The Occurrence and Dietary Exposure Assessment of Mycotoxins, Biogenic Amines, and Heavy Metals in Mould-Ripened Blue Cheeses

Mycotoxins and pyrrolizidine alkaloids in herbal dietary supplements

The market demand for herbal dietary supplements is rapidly growing and such products are becoming more common and accessible to consumers. However, the knowledge about their safety remains incomplete. Herbal dietary supplements are one of the food groups that can contribute significantly to human health concerns arising from chronic exposure to pyrrolizidine alkaloids and mycotoxins. This study aimed to simultaneously determine 79 natural contaminants, including mycotoxins, as well as pyrrolizidine and tropane alkaloids in herbal dietary supplements in one analytical run. Exposure assessment and human health risks were assessed for all compounds included in this study. The total concentration of naturally occurring contaminants in herbal dietary supplements reached 5.3 mg kg-1 and the most frequently detected mycotoxins were tentoxin and alternariol monomethyl ether. The latter was detected with the highest frequency, reaching concentrations up to 2.5 mg kg-1. The obtained results indicate a potential risk to public health related to herbal dietary supplement consumption.

Data on the characterization of seaweed, wheat bran, and other food processing byproducts as feasible biosorbents

Traditionally, biosorbents have been used to remove contaminants from polluted water, such as wastewater, landfill leachate, rainwater or drinking water. However, two alternative uses of biosorbents have been proposed relatively recently: the removal of heavy metals from fruit juices by biosorption and the use of saturated biosorbents as animal feed. Because these biosorbents are in contact with food or are used as animal feed, the concentration of contaminants in biosorbents must be known. In addition, the characterization of biosorbents is crucial because biosorbent properties affect both adsorption efficiency and the performance of full-scale biosorbent systems. This article presents data from Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis, and the concentration of toxic metals (determined by ICP-MS) as well as pesticide residues was determined in ten biomass samples, namely, pea skins, straw, seaweed Fucus vesiculosus, wheat bran, rye bran, raspberry seeds, peat, buckwheat husks, highbush blueberry pulp, and blackcurrant pulp. Selected biomass samples were also characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), nitrogen physisorption analysis, and pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC/ MS/FID) analysis.

An Occurrence Study of Mycotoxins in Plant-Based Beverages Using Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry

Mycotoxins are toxic mold metabolites that can adversely affect human and animal health. More than 400 mycotoxins have been identified so far. Cereals and nuts are the predominant mycotoxin-contaminated foodstuffs. Plant-based drinks produced from cereals, nuts, and legumes have grown in popularity. The mycotoxins accumulated in these crops may transfer to these beverages. A liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method was developed and optimized for the assessment of 22 mycotoxins in commercially available plant-based drinks in Latvia and Lithuania. A total of 64% of the seventy-two analyzed beverages were positive for one to sixteen mycotoxins, with deoxynivalenol, beauvericin, and enniatins A, B, B1, T-2, and HT-2 toxins detected most frequently. The European Commission has not yet set guidelines for the maximum mycotoxin concentrations in plant-based beverages, nor has the European Food Safety Authority conducted a risk assessment. Therefore, acute exposure studies were provided for the Latvian population based on the assumed replacement of dairy milk with plant-based beverages to ascertain the safety of plant-based milk substitutes. Based on the observed levels of mycotoxin prevalence and contamination levels and assumed exposure, it can be concluded that tested plant-based beverages may be relatively safe. However, exposure to emerging mycotoxins should be considered.

The concentration and prevalence of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in cheese: a global systematic review and meta-analysis

The present study aimed to systematically review the concentration of different PTEs, including Arsenic (As), Mercury (Hg), Lead (Pb), and Cadmium (Cd) in cheese among some databases between 2000 and 2021 (from 57 included studies). Estimated concentrations of 160.78 (95% CI = 119.24-202.28), 15.68 (95% CI = 11.88-19.48), 16.94 (95% CI = 13.29-20.59), and 2.47 (95% CI = 1.70-3.23) µg/kg were calculated for As, Pb, Cd, and Hg, respectively. Most of the studies for PTEs are related to Pb, about 40% of the studies, compared to As, which has fewer studies. The results showed that As and Hg concentrations were lower than the Codex Alimentarius Commission standard limits. Nevertheless, Cd and Pb concentrations were higher than the standard limit values. Results showed that cheese making, the ripening period, fat content, and texture are influential factors in a high level of Pb and Cd in cheese samples.

