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Oliva HNP, Prudente TP, Nunes EJ, Cosgrove KP, Radhakrishnan R, Potenza MN, Angarita GA. Substance use and spine density: a systematic review and meta-analysis of preclinical studies. Mol Psychiatry 2024; 29:2873-2885. [PMID: 38561468 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-024-02519-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2023] [Revised: 02/28/2024] [Accepted: 03/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
The elucidation of synaptic density changes provides valuable insights into the underlying brain mechanisms of substance use. In preclinical studies, synaptic density markers, like spine density, are altered by substances of abuse (e.g., alcohol, amphetamine, cannabis, cocaine, opioids, nicotine). These changes could be linked to phenomena including behavioral sensitization and drug self-administration in rodents. However, studies have produced heterogeneous results for spine density across substances and brain regions. Identifying patterns will inform translational studies given tools that now exist to measure in vivo synaptic density in humans. We performed a meta-analysis of preclinical studies to identify consistent findings across studies. PubMed, ScienceDirect, Scopus, and EBSCO were searched between September 2022 and September 2023, based on a protocol (PROSPERO: CRD42022354006). We screened 6083 publications and included 70 for meta-analysis. The meta-analysis revealed drug-specific patterns in spine density changes. Hippocampal spine density increased after amphetamine. Amphetamine, cocaine, and nicotine increased spine density in the nucleus accumbens. Alcohol and amphetamine increased, and cannabis reduced, spine density in the prefrontal cortex. There was no convergence of findings for morphine's effects. The effects of cocaine on the prefrontal cortex presented contrasting results compared to human studies, warranting further investigation. Publication bias was small for alcohol or morphine and substantial for the other substances. Heterogeneity was moderate-to-high across all substances. Nonetheless, these findings inform current translational efforts examining spine density in humans with substance use disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrique Nunes Pereira Oliva
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Clinical Neuroscience Research Unit, Connecticut Mental Health Center, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Tiago Paiva Prudente
- Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Goiás (UFG), Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil
| | - Eric J Nunes
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Yale Tobacco Center of Regulatory Science, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Kelly P Cosgrove
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Rajiv Radhakrishnan
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Marc N Potenza
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Clinical Neuroscience Research Unit, Connecticut Mental Health Center, New Haven, CT, USA
- Child Study Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- Connecticut Council on Problem Gambling, Wethersfield, CT, USA
- Wu Tsai Institute, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Gustavo A Angarita
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.
- Clinical Neuroscience Research Unit, Connecticut Mental Health Center, New Haven, CT, USA.
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2
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Gore-Langton JK, Varlinskaya EI, Werner DF. Ethanol-induced conditioned taste aversion and associated neural activation in male rats: Impact of age and adolescent intermittent ethanol exposure. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0279507. [PMID: 36548243 PMCID: PMC9778589 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0279507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Individuals that initiate alcohol use at younger ages and binge drink during adolescence are more susceptible to developing alcohol use disorder. Adolescents are relatively insensitive to the aversive effects of alcohol and tend to consume significantly more alcohol per occasion than adults, an effect that is conserved in rodent models. Adolescent typical insensitivity to the aversive effects of alcohol may promote greater alcohol intake by attenuating internal cues that curb its consumption. Attenuated sensitivity to the aversive effects of alcohol is also retained into adulthood following protracted abstinence from adolescent intermittent ethanol (AIE) exposure. Despite these effects, much remains unknown regarding the neural contributors. In the present study, we used a conditioned taste aversion (CTA) paradigm to investigate neuronal activation in late-developing forebrain structures of male adolescents and adult cFos-LacZ transgenic rats as well as in AIE adults following consumption of 0.9% sodium chloride previously paired with an intraperitoneal injection of 0, 1.5 or 2.5 g/kg of ethanol. Adults that were non-manipulated or received water exposure during adolescence showed CTA to both ethanol doses, whereas adolescents displayed CTA only to the 2.5 g/kg ethanol dose. Adults who experienced AIE did not show CTA. Adults displayed increased neuronal activation indexed via number of β-galactosidase positive (β-gal+) cells in the prefrontal and insular cortex that was absent in adolescents, whereas adolescents but not adults had a reduced number of β-gal+ cells in the central amygdala. Adults also displayed greater cortical-insular functional connectivity than adolescents as well as insular-amygdalar and prefrontal cortex-accumbens core functional connectivity. Like adolescents, adults previously exposed to AIE displayed reduced prefrontal-insular cortex and prefrontal-accumbal core functional connectivity. Taken together, these results suggest that attenuated sensitivity to the aversive effects of ethanol is related to a loss of an insular-prefrontal cortex-accumbens core circuit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan K. Gore-Langton
