle age adults: the CARDIA Brain MRI sub-study

Cigarette smoking has been associated with dementia and dementia-related brain changes, notably gray matter (GM) volume atrophy. These associations are thought to reflect the co-morbidity of smoking and vascular, respiratory, and substance use/psychological conditions. However, the extent and localization of the smoking-GM relationship and the degree to which vascular, respiratory, and substance use/psychological factors influence this relationship remain unclear. In the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults CARDIA cohort (n = 698; 52% women; 40% black participants; age = 50.3 (SD = 3.5)), we examined the associations of smoking status with total GM volume and GM volume of brain regions linked to neurocognitive and addiction disorders. Linear regression models were used to adjust for vascular, respiratory, and substance use/psychological factors and to examine whether they modify the smoking-GM relationship. Compared to never-smokers, current smokers had smaller total GM volume (-8.86 cm³ (95%CI = -13.44, -4.29). Adjustment for substance use/psychological - but not vascular or respiratory - factors substantially attenuated this association (coefficients = -5.54 (95% CI = -10.32, -0.76); -8.33 (95% CI = -12.94, -3.72); -7.69 (95% CI = -6.95, -4.21), respectively). There was an interaction between smoking and alcohol use such that among alcohol non-users, smoking was not related to GM volumes and among alcohol users, those who currently smoked had -12 cm³ smaller total GM, specifically in the frontal and temporal lobes, amygdala, cingulate, and insula. Results suggest a large-magnitude association between smoking and smaller GM volume at middle age, accounting for vascular, respiratory, and substance use/psychological factors, and that the association was strongest in alcohol users. Regions suggested to be most vulnerable are those where cognition and addiction processes overlap.

Conceptions and practices of an integrative treatment for substance use disorders involving Amazonian medicine: traditional healers' perspectives

Objective:

The harmful use of psychoactive substances represents one of today’s largest public health problems. Yet, in spite of its global relevance, current treatment for substance use disorders (SUDs) is still not entirely successful. The purpose of this study was to investigate alternative treatments and conceptions from traditional Amazonian medicine adapted to SUDs.

Methods:

We conducted semi-structured interviews with 13 practicing experts at a well-established addiction treatment center in the Peruvian Amazon and performed qualitative content analysis on the collected data. Main categories were deductively defined and corresponding subcategories inductively developed.

Results:

Our findings revealed characteristic features and consequences, causes and antecedents, and treatment methods of SUDs as the main categories. Overall, concepts of disease etiology bore resemblance with contemporary biopsychosocial models of SUDs. The Amazonian therapeutic means however differed markedly from current Western ones. The main methods involved dietary retreats, healing ceremonies, and purging rituals. The integral application of Amazonian methods, as well as their traditional implementation according to prescribed ritual protocols, were emphasized by the experts as crucial for efficacy and safety of treatment delivery.

Conclusion:

We suggest further scientific attention to these therapies, including clinical studies, for which our results provide conceptual underpinnings. Findings from this research expand the cross-cultural understanding of SUDs and, in the long run, may enhance its treatment options.

Effects of Smoking Cessation on Presynaptic Dopamine Function of Addicted Male Smokers

BACKGROUND

There is evidence of abnormal cerebral dopamine transmission in nicotine-dependent smokers, but it is unclear whether dopaminergic abnormalities are due to acute nicotine abuse or whether they persist with abstinence. We addressed this question by conducting longitudinal positron emission tomography (PET) examination of smokers before and after 3 months of abstinence.

METHODS

We obtained baseline 6-[(18)F]fluoro-L-DOPA (FDOPA)-PET scans in 15 nonsmokers and 30 nicotine-dependent smokers, who either smoked as per their usual habit or were in acute withdrawal. All smokers then underwent cessation treatment, and successful abstainers were re-examined by FDOPA-PET after 3 months of abstinence (n = 15). Uptake of FDOPA was analyzed using a steady-state model yielding estimates of the dopamine synthesis capacity (K); the turnover of tracer dopamine formed in living brain (kloss); and the tracer distribution volume (Vd), which is an index of dopamine storage capacity.

RESULTS

Compared with nonsmokers, K was 15% to 20% lower in the caudate nuclei of consuming smokers. Intraindividual comparisons of consumption and long-term abstinence revealed significant increases in K in the right dorsal and left ventral caudate nuclei. Relative to acute withdrawal, Vd significantly decreased in the right ventral and dorsal caudate after prolonged abstinence. Severity of nicotine dependence significantly correlated with dopamine synthesis capacity and dopamine turnover in the bilateral ventral putamen of consuming smokers.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest a lower dopamine synthesis capacity in nicotine-dependent smokers that appears to normalize with abstinence. Further investigations are needed to clarify the role of dopamine in nicotine addiction to help develop smoking prevention and cessation treatments.

Genetic risks to nicotine dependence predict negative mood and affect in current non-smokers

Nicotine is the psychoactive agent involved in nicotine dependence. However, nicotine as a drug, and its effects on human psychology are largely under-investigated in genetic studies. In this study, we recruited 208 current non-smokers to evaluate the effect of nicotine and its relationship to genetic risks to nicotine dependence. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, as well as measurement invariance testing, were conducted to evaluate the latent factor structures of the POMS, PANAS and DEN questionnaires across 3 nicotine doses. Structural models were used to examine the effects of nicotine and their relationship to genetic risks of nicotine dependence. We found that nicotine administration led to the change of both measurement construct and factor means, indicating the causal effect of nicotine on the psychological responses. The genotypes of rs588765 predicted the scores of the DEN Confused and Dizzy factors (p = 0.0003 and 0.001 respectively), and rs16969968 and rs588765 were associated with the PANAS Nervous factor (p = 0.006 and 0.007 respectively). Our study suggested that genetic risk of nicotine dependence is associated with acute psychological responses. The integration of psychometric analyses and dose effects could be a powerful approach for genetic study of nicotine dependence.

ADHD diagnosis may influence the association between polymorphisms in nicotinic acetylcholine receptor genes and tobacco smoking

Polymorphisms in the CHRNA5-CHRNA3-CHRNB4 gene cluster have been shown to be involved in tobacco smoking susceptibility. Considering that attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) not only increases the risk but may also influence the molecular mechanisms of tobacco smoking, we analyzed the association between polymorphisms in the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor genes and tobacco smoking among individuals with or without ADHD. The sample included 1,118 subjects divided into four groups according to smoking status and ADHD diagnosis. Our results demonstrate that the minor alleles of two polymorphisms (rs578776 and rs3743078) in the CHRNA3 gene are associated with an increased risk of tobacco smoking only among patients with ADHD. These alleles have been shown in previous studies to be protective factors for smoking in subjects without ADHD. These findings add to existing evidence that ADHD may exert an important modifying effect on the genetic risk of smoking and should be considered in tobacco smoking association studies.