Determination of the Concentration of Heavy Metals in Artisanal Cheeses Produced in the Mexican States of Tabasco and Chiapas

Cheese consumption provides humans with minerals, proteins, carbohydrates, and vitamins. In Mexico, several cheese varieties are produced, each with its texture, scent, and flavor. The artisanal cheeses made in the states of Tabasco and Chiapas-including, among others, the varieties named crema (cream), doble crema (double cream), oaxaca, panela, fresco, bola, poro, cotija, and asadero-have a high demand in the domestic and foreign markets. The intensification of anthropic activity in these states causes an increased emission to the environment of contaminants like heavy metals, which could reach human foodstuffs through the food chains. In particular, heavy metal contents in cheeses consumed daily by these states' local populations might represent a public health risk. Because of that, our objectives in this work were to determine the concentrations of lead, cadmium, nickel, copper, zinc, and iron in artisanal cheeses produced in the states of Tabasco and Chiapas and to determine the values of the hazard quotient (HQ), total hazard quotient (THQ), and cancer risk total (CRT) for adult and young men and women. The results of our analyses of cheese samples from the states of Tabasco and Chiapas showed that the average concentrations (mg kg-1) of cadmium (0.0023 ± 0.002, 0.0023 ± 0.002 mg kg-1, respectively, for each state), lead (0.0047 ± 0.00, 0.0051 ± 0.002), nickel (0.0039 ± 0.0046, 0.0031 ± 0.0039), copper (0.0199 ± 0.021, 0.0202 ± 0.022), zinc (0.1611 ± 0.18, 0.194 ± 0.21), and iron (61.84 ± 4.23, 65.76 ± 6.61 mg kg-1), the first three values lower than the limits established by the FAO/WHO and Codex Alimentarius. The value of THQ that we obtained was less than one, and that of CRT was within the limits established by the US-EPA, which means that the consumption of artisanal cheeses from Tabasco and Chiapas by humans does not imply a risk of disease or cancer.

Multi-Element Profile Characterization of Monofloral and Polyfloral Honey from Latvia

Honey is of scientific interest mainly due to its health-promoting and antibacterial properties, which are also associated with its floral origins. However, the methods for confirming honey floral origins are quite limited and require improvements. One method suggested in the search for a multi-method approach to evaluating the floral origins of Latvian honey is inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). This study investigated the multi-element profile of 83 honey samples of well-specified floral origins. The main findings included using Ba, Ca, Cs, Fe, and Rb as indicator elements for heather honey. The chemometric evaluation supported the use of ICP-MS for distinguishing heather honey from other types of honey. The Latvian polyfloral honey multi-element profile was defined and compared to honey samples with other geographical origins. Additionally, the multi-element profiles of buckwheat, clover, and polyfloral honey proteins were investigated to clarify whether the majority of elements were bound with proteins or not. Preliminary results indicated that Ca, K, Mg, Mn, Na, and Sr were mainly found in non-protein-bound forms, while the majority of Al, Cu, Ni, and Zn were in the form of large chemical structures (>10 kDa).

Development of deep eutectic solvent-based microwave-assisted extraction combined with temperature controlled ionic liquid-based liquid phase microextraction for extraction of aflatoxins from cheese samples

In this study, for the first time, a deep eutectic solvent-based microwave-assisted extraction was combined with ionic liquid-based temperature controlled liquid phase microextraction for the extraction of several aflatoxins from cheese samples. Briefly, the analytes are extracted from cheese sample (3 g) into a mixture of 1.5 mL choline chloride:ethylene glycol deep eutectic solvent and 3.5 mL deionized water by exposing to microwave irradiations for 60 s at 180 W. The liquid phase was taken and mixed with 55 μL 1-hexyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate. By cooling the solution in the refrigerator centrifuge, a turbid state was obtained and the analytes were extracted into the ionic liquid droplets. The analytes were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography equipped with fluorescence detector. Low limits of detection (9-23 ng kg-1 ) and quantification (30-77 ng kg-1 ), high extraction recovery (66%-83%), acceptable enrichment factor (40-50), and good precision (relative standard deviations ≤ 5.2%) were obtained using the offered approach. These results reveal the high extraction capability of the method for determination of aflatoxins in the cheese samples. In this method, there was no need for organic solvents and it can be considered as green extraction method.