- Center for Development and Behavioral Neuroscience, Binghamton University, Binghamton, New York, United States of America
- Department of Psychology, Binghamton University, Binghamton, New York, United States of America
| | - Elena I. Varlinskaya
- Center for Development and Behavioral Neuroscience, Binghamton University, Binghamton, New York, United States of America
- Department of Psychology, Binghamton University, Binghamton, New York, United States of America
- Developmental Exposure Alcohol Research Center, Binghamton, New York, United States of America
| | - David F. Werner
- Center for Development and Behavioral Neuroscience, Binghamton University, Binghamton, New York, United States of America
- Department of Psychology, Binghamton University, Binghamton, New York, United States of America
- Developmental Exposure Alcohol Research Center, Binghamton, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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3
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Jiang W, Chen J, Vidjro OE, Zhang Y, Guo G, Li Z, Qi Y, Dai R, Ma T. Construction and evaluation of an alcohol vapor chamber system. J Biomed Res 2022; 37:115-124. [PMID: 36529969 PMCID: PMC10018410 DOI: 10.7555/jbr.36.20220151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
An increasing number of studies demonstrated that alcohol vapor chamber is an effective way to model physical signs of alcohol use disorders. Although researchers are developing different vapor chambers to study chronic alcohol exposure model worldwide, few studies build and modify their own vapor chambers in China. Here, we designed and established an alcohol vapor chamber system for small animals. We described a paradigm showing how to control and monitor alcohol concentration in whole system. The vapor chamber system with several advantages including accommodating up to ten standard mouse cages. Furthermore, the system was tested by evaluating the blood alcohol concentration and neuron injury in mice. Importantly, the alcohol withdrawal after vapor exposure caused motor coordination impairment, anxiolytic- and depression-like behavior. Finally, the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR)-mediated glutamatergic transmissions in the medial prefrontal cortex was changed after alcohol vapor exposure-induced behaviors. The frequency and amplitude of spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents between control and alcohol groups were not different, suggesting that alcohol exposure-induced behaviors are associated with the change in NMDAR response. Taken together, the new alcohol vapor chamber system was constructed, which would help to research the relationship between the stable alcohol exposure and withdrawal behaviors and to study chronic alcohol exposure-induced disorders in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wan Jiang
- Grade 2018, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China
| | - Jiajia Chen
- Grade 2018, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China
| | - Olivia Ewi Vidjro
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China.,Translational Medicine Research Center for Drug Dependence and Withdrawal, Nanjing Medical University, Jiangsu 211166, China
| | - Yingying Zhang
- Grade 2018, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China
| | - Gengni Guo
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China
| | - Ziyi Li
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China.,Translational Medicine Research Center for Drug Dependence and Withdrawal, Nanjing Medical University, Jiangsu 211166, China
| | - Yize Qi
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China.,Translational Medicine Research Center for Drug Dependence and Withdrawal, Nanjing Medical University, Jiangsu 211166, China
| | - Rouli Dai
- National Institute of Drug Clinical Trial, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210031, China
| | - Tengfei Ma
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China.,Translational Medicine Research Center for Drug Dependence and Withdrawal, Nanjing Medical University, Jiangsu 211166, China
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4
