Children's Transport Built Environments: A Mixed Methods Study of Associations between Perceived and Objective Measures and Relationships with Parent Licence for Independent Mobility in Auckland, New Zealand

Children's Independent Mobility, School Travel, and the Surrounding Neighborhood

INTRODUCTION

Children's active travel to and from school (AST) and children's independent mobility (CIM) are consistently positively associated with physical activity (PA); however, few researchers have investigated associations between objective measures of the environment and indicators of AST and CIM in national samples.

METHODS

A national sample of 2,067 Canadian parents of 7- to 12-year-old children was recruited in December 2020. Regression analyses were used in 2023 to assess the association between geographic information system measures of park density, blue space, population density, greenspace, intersection density, and CIM and AST to and from school.

RESULTS

Children in areas with high versus low park density (>0.025 vs. ≤0.025) had higher odds of travel to school via active modes (OR: 1.47 [1.14, 1.91], p=0.003). Children in neighborhoods in the highest quartile for neighborhood greenspace (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) were more likely to travel to home actively than those in areas of lower greenspace (OR: 1.70 [1.18, 2.45], p=0.004). On average, children living in areas in the highest versus the lowest quartile for intersection density were more likely to engage in AST to (OR: 2.43 [1.58, 3.75], p<0.001) and from (OR: 2.77 [1.80, 4.29], p<0.001) school.

CONCLUSIONS

The observed associations underscore a need for city planners and policymakers to ensure sufficient access to parks and neighborhood greenspace, especially if findings are confirmed in longitudinal studies. More research is needed to investigate the role of intersection density in supporting AST and CIM.

GIS-based intelligent planning approach of child-friendly pedestrian pathway to promote a child-friendly city

Pedestrian safety, particularly for children, relies on well-designed pathways. Child-friendly pathways play a crucial role in safeguarding young pedestrians. Shared spaces accommodating both vehicles and walkers can bring benefits to pedestrians. However, active children playing near these pathways are prone to accidents. This research aims to develop an efficient method for planning child-friendly pedestrian pathways, taking into account community development and the specific needs of children. A mixed-methods approach was employed, utilizing the Datang community in Guangzhou, China, as a case study. This approach combined drawing techniques with GIS data analysis. Drawing methods were utilized to identify points of interest for children aged 2-6. The qualitative and quantitative fuzzy analytic hierarchy process assessed factors influencing pathway planning, assigning appropriate weights. The weighted superposition analysis method constructed a comprehensive cost grid, considering various community elements. To streamline the planning process, a GIS tool was developed based on the identified factors, resulting in a practical, child-friendly pedestrian pathway network. Results indicate that this method efficiently creates child-friendly pathways, ensuring optimal connectivity within the planned road network.

Perceived Safety Influencing Active Travel to School-A Built Environment Perspective

Despite the many research studies on active school travel (AST), the number of children walking/cycling to school is decreasing as there is a lack of implementable research evidence. This review through database searches from 2000 to 2020 aims to identify research gaps and explore new perspectives. The articles are selected and screened methodically for systematic presentation of the review. An existing active school travel framework is used to structure and discuss this review paper on mediating factors influencing children's active travel to school, that is the perceived traffic safety, neighborhood safety, and distance to school. Perception of traffic safety could be ameliorated through lateral separation from the traffic, and this could be a new area of research. The neighborhood safety perception may require more research to validate the previous findings. Schools should be located within high-density residential development so that many children can walk to school.

Children's experiences of the journey between home and school: A qualitative synthesis using meta-ethnography

This paper uses meta-ethnography to synthesise qualitative and ethnographic studies of children's (aged 5-13) experiences of socio-material environments on their school journey. Most of the 21 papers (18 studies) identified from the systematic search were from high-income countries and used self-report qualitative methods. Our synthesis shows children can feel vulnerable, but also negotiate journeys and manage risks, enjoy shared and solitary mobility, and explore their material environments. School journeys offer children a place to learn and develop agency within their socio-material environments. Attending to these wider benefits of school journeys, alongside supporting children to develop active modes attuned to the risks associated with these journeys, could improve the reach and impact of active school travel initiatives.

