Foodborne Viruses and Innovative Non-Thermal Food-Processing Technologies

Comprehensive analysis of predominant pathogenic bacteria and viruses in seafood products

Given the growing global demand for seafood, it is imperative to conduct a comprehensive study on the prevalence and persistence patterns of pathogenic bacteria and viruses associated with specific seafood varieties. This assessment thoroughly examines the safety of seafood products, considering the diverse processing methods employed in the industry. The importance of understanding the behavior of foodborne pathogens, such as Salmonella typhimurium, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Clostridium botulinum, Listeria monocytogenes, human norovirus, and hepatitis A virus, is emphasized by recent cases of gastroenteritis outbreaks linked to contaminated seafood. This analysis examines outbreaks linked to seafood in the United States and globally, with a particular emphasis on the health concerns posed by pathogenic bacteria and viruses to consumers. Ensuring the safety of seafood is crucial since it directly relates to consumer preferences on sustainability, food safety, provenance, and availability. The review focuses on assessing the frequency, growth, and durability of infections that arise during the processing of seafood. It utilizes next-generation sequencing to identify the bacteria responsible for these illnesses. Additionally, it analyzes methods for preventing and intervening of infections while also considering the forthcoming challenges in ensuring the microbiological safety of seafood products. This evaluation emphasizes the significance of the seafood processing industry in promptly responding to evolving consumer preferences by offering current information on seafood hazards and future consumption patterns. To ensure the continuous safety and sustainable future of seafood products, it is crucial to identify and address possible threats.

Evaluation of a new automated viral RNA extraction platform for hepatitis A virus and human norovirus in testing of berries, lettuce, and oysters

Fruits, vegetables, and shellfish are often associated with outbreaks of illness caused particularly by human norovirus (HuNoV) and hepatitis A virus (HAV), the leading causative agents of foodborne illness worldwide. The aim of this study was to evaluate a new automated nucleic acid extraction platform (EGENE-UP EASYPREP) for enteric viruses in several at-risk food matrices and to test its limit of detection in comparison to a semi-automated method (EGENE-UP) using Boom methodology for nucleic acid extraction as suggested in the reference method ISO 15216-2:2019. Fresh and frozen raspberries, frozen blackberries, romaine lettuce and oyster digestive glands were artificially contaminated with HAV, HuNoV GII.4 or HuNoV GI.7 at 102, 103 or 104 genome copies/sample. Virus was then recovered from the food matrix using the ISO method. Viral RNA extracted from frozen berry samples by the automated system was purified on a column for additional removal of RT-qPCR inhibitors. For fresh raspberry, oysters, and romaine lettuce, the two extraction platforms were deemed equivalent. For frozen raspberry, the automated platform appeared to be more efficient for viral recovery, particularly for HAV and HuNoV GI at lower concentrations. With frozen blackberries, the two platforms may be considered equivalent for all targeted viruses. However, the automated method led to less sample-associated inhibition of the PCR, 56.5 % of samples versus 95.0 % for the semi-automated. We thus found that the automated extraction can be performed easily by users while obtaining equivalent or even superior results to the ISO 15216-2:2019 method, and therefore appears to be suitable for routine sanitary monitoring in food processing and for tracing outbreaks of illness.

Changes in Hepatitis E Virus Contamination during the Production of Liver Sausage from Naturally Contaminated Pig Liver and the Potential of Individual Production Parameters to Reduce Hepatitis E Virus Contamination in the Processing Chain

In this study, changes in hepatitis E virus (HEV) contamination in the production of liver sausage from naturally contaminated pork liver were investigated. Furthermore, the potential effectiveness of individual production parameters in reducing viral loads was measured. When processing moderately contaminated liver (initial Cq-value 29), HEV RNA persisted in the finished sausages, even after heating for 90 min at 75 °C. A matrix-specific standard curve was created using a spiking experiment to accurately quantify HEV RNA in a particularly challenging matrix like liver sausage. Variations in product-specific production parameters, including mincing and heating times, showed some reduction in contamination levels, but even prolonged heating did not render all finished products HEV negative. The persistence of HEV contamination underscores the importance of ongoing monitoring in the pig population and raw materials to enhance food safety measures and reduce the likelihood of transmission through pork consumption. The detection of HEV RNA within all processing stages of pork liver in the production of liver sausage suggests that further research into the risk of infection posed by this detection and vigilance in managing HEV risks in the food chain, particularly in pork products, are required to protect public health.