Focus on Histamine Production During Cheese Manufacture and Processing: A Review

Histamine (HIS) intoxication is a poisoning caused by histamine in food. Cheese is one of the most common dairy products associated with histamine levels which vary depending on the processing methods. The final content of histamine in cheese is influenced by intrinsic and extrinsic factors, their interactions, and contamination stemming from food processing. The application of control measures may be useful to inhibit/reduce production during cheese manufacture and processing but have a limited effect. To reduce histamine intoxication outbreaks from cheese consumption the introduction of quality control programs and appropriate risk mitigation options should be applied along the dairy chain from an overall perspective of food safety based on individual susceptibility and consumer sensitivity. As key food safety, this topic should be considered in future regulations in dairy products because the lack of a clear law on HIS limits in cheese may result in a significant potential deviation from the EU food safety strategy.

Concentrations of Essential Trace and Toxic Elements Associated with Production and Manufacturing Processes in Galician Cheese

The objective of this study was to determine the trace element composition and the toxic metal residues in Galician cow’s milk cheese produced in different systems (artisan, industrial, and organic). Fourteen elements (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, I, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Se, and Zn) were determined in 58 representative samples of Galician cheeses by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The toxic elements were present at low concentrations, similar to those reported for other unpolluted geographical areas. The essential elements were also within the normal range in cheeses. There were no statistically significant differences between smoked and unsmoked cheeses for any of the elements. Chemometric analyses (principal component analysis and cluster analysis) revealed that the industrial cheeses produced in Galicia using the milk from intensive dairy farms were different, in terms of elemental content, from artisan and organic cheeses, in which the elemental contents were similar.

Use of mineral element profiling coupled with chemometric analysis to distinguish Zanthoxylum bungeanum cultivars and health risks of potentially toxic elements in pericarps

BACKGROUND

Zanthoxylum bungeanum pericarps (ZBP) are commonly used as food additives and traditional herbal medicines. Several mineral elements are known to have important physiological functions in organisms, whereas others are reported to have toxic effects. We determined levels of macro elements (Mg, S and Ca), essential trace elements (B, Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Se and Mo) and toxic elements (Ni, Al, Cr, As, Cd, Hg and Pb) in the pericarps of 19 Z. bungeanum cultivars. Hazard index values and incremental lifetime cancer risks were calculated to express health risks associated with pericarp consumption. Moreover, several chemometric analyses based on the mineral elements were used to distinguish Z. bungeanum cultivars.

RESULTS

The concentrations of 17 determined elements in the pericarps were ranked: Ca > Mg > S > Fe > Al > Mn > Zn > B > Cu > Ni > Pb > Cr > Mo > As > Cd > Hg > Se. The elements Zn, Cr and As had the highest variations in their concentrations. Cu, Mn, Se, Zn, Al, As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni and Pb posed some non-cancer risks, while As and Cd posed cancer risks. Mn, Fe, Zn, and Al were chosen as critical element markers for assessing ZBP using chemometric analyses.

CONCLUSION

Chemometric analyses could highlight mineral concentration differentiation among the 19 cultivars. The Z. bungeanum cultivar Z12 (from Wudu, Gansu) is best for producing ZBP, and cultivar Z18 (Guanling, Guizhou) can be a reference to classify and evaluate ZBP quality. The results provide valuable information for evaluating the potential safety risks of ZBP and contribute to inter-cultivar discrimination. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Mycotoxigenic and phylogenetic perspective to the yeasts and filamentous moulds in mould-matured Turkish cheese