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Elibol B, Severcan M, Jakubowska-Dogru E, Dursun I, Severcan F. The structural effects of Vitamin A deficiency on biological macromolecules due to ethanol consumption and withdrawal: An FTIR study with chemometrics. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2022; 15:e202100377. [PMID: 35333440 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.202100377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Revised: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The structural effects of vitamin A-deficiency were examined on the molecular profiles of biomolecules of male rat hippocampus during prolonged ethanol intake/withdrawal using FT-IR spectroscopy coupled with chemometrics. Liquid ethanol diet with/without vitamin A was maintained to adult rats for 3-months. The rats were decapitated at different ethanol withdrawal times and FT-IR spectra were obtained. Ethanol consumption/withdrawal produced significant changes in proteins' conformations, while having insignificant structural effects on lipids. In vitamin A deficiency, ethanol produced structural changes in lipids by lipid ordering especially in the early-ethanol withdrawal. Furthermore, an increase in lipid and protein content, saturated/unsaturated lipid ratio, a decrease in nucleic acids content and decrease in membrane fluidity were observed. These changes were less severe in the presence of Vitamin A. This study is clinically important for individuals with vitamin A deficiency because they have to be more cautious when consuming alcohol to protect themselves from cognitive dysfunctions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birsen Elibol
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Biology, Bezmialem Vakif University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Mete Severcan
- Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Ewa Jakubowska-Dogru
- Department of Biological Sciences, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Ilknur Dursun
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physiology, Istinye University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Feride Severcan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Biophysics, Altinbas University, Istanbul, Turkey
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Lawson K, Scarlata MJ, Cho WC, Mangan C, Petersen D, Thompson HM, Ehnstrom S, Mousley AL, Bezek JL, Bergstrom HC. Adolescence alcohol exposure impairs fear extinction and alters medial prefrontal cortex plasticity. Neuropharmacology 2022; 211:109048. [PMID: 35364101 PMCID: PMC9067297 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2022.109048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Revised: 02/26/2022] [Accepted: 03/26/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
After experiencing a traumatic event people often turn to alcohol to cope with symptoms. In those with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and a co-occurring alcohol use disorder (AUD), PTSD symptoms can worsen, suggesting that alcohol changes how traumatic memory is expressed. The objective of this series of experiments is to identify how alcohol drinking (EtOH), following cued fear conditioning and extinction, impacts fear expression in mice. Molecular (activity-regulated cytoskeleton-associated protein, Arc/arg3.1) and structural (dendrite and spine morphometry) markers of neuronal plasticity were measured following remote extinction retrieval. Mouse age (adolescent and adult) and sex were included as interacting variables in a full factorial design. Females drank more EtOH than males and adolescents drank more EtOH than adults. Adolescent females escalated EtOH intake across drinking days. Adolescent drinkers exhibited more conditioned freezing during extinction retrieval, an effect that persisted for at least 20 days. Heightened cued freezing in the adolescent group was associated with greater Arc/arg3.1 expression in layer (L) 2/3 prelimbic (PL) cortex, greater spine density, and reduced basal dendrite complexity. In adults, drinking was associated with reduced L2/3 infralimbic (IL) Arc expression but no behavioral differences. Few sex interactions were uncovered throughout. Overall, these data identify prolonged age-related differences in alcohol-induced fear extinction impairment and medial prefrontal cortex neuroadaptations.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Lawson
- Department of Psychological Science, Program in Neuroscience and Behavior, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, NY, USA
| | - M J Scarlata
- Department of Psychological Science, Program in Neuroscience and Behavior, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, NY, USA
| | - W C Cho
- Department of Psychological Science, Program in Neuroscience and Behavior, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, NY, USA
| | - C Mangan
- Department of Psychological Science, Program in Neuroscience and Behavior, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, NY, USA
| | - D Petersen
- Department of Psychological Science, Program in Neuroscience and Behavior, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, NY, USA
| | - H M Thompson
- Department of Psychological Science, Program in Neuroscience and Behavior, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, NY, USA
| | - S Ehnstrom
- Department of Psychological Science, Program in Neuroscience and Behavior, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, NY, USA
| | - A L Mousley
- Department of Psychological Science, Program in Neuroscience and Behavior, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, NY, USA
| | - J L Bezek
- Department of Psychological Science, Program in Neuroscience and Behavior, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, NY, USA
| | - H C Bergstrom
- Department of Psychological Science, Program in Neuroscience and Behavior, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, NY, USA.