Foodborne Viruses and Somatic Coliphages Occurrence in Fresh Produce at Retail from Northern Mexico

Foodborne disease outbreaks linked to consumption of vegetables have been often attributed to human enteric viruses, such as Norovirus (NoV), Hepatitis A virus (HAV), and Rotavirus (RoV). Information about the occurrence of these viruses is scarce in many fresh-producing countries. Viral contamination detection of indicators, such as somatic coliphages, could indirectly reflect the presence of viral pathogens, being a valuable tool for better viral risk assessment in food industry. This study aimed to establish the occurrence and correlation of foodborne viruses and somatic coliphages in leafy greens in northern Mexico. A total of 320 vegetable samples were collected, resulting in 80 composite rinses, 40 of lettuce and 40 of parsley. Somatic coliphages were determined using the EPA 1602 method, while foodborne viruses (HAV, RoV, NoV GI, and GII) were determined by qPCR. The occurrence of RoV was 22.5% (9/40, mean 2.11 log gc/g) in lettuce and 20% (8/40, mean 1.91 log gc/g) in parsley. NoV and HAV were not detected in any samples. Somatic coliphages were present in all lettuce and parsley samples, with mean levels of 1.85 log PFU/100 ml and 2.28 log PFU/100 ml, respectively. Spearman analysis established the correlation of somatic coliphages and genomic copies of RoV, resulting in an r2 value of - 0.026 in lettuce and 0.349 in parsley. Although NoV or HAV were undetected in the samples, the presence of RoV is a matter of concern as leafy greens are usually eaten raw, which poses a potential risk of infection.

Common and Potential Emerging Foodborne Viruses: A Comprehensive Review

Human viruses and viruses from animals can cause illnesses in humans after the consumption of contaminated food or water. Contamination may occur during preparation by infected food handlers, during food production because of unsuitably controlled working conditions, or following the consumption of animal-based foods contaminated by a zoonotic virus. This review discussed the recent information available on the general and clinical characteristics of viruses, viral foodborne outbreaks and control strategies to prevent the viral contamination of food products and water. Viruses are responsible for the greatest number of illnesses from outbreaks caused by food, and risk assessment experts regard them as a high food safety priority. This concern is well founded, since a significant increase in viral foodborne outbreaks has occurred over the past 20 years. Norovirus, hepatitis A and E viruses, rotavirus, astrovirus, adenovirus, and sapovirus are the major common viruses associated with water or foodborne illness outbreaks. It is also suspected that many human viruses including Aichi virus, Nipah virus, tick-borne encephalitis virus, H5N1 avian influenza viruses, and coronaviruses (SARS-CoV-1, SARS-CoV-2 and MERS-CoV) also have the potential to be transmitted via food products. It is evident that the adoption of strict hygienic food processing measures from farm to table is required to prevent viruses from contaminating our food.

SARS-CoV-2 transmission via maritime cold chains: A statistical analysis of nucleic acid detection results of cold chain food imported from Fuzhou ports

Numerous epidemic outbreaks related to cold chains have occurred since the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak, suggesting the potential danger of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) transmission through cold chain foods (CCFs). By analyzing SARS-CoV-2 RNA contamination of CCFs imported from Fuzhou ports, this study evaluated the contamination and transmission of SARS-CoV-2 RNA via maritime cold chains, with the aim of provide suggestions for CCFs supervision and public health management. The statistical analysis included 131,385 samples. The majority of the CCFs imported into Fuzhou ports was aquatic raw food that originated in Southeast Asia (57.08 %), South America (19.87 %), and South Asia (11.22 %). South Asia had the highest positivity rate of 0.37 %, followed by Southeast Asia (0.21 %) and South America (0.08 %). The positivity rate showed that the outer packaging of CCFs was the most easily contaminated, accounting for 81.33 % of all positive samples. This suggested that CCFs storage and loading processes were the weak links vulnerable to SARS-CoV-2 contamination. The positivity rates in outer packaging, inner packaging, and content of raw food were 0.48 %, 0.08 %, and 0.05 %, respectively, which were obviously higher than those of processed and refined food. This indicated that increasing the mechanization of factories and implementing sensible worker management practices may decrease viral contamination. The monthly positivity rates varied widely from 0 % (March 2021) to 0.40 % (January 2021), with an average of 0.19 %. The positivity rates in outer packaging, inner packaging and content of crustaceans from Southeast Asia were 2.47 %, 0.41 %, and 0.69 %, which were approximately 5-14 times higher than those of fish and cephalopods. Meanwhile, the monthly detection number show that SARS-CoV-2 epidemic prevention strategies affected the trade of imported CCFs.