Effects of Attending Extracurricular Lessons and Cram School on Independent Mobility in Japanese Children

Independent mobility and its related factors were examined among Japanese elementary school children. Based on the responses of 1,824 mothers with elementary school-aged children, the effects of demographic variables such as children’s grade, gender, and birth order as well as regional characteristics, neighborhood environment, distance to and means of getting to school, children’s use of bicycles, keys and cell phones, and the number of weekdays spent attending lessons or cram schools were explored. Factor analysis revealed that independent mobility comprised activities in public places, including outings to supermarkets, and traveling by bus and train as well as activities in the school district such as visiting friends’ homes and parks. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses that comprised five steps were conducted in which the number of days of attending lessons and cram school was entered in the final step. There was a strong gender effect and grade effect for outings to public places and activities in the school district. Concerns about traffic accidents and security were associated with lower independent mobility. With regard to activities in the school district, proximity to school, use of bicycles, and possession of house keys had a positive effect. It is noteworthy that the effect of the number of days spent attending lessons or cram school was observed even after the other variables were entered, thus resulting in a negative effect. It is recommended that further comparative studies involving other Asian countries be conducted to evaluate the effects of extracurricular activities.

Social-Ecological Correlates of Children’s Independent Mobility: A Systematic Review

Children’s independent mobility (IM) is associated with a range of benefits and understanding the factors that influence IM can support creation of effective interventions. The review (Prospero CRD42016042174) systematically summarized the available literature for social-ecological correlates of children’s IM in school-aged children and youth (aged 5–17 years). In this case, 53 studies were included and evaluated six individual, 15 interpersonal, 12 social environment, and 19 built environment- level variables. Most studies originated from Australia (n = 15) and Canada (n = 8) with most published in 2011 or later (n = 48). Variables that were consistently (positively and/or negatively) associated with children’s IM were age, ethnicity/race, child’s perceived competence, ownership of a house/access to house keys, having siblings, parents’ attitude toward IM and perception of child’s confidence, children’s interest in environment and activities, parents’ concern around traffic, housing/residential density, length of residency in one’s home, distance to destinations, and proximity to green space. Given the inter-related social-ecological correlates identified, intervention to promote children’s IM will likely need a multi-level and multi-sectoral approach. However, focus areas of building children’s skills and confidence, helping parents gain confidence in their children’s abilities, assuaging parental traffic concerns, and building environments with shorter distances to destinations of interest for children should be prioritized.

Associations between Children's Physical Activity and Neighborhood Environments Using GIS: A Secondary Analysis from a Systematic Scoping Review

Regular participation in physical activity is essential for children's physical, mental, and cognitive health. Neighborhood environments may be especially important for children who are more likely to spend time in the environment proximal to home. This article provides an update of evidence for associations between children's physical activity behaviors and objectively assessed environmental characteristics derived using geographical information system (GIS)-based approaches. A systematic scoping review yielded 36 relevant articles of varying study quality. Most studies were conducted in the USA. Findings highlight the need for neighborhoods that are well connected, have higher population densities, and have a variety of destinations in the proximal neighborhood to support children's physical activity behaviors. A shorter distance to school and safe traffic environments were significant factors in supporting children's active travel behaviors. Areas for improvement in the field include the consideration of neighborhood self-selection bias, including more diverse population groups, ground-truthing GIS databases, utilising data-driven approaches to derive environmental indices, and improving the temporal alignment of GIS datasets with behavioral outcomes.

Enabling Better Physical Activity and Screen Time Behaviours for Adolescents from Middle Eastern Backgrounds: Semi-Structured Interviews with Parents

The unrelenting obesity pandemic in Middle Eastern (ME) adolescents living in Australia warrants culturally responsive and locally engineered interventions. Given the influence of parents on the lifestyle behaviours of adolescents, this qualitative study aimed to capture the opinions of ME parents on the barriers and enablers to sufficient physical activity and limiting screen time behaviours in adolescents. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 26 ME parents (female) aged 35–59 years old, most of whom resided in lower socioeconomic areas (n = 19). A reflexive thematic analysis using the Theoretical Domains Framework and the Capability, Opportunity, Motivation-Behaviour model was performed for coding. Parents voiced confidence in their knowledge of the importance of physical activity and limiting screen time but were less optimistic in their ability to enable change in behaviours, especially for older adolescents without outside support. Despite adolescents having the necessary skills to engage in a wide array of sports, the parents admitted deep fears regarding the safety of the social environment and restricted their children’s independent mobility. Gender differences were noted, with parents reporting older girls expressing disinterest in sports and having limited physical opportunities to participate in sports at school. It may be that a community-based participatory framework is needed to improve physical activity opportunities and to address specific physical, social, and cultural barriers.