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Genetic and Brain Mechanisms of Addictive Behavior and Neuroadaptation. Brain Sci 2021; 12:brainsci12010051. [PMID: 35053795 PMCID: PMC8773497 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12010051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2021] [Accepted: 12/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Genetic differences play a role in the susceptibility to addictive drug use, the probability that the use of these drugs will escalate and result in a drug use disorder, and whether relapse to use will occur during or after treatment [...].
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7
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Amodeo LR, Jennings SD, Mulholland PJ, Ehlers CL. Chronic intermittent ethanol during adolescence and adulthood alters dendritic spines in the primary motor and visual cortex in rats. Alcohol 2021; 97:67-74. [PMID: 34626787 DOI: 10.1016/j.alcohol.2021.09.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Revised: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Prolonged adolescent binge drinking can disrupt sleep quality and increase the likelihood of alcohol-induced sleep disruptions in young adulthood in rodents and in humans. Striking changes in spine density and morphology have been seen in many cortical and subcortical regions after adolescent alcohol exposure in rats. However, there is little known about the impact of alcohol exposure on dendritic spines in the same motor and sensory cortices that EEG sleep is typically recorded from in rats. The aim of this study is to investigate whether an established model of chronic intermittent ethanol vapor in rats that has been demonstrated to disrupt sleep during adolescence or adulthood, also significantly alters cortical dendritic spine density and morphology. To this end, adolescent and adult Wistar rats were exposed to 5 weeks of ethanol vapor or control air exposure. After a 13-day withdrawal, primary motor cortex (M1) and primary/secondary visual cortex (V1/V2) layer V dendrites were analyzed for differences in spine density and morphology. Spines were classified into four categories (stubby, long, filopodia, and mushroom) based on the spine length and the width of the spine head and neck. The main results indicate an age-specific effect of adolescent intermittent ethanol exposure decreasing spine density in the M1 cortex compared to age-matched controls. Reductions in the density of M1 long-shaped spine subclassifications were seen in adolescent ethanol-exposed rats, but not adult-exposed rats, compared to their air-controls. Irrespective of age, there was an overall reduction produced by ethanol exposure on the density of filopodia and the length of long-shaped spines in V1/V2 cortex as compared to their air-exposed controls. Together, these data add to growing evidence that some cortical circuits are vulnerable to the effects of alcohol during adolescence and begin to elucidate potential mechanisms that may influence brain plasticity following early alcohol use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leslie R Amodeo
- Department of Psychology, California State University San Bernardino, San Bernardino, CA, 92407, United States
| | - Sarah D Jennings
- Department of Neuroscience, Charleston Alcohol Research Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, United States
| | - Patrick J Mulholland
- Department of Neuroscience, Charleston Alcohol Research Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, United States
| | - Cindy L Ehlers
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, 92037, United States.