Innovative nonthermal technologies for inactivation of emerging foodborne viruses

Various foodborne viruses have been associated with human health during the last decade, causing gastroenteritis and a huge economic burden worldwide. Furthermore, the emergence of new variants of infectious viruses is growing continuously. Inactivation of foodborne viruses in the food industry is a formidable task because although viruses cannot grow in foods, they can survive in the food matrix during food processing and storage environments. Conventional inactivation methods pose various drawbacks, necessitating more effective and environmentally friendly techniques for controlling foodborne viruses during food production and processing. Various inactivation approaches for controlling foodborne viruses have been attempted in the food industry. However, some traditionally used techniques, such as disinfectant-based or heat treatment, are not always efficient. Nonthermal techniques are considered a new platform for effective and safe treatment to inactivate foodborne viruses. This review focuses on foodborne viruses commonly associated with human gastroenteritis, including newly emerged viruses, such as sapovirus and Aichi virus. It also investigates the use of chemical and nonthermal physical treatments as effective technologies to inactivate foodborne viruses.

Current decontamination challenges and potentially complementary solutions to safeguard the vulnerable seafood industry from recalcitrant human norovirus in live shellfish: Quo Vadis?

Safeguarding the seafood industry is important given its contribution to supporting our growing global population. However, shellfish are filter feeders that bioaccumulate microbial contaminants in their tissue from wastewater discharged into the same coastal growing environments leading to significant human disease outbreaks unless appropriately mitigated. Removal or inactivation of enteric viruses is very challenging particularly as human norovirus (hNoV) binds to specific histo-blood ligands in live oyster tissue that are consumed raw or lightly cooked. The regulatory framework that sets out use of clean seawater and UV disinfection is appropriate for bacterial decontamination at the post-harvest land-based depuration (cleaning) stage. However, additional non-thermal technologies are required to eliminate hNoV in live shellfish (particularly oysters) where published genomic studies report that low-pressure UV has limited effectiveness in inactivating hNoV. The use of the standard genomic detection method (ISO 15, 216-1:2017) is not appropriate for assessing the loss of infectious hNoV in treated live shellfish. The use of surrogate viral infectivity methods appear to offer some insight into the loss of hNoV infectiousness in live shellfish during decontamination. This paper reviews the use of existing and potentially other combinational treatment approaches to enhance the removal or inactivation of enteric viruses in live shellfish. The use of alternative and complementary novel diagnostic approaches to discern viable hNoV are discussed. The effectiveness and virological safety of new affordable hNoV intervention(s) require testing and validating at commercial shellfish production in conjunction with laboratory-based research. Appropriate risk management planning should encompass key stakeholders including local government and the wastewater industry. Gaining a mechanistic understanding of the relationship between hNoV response at molecular and structural levels in individually treated oysters as a unit will inform predictive modeling and appropriate treatment technologies. Global warming of coastal growing environments may introduce additional contaminant challenges (such as invasive species); thus, underscoring need to develop real-time ecosystem monitoring of growing environments to alert shellfish producers to appropriately mitigate these threats.