Access to bike lanes and childhood obesity: A systematic review and meta-analysis

The lack of bike lane access has been a proven risk factor for childhood obesity due to its role in discouraging healthy lifestyles. However, there has not been a systematic review of this important association in the existing literature. This study aims to fill this gap. A literature search was conducted in the Cochrane Library, PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science for studies published from 1 January 2019 onwards that examined the association between bike lane access and weight-related behaviours and outcomes among children aged <18 years. A total of 21 studies were included in this systematic review. Among them, most of the studies showed that bike lane access was significantly associated with children and adolescents' physical activity (PA), whereas only two studies showed a negative association. Meta-analysis also supported these findings and showed that bike lane access was significantly associated with children and adolescents' PA (odds ratio [OR] = 1.57, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.37-1.81). Additionally, we reviewed how bike lane characteristics and microenvironment variables such as children and adolescents' choice of bicycle travel mode, the degree of separation of cycle path, cycle path unevenness, and street maintenance were associated with adolescents' preferences and intention to cycle. This systematic review and meta-analysis strongly suggests that bike lane access is associated with children and adolescents' PA. Nonetheless, it was difficult to draw a conclusion on the association between bike lane access and weight-related outcomes.

Objective measurement of children's physical activity geographies: A systematic search and scoping review

This study aimed to systematically identify, map out, and describe geographical information systems (GIS)-based approaches that have been employed to measure children's neighborhood geographies for physical activity behaviors. Forty studies were included, most were conducted in the USA. Heterogeneity in GIS methods and measures was found. The majority of studies estimated children's environments using Euclidean or network buffers ranging from 100 m to 5 km. No singular approach to measuring children's physical activity geographies was identified as optimal. Geographic diversity in studies as well as increased use of measures of actual neighborhood exposure are needed. Improved consistency and transparency in reporting research methods is urgently required.

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Varied GIS measures of children's physical activity geographies were identified.

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Evidence was heterogeneous and predominantly from the USA.

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Most research used Euclidean or network buffers ranging from 100 m to 5 km.

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Larger buffer sizes (i.e., ≥800 m) performed better than smaller buffer sizes.

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No optimal approach to measuring children's activity geographies was determined.

Keeping kids safe for active travel to school: A mixed method examination of school policies and practices and children's school travel behaviour

Active school travel contributes to children's physical, mental and social wellbeing. The prevalence of children's active school travel, however, has been declining in many developed countries. Gaining insights into school culture and environments in relation to school travel behaviour is crucial to inform interventions. Using a multiphase mixed methods approach, this study aimed to provide a comprehensive understanding of how school policies and practices supported or inhibited school travel behaviour in Auckland, New Zealand. Data were drawn from Neighbourhoods for Active Kids, a cross-sectional study of 1085 children aged 8-13 years between February 2015 and December 2016. School representatives were interviewed regarding their policies and practices related to school travel behaviour and traffic around school, and the data were analysed thematically. An overarching theme, sub-themes and categories were contextualised for quantitative modelling using objectively measured school variables (school socioeconomic status, active school travel programme, built environments around school). Mixed effects multinomial logistic regression models were employed to determine associations between school travel mode and objectively measured child (sociodemographic characteristics, traffic safety perceptions) and school variables. Safety was the core concept of school travel policies, procedures and programmes. Significant differences in child variables, school socioeconomic status, and cycle lanes and traffic lights around school were found between children who actively travelled or used public transport to school and those driven to school. Overall, this study demonstrated the important role of school policy and procedures and the potential application of an intersectoral approach for interventions to support changes in school travel behaviour.

Built and Natural Environmental Correlates of Parental Safety Concerns for Children's Active Travel to School

This cross-sectional study examines built and natural environmental correlates of parental safety concerns for children's active travel to school (ATS), controlling for socio-demographic, attitudinal, and social factors. Questionnaire surveys (n = 3291) completed by parents who had 1st-6th grade children were collected in 2011 from 20 elementary schools in Austin, Texas. Objectively-measured built and natural environmental data were derived from two software programs: Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Environment for Visualizing Images (ENVI). Ordinal least square regressions were used for statistical analyses in this study. Results from the fully adjusted final model showed that bike lanes, the presence of highway and railroads, the presence of sex offenders, and steep slopes along the home-to-school route were associated with increased parental safety concerns, while greater intersection density and greater tree canopy coverage along the route were associated with decreased parental safety concerns. Natural elements and walking-friendly elements of the built environment appear important in reducing parental safety concerns, which is a necessary step toward promoting children's ATS.

The Importance of Pedestrian Network Connectivity for Adolescent Health: A Cross-sectional Examination of Associations between Neighbourhood Built Environments and Metabolic Health in the Pacific Islands Families Birth Cohort Study

The research aim was to investigate associations between objectively-assessed built environment attributes and metabolic risk in adolescents of Pacific Islands ethnicity, and to consider the possible mediating effect of physical activity and sedentary time. Youth (n = 204) undertook a suite of physical assessments including body composition, blood sampling, and blood pressure measurements, and seven day accelerometry. Objective measures of the neighbourhood built environment were generated around individual addresses. Logistic regression