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McCool BA. Ethanol modulation of cortico-basolateral amygdala circuits: Neurophysiology and behavior. Neuropharmacology 2021; 197:108750. [PMID: 34371080 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2021.108750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Revised: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
This review highlights literature relating the anatomy, physiology, and behavioral contributions by projections between rodent prefrontal cortical areas and the basolateral amygdala. These projections are robustly modulated by both environmental experience and exposure to drugs of abuse including ethanol. Recent literature relating optogenetic and chemogenetic dissection of these circuits within behavior both compliments and occasionally challenges roles defined by more traditional pharmacological or lesion-based approaches. In particular, cortico-amygdala circuits help control both aversive and reward-seeking. Exposure to pathology-producing environments or abused drugs dysregulates the relative 'balance' of these outcomes. Modern circuit-based approaches have also shown that overlapping populations of neurons within a given brain region frequently govern both aversion and reward-seeking. In addition, these circuits often dramatically influence 'local' cortical or basolateral amygdala excitatory or inhibitory circuits. Our understanding of these neurobiological processes, particularly in relation to ethanol research, has just begun and represents a significant opportunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian A McCool
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA.
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Cannady R, Nguyen T, Padula AE, Rinker JA, Lopez MF, Becker HC, Woodward JJ, Mulholland PJ. Interaction of chronic intermittent ethanol and repeated stress on structural and functional plasticity in the mouse medial prefrontal cortex. Neuropharmacology 2021; 182:108396. [PMID: 33181147 PMCID: PMC7942177 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2020.108396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Revised: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Stress is a risk factor that plays a considerable role in the development and maintenance of alcohol (ethanol) abuse and relapse. Preclinical studies examining ethanol-stress interactions have demonstrated elevated ethanol drinking, cognitive deficits, and negative affective behaviors in mice. However, the neural adaptations in prefrontal cortical regions that drive these aberrant behaviors produced by ethanol-stress interactions are unknown. In this study, male C57BL/6J mice were exposed to chronic intermittent ethanol (CIE) and repeated forced swim stress (FSS). After two cycles of CIE x FSS, brain slices containing the prelimbic (PrL) and infralimbic (IfL) cortex were prepared for analysis of adaptations in dendritic spines and synaptic plasticity. In the PrL cortex, total spine density was increased in mice exposed to CIE. Immediately following induction of long-term potentiation (LTP), the fEPSP slope was increased in the PrL of CIE x FSS treated mice, indicative of a presynaptic adaptation on post-tetanic potentiation (PTP). In the IfL cortex, CIE exposure regardless of FSS experience resulted in an increase in spine density. FSS alone or when combined with CIE exposure increased PTP following LTP induction. Repeated FSS episodes increased IfL cortical paired-pulse facilitation, a second measure of presynaptic plasticity. In summary, CIE exposure resulted in structural adaptations while repeated stress exposure drove metaplastic changes in presynaptic function, demonstrating distinct morphological and functional changes in PrL and IfL cortical neurons. Thus, the structural and functional adaptations may be one mechanism underlying the development of excessive drinking and cognitive deficits associated with ethanol-stress interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reginald Cannady
- Department of Neuroscience, Charleston Alcohol Research Center, Medical University of South Carolina, 30 Courtenay Drive, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA; Department of Biology, College of Science and Technology, North Carolina Agricultural & Technical State University, 1601 East Market Street, Barnes Hall 215, Greensboro, NC, 27411, USA
| | - Tiffany Nguyen
- Department of Neuroscience, Charleston Alcohol Research Center, Medical University of South Carolina, 30 Courtenay Drive, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - Audrey E Padula
- Department of Neuroscience, Charleston Alcohol Research Center, Medical University of South Carolina, 30 Courtenay Drive, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - Jennifer A Rinker
- Department of Neuroscience, Charleston Alcohol Research Center, Medical University of South Carolina, 30 Courtenay Drive, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - Marcelo F Lopez
- Department of Neuroscience, Charleston Alcohol Research Center, Medical University of South Carolina, 30 Courtenay Drive, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - Howard C Becker
- Department of Neuroscience, Charleston Alcohol Research Center, Medical University of South Carolina, 30 Courtenay Drive, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - John J Woodward
- Department of Neuroscience, Charleston Alcohol Research Center, Medical University of South Carolina, 30 Courtenay Drive, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - Patrick J Mulholland
- Department of Neuroscience, Charleston Alcohol Research Center, Medical University of South Carolina, 30 Courtenay Drive, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA.
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