A Review of Modern Methods for the Detection of Foodborne Pathogens

Despite the recent advances in food preservation techniques and food safety, significant disease outbreaks linked to foodborne pathogens such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses still occur worldwide indicating that these pathogens still constitute significant risks to public health. Although extensive reviews of methods for foodborne pathogens detection exist, most are skewed towards bacteria despite the increasing relevance of other pathogens such as viruses. Therefore, this review of foodborne pathogen detection methods is holistic, focusing on pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses. This review has shown that culture-based methods allied with new approaches are beneficial for the detection of foodborne pathogens. The current application of immunoassay methods, especially for bacterial and fungal toxins detection in foods, are reviewed. The use and benefits of nucleic acid-based PCR methods and next-generation sequencing-based methods for bacterial, fungal, and viral pathogens' detection and their toxins in foods are also reviewed. This review has, therefore, shown that different modern methods exist for the detection of current and emerging foodborne bacterial, fungal, and viral pathogens. It provides further evidence that the full utilization of these tools can lead to early detection and control of foodborne diseases, enhancing public health and reducing the frequency of disease outbreaks.

Prevalence of foodborne and zoonotic viral pathogens in raw cow milk samples

Foodborne and zoonotic viral pathogens are responsible for substantial morbidity and mortality worldwide. These viruses can be transmitted through foods such as dairy products to humans and cause several acute and chronic diseases. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence and profile of different foodborne and zoonotic viruses in raw cow milk samples. We collected 492 raw cow milk samples from local dairy markets in Qazvin, Iran. Then we evaluated the presence of hepatitis A virus, noroviruses, rotavirus, astrovirus, bovine leukaemia virus (BLV) and tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) in samples using conventional and nested reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction methods. We found that 34.95, 7.72, 25.81, 14.63, 66.86, 12.80 and 21.34% of raw milk samples were contaminated with norovirus GI, norovirus GII, hepatitis A virus, rotavirus, astrovirus, BLV and TBEV viruses, respectively. Interestingly, the samples collected from the city's south area revealed a higher prevalence of foodborne and zoonotic viruses. Astrovirus and its combination with norovirus GI were the most prevalent virus profiles. Also, the highest correlations were observed among the presence of rotavirus and hepatitis A viruses (0.36) and TBEV and norovirus GII (0.31). Considering the prevalence rate and virus profiles of different foodborne and zoonotic viruses in raw milk samples, hygiene practices and the pasteurization process are strongly suggested to be conducted throughout the cow milk production chain and in dairy industries to prevent infections with these pathogens.

Investigating the microbial inactivation effect of low temperature high pressure carbon dioxide and its application in frozen prawn (Penaeus vannamei)

During the pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019, the fact that frozen foods can carry the relevant virus raises concerns about the microbial safety of cold-chain foods. As a non-thermal processing technology, high pressure carbon dioxide (HPCD) is a potential method to reduce microbial load on cold-chain foods. In this study, we explored the microbial inactivation of low temperature (5-10 °C) HPCD (LT-HPCD) and evaluated its effect on the quality of prawn during freeze-chilled and frozen storage. LT-HPCD treatment at 6.5 MPa and 10 °C for 15 min could effectively inactivate E. coli (99.45%) and S. aureus (94.6%) suspended in 0.85% NaCl, SARS-CoV-2 Spike pseudovirus (>99%) and human coronavirus 229E (hCoV-229E) (>1-log virus tilter reduction) suspended in DMEM medium. The inactivation effect of LT-HPCD was weakened but still significant when the microorganisms were inoculated on the surface of food or package. LT-HPCD treatment at 6.5 MPa and 10 °C for 15 min achieved about 60% inactivation of total aerobic count while could maintain frozen state and quality of prawn. Moreover, LT-HPCD treated prawn exhibited significant slower microbial proliferation and no occurrence of melanosis compared with the untreated samples during chilled storage. A comprehensive quality investigation indicated that LT-HPCD treatment could maintain the color, texture and sensory of prawn during chilled or frozen storage. Consequently, LT-HPCD could improve the microbial safety of frozen prawn while maintaining its original quality, and could be a potential method for food industry to improve the microbial safety of cold-chain foods.