This study was conducted to determine the diversity of yeasts and filamentous moulds in mould-matured cheese (MMC) consumed in Turkey. Overall, 120 samples were collected from 12 different geographical locations between March 2016 and April 2017. The morphological observation was applied in combination with matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) and molecular analyses to determine yeasts and filamentous moulds in the cheeses. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) technique was used to evaluate the ability of mycotoxins production of fungal isolates and the presence of mycotoxins in cheese samples. A total of 241 fungi (81 filamentous moulds and 160 yeast) were recovered, and Penicillium roqueforti and Debaryomyces hansenii were the most frequently isolated species in all cheese samples. The rep-PCR results indicated a high level of genetic diversity among fungal isolates, regardless of isolation source or geographical origin. Filamentous mould strains isolated from MMC were found to synthesize at least one mycotoxin (Aflatoxin B₁, B₂, G₁ and G₂, citrinine, cyclopiazonic acid, mycophenolic acid, ochratoxin A, penicillic acid and roquefortine C). Although mycotoxin producing ability was observed from all isolates, none of the cheese samples were found positive for these mycotoxins. AFM₁ was detected in 8 (6.6%) MMC samples from which 2 (1.6%) were above the legal limits (0.05 μg/kg) set by the Turkish Food Codex (TFC) and European Commission (EC). In conclusion, Turkish MMCs were found to be contaminated with toxigenic fungi, so a potential public health risk, while low, exists. Therefore, the selection of nontoxigenic filamentous mould strains for cheese manufacturing and control of the ripening conditions is a critical need to ensure the quality and safety of Turkish MMC.

Roquefortine C in blue-veined and soft-ripened Cheeses in the USA

Certain fungi can produce secondary metabolites that are toxic, mycotoxins. Two groups of cheeses where fungi are used for ripening are the blue-veined cheeses (Penicillium roqueforti) and the "soft-ripened" cheeses (P. camemberti). An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to screen for the mycotoxin roquefortine C (ROQC) in 202 samples of cheeses sold in the United States. Of these 152 were blue-veined cheeses, 46 were soft-ripened cheeses and 4 were other varieties of mould-ripened cheeses. ROQC was not detected in any of the soft-ripened cheeses, at a limit of detection of 1.8 µg/kg. ROQC was found in 151 of 152 blue-veined cheeses. The maximum level found was 6,630 µg/kg (median 903 µg/kg, average of positives 1430 µg/kg, limit of quantitation 6.9 µg/kg). These levels are consistent with the levels found previously in blue-veined cheeses in the United Kingdom and Europe, which have generally been considered non-hazardous for human consumption.

Biogenic amines: formation, action and toxicity - a review

Biogenic amines (BA) are organic compounds commonly found in food, plants and animals, as well as microorganisms that are attributed with the production of BAs. They are formed as an effect of a chemical process: the decarboxylation of amino acids. Factors determining the formation of BAs include the availability of free amino acids and the presence of microorganisms that show activity with respect to carrying out the decarboxylation process. On the one hand, BAs are compounds that are crucial for maintaining cell viability, as well as the proper course of the organism's metabolic processes, such as protein synthesis, hormone synthesis and DNA replication. On the other hand, despite their positive effects on the functioning of the organism, an excessive content of BAs proves to be toxic (diarrhea, food poisoning, vomiting, sweating or tachycardia). Moreover, they can accelerate carcinogenesis. Amines are a natural component of plant and animal raw materials. As a result of the proven negative effects of amines on living organisms, the reduction of these compounds should be the subject of scientific research. The present review aims to synthesize and summarize the information currently available on BAs, as well as discuss the interpretation of the results. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Analysis of Multiple Mycotoxins in the Qatari Population and Their Relation to Markers of Oxidative Stress

Mycotoxins are naturally occurring food toxins worldwide that can cause serious health effects. The measurement of mycotoxin biomarkers in biological fluids is needed to assess individuals' exposure. The aim of this study was to investigate the incidence of mycotoxins in the Qatari population. Serum samples from 412 adults and urinary samples from 559 adults were analyzed for the presence of mycotoxin biomarkers. Multimycotoxin approaches have been applied, using liquid chromatography mass spectrometry methods. Samples were further analyzed for the oxidative stress markers and compared with regard to the incidence of mycotoxins. The presence of mycotoxins was identified in 37% of serum samples and in less than 20% of urine samples. It was found that 88% of positive of the samples were positive for only one mycotoxin, while 12% of positive samples had two or more mycotoxins. Trichothecenes and zearalenone metabolites were most commonly detected mycotoxins, followed by aflatoxins, roquefortine C and mycophenolic acid. The presence of mycotoxins was found to positively correlate with oxidative stress markers. The obtained results illustrate the importance of mycotoxin biomonitoring studies in humans and the need to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of mycotoxin-induced toxicity.