Recent developments in the use of cold plasma, high hydrostatic pressure, and pulsed electric fields on microorganisms and viruses in seafood

Non-thermal processing methods, such as cold plasma (CP), high pressure processing (HPP) and pulsed electric fields (PEF), have been proposed for natural and fresh-like foods to inactivate microorganisms at nearly-ambient or moderate temperature. Since natural, safe, and healthy foods with longer shelf-life are increasingly demanded, these requests are challenging to fulfill by using current thermal processing technologies. Thus, novel preservation technologies based on non-thermal processing methods are required. The aim of this article is to provide recent developments in maintaining seafood safety via CP, HHP, and PEF technologies, as well as their mechanisms of action regarding contamination with food-borne microorganisms. Their application to control parasites, spores and the possibility to eradicate the hazard of SARS-CoV-2 transmission through seafood products are also discussed. CP, HHP, and PEF have been applied to inactivate food-borne microorganisms in the seafood industry. However, the drawbacks for each emerging technology have also been reported. To ensure safety and maintain quality of seafood products, the combination of these processing techniques with natural antimicrobial agents or existing thermal methods may be more applicable in the case of the seafood industry. Further studies are required to examine the effects of these methods on viruses, parasites, and SARS-CoV-2 in seafood.

Can food matrices be considered as a potential carrier for COVID-19?

Humanity is currently facing a life-threatening challenge from the infectious and epidemic disease SARS-CoV-2. To date, the various modes of transmission of the virus have not been fully elucidated. In this regard, there is a possibility of transmission of the virus through food products. The COVID-19 pandemic disease, like those associated with SARS and MERS, is transmitted mainly through the respiratory tract and airborne aerosol particles, but the presence of fragments of the genetic virus (RNA) in the feces of numerous patients proposes that their fecal-oral pathway may be expanded. In addition, people with gastrointestinal disorders such as atrophic gastritis and metaplasia may be susceptible to COVID-19 infection. Accordingly, food may act as a potential carrier of COVID-19 due to environmental or cross-contamination. According to the available evidence, the spread and possibility of transmission of COVID-19 contamination from humans to food products are possible. Beyond that, there is some evidence that some food sources of animal origin, such as pigs and rabbits, can be contaminated by COVID-19. Therefore, the transmission of the virus through some meat products may be conceivable. Due to the rapid release rate of COVID-19 and its stability in various milieus, especially food manufacturing circumstances, it may enter the matrix during different stages of traditional or industrial food processing. Therefore, preventive measures are recommended to be utilized in the food manufacturing sector. The present study explored the risk of different food matrices, including dairy products, bread, meat and meat products, vegetables, fruits, and processed foods, as potential carriers for the transmission of COVID-19.

Inactivation of hepatitis A virus and norovirus on berries by broad-spectrum pulsed light

Foodborne diseases are still a major global health and economic burden, and are mainly caused by viral pathogens, such as human norovirus and hepatitis A virus, which may remain infective for long times on food contact surfaces and on produce. The strategies of viral inactivation applied in the industry are not generally suitable for delicate foods such as berries. Brief exposure to high-intensity white light (UV to IR) has been shown to inactivate many bacteria. The effectiveness of this treatment against foodborne viruses on fresh produce is largely unknown. We show that pulsed light treatment causes a moderate drop in the luminosity (L*, which ranges from bright (high) to dark (low)) of blueberries (to 36.31 ± 0.99 from 42.47 ± 1.17) and affects the luminosity of lettuce slightly but does not affect the appearance of strawberries, blackberries or raspberries. Hepatitis A virus and murine norovirus 1 are thus reduced by 2 log cycles. Viral inactivation on blackberries was less effective. These results will help food industries evaluate the suitability of pulsed light disinfecting technology for specific fruits and vegetables.

Inactivation of Foodborne Viruses by UV Light: A Review

Viruses on some foods can be inactivated by exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light. This green technology has little impact on product quality and, thus, could be used to increase food safety. While its bactericidal effect has been studied extensively, little is known about the viricidal effect of UV on foods. The mechanism of viral inactivation by UV results mainly from an alteration of the genetic material (DNA or RNA) within the viral capsid and, to a lesser extent, by modifying major and minor viral proteins of the capsid. In this review, we examine the potential of UV treatment as a means of inactivating viruses on food processing surfaces and different foods. The most common foodborne viruses and their laboratory surrogates; further explanation on the inactivation mechanism and its efficacy in water, liquid foods, meat products, fruits, and vegetables; and the prospects for the commercial application of this technology are discussed. Lastly, we describe UV’s limitations and legislation surrounding its use. Based on our review of the literature, viral inactivation in water seems to be particularly effective. While consistent inactivation through turbid liquid food or the entire surface of irregular food matrices is more challenging, some treatments on different food matrices seem promising.

Changes in Dietary Patterns and Clinical Health Outcomes in Different Countries during the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has led to an excess in community mortality across the globe. We review recent evidence on the clinical pathology of COVID-19, comorbidity factors, immune response to SARS-CoV-2 infection, and factors influencing infection outcomes. The latter specifically includes diet and lifestyle factors during pandemic restrictions. We also cover the possibility of SARS-CoV-2 transmission through food products and the food chain, as well as virus persistence on different surfaces and in different environmental conditions, which were major public concerns during the initial days of the pandemic, but have since waned in public attention. We discuss useful measures to avoid the risk of SARS-CoV-2 spread through food, and approaches that may reduce the risk of contamination with the highly contagious virus. While hygienic protocols are required in food supply sectors, cleaning, disinfection, avoidance of cross-contamination across food categories, and foodstuffs at different stages of the manufacturing process are still particularly relevant because the virus persists at length on inert materials such as food packaging. Moreover, personal hygiene (frequent washing and disinfection), wearing gloves, and proper use of masks, clothes, and footwear dedicated to maintaining hygiene, provide on-site protections for food sector employees as well as supply chain intermediates and consumers. Finally, we emphasize the importance of following a healthy diet and maintaining a lifestyle that promotes physical well-being and supports healthy immune system function, especially when government movement restrictions ("lockdowns") are implemented.

Antiviral Potential of Plants against Noroviruses

Human noroviruses, which belong to the enterovirus family, are one of the most common etiological agents of food-borne diseases. In recent years, intensive research has been carried out regarding the antiviral activity of plant metabolites that could be used for the preservation of fresh food, because they are safer for consumption when compared to synthetic chemicals. Plant preparations with proven antimicrobial activity differ in their chemical compositions, which significantly affects their biological activity. Our review aimed to present the results of research related to the characteristics, applicability, and mechanisms of the action of various plant-based preparations and metabolites against norovirus. New strategies to combat intestinal viruses are necessary, not only to ensure food safety and reduce infections in humans but also to lower the direct health costs associated with them.

Respiratory viruses in foods and their potential transmission through the diet: A review of the literature

Respiratory viruses are the main agents causing respiratory tract diseases. Nowadays, coronaviruses - and specifically, SARS-CoV-1, MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 - are the principal responsible for the major epidemic outbreaks of the 21st century. The major routes of transmission for respiratory viruses - including coronaviruses - are via direct and indirect contacts. However, transmission through contaminated foods has not been extensively assessed. The present paper was aimed at reviewing scientific data on the transmission of respiratory viruses through potentially contaminated foods. While the current data seem to suggest that this route of transmission is not likely to occur, in order to increase the knowledge on this issue further investigations are still clearly necessary for a more complete prevention of the risks. Studies should include fresh produce and cooked foods. Anyway, prevention measures and good hygienic practices for both consumers and workers are mandatory when handling and cooking foods.

Inactivation of Foodborne Viruses by High-Pressure Processing (HPP)

High-pressure processing (HPP) is an innovative non-thermal food preservation method. HPP can inactivate microorganisms, including viruses, with minimal influence on the physicochemical and sensory properties of foods. The most significant foodborne viruses are human norovirus (HuNoV), hepatitis A virus (HAV), human rotavirus (HRV), hepatitis E virus (HEV), human astrovirus (HAstV), human adenovirus (HuAdV), Aichi virus (AiV), sapovirus (SaV), and enterovirus (EV), which have also been implicated in foodborne outbreaks in various countries. The HPP inactivation of foodborne viruses in foods depends on high-pressure processing parameters (pressure, temperature, and duration time) or non-processing parameters such as virus type, food matrix, water activity (aw), and the pH of foods. HPP was found to be effective for the inactivation of foodborne viruses such as HuNoV, HAV, HAstV, and HuAdV in foods. HPP treatments have been found to be effective at eliminating foodborne viruses in high-risk foods such as shellfish and vegetables. The present work reviews the published data on the effect of HPP processing on foodborne viruses in laboratory media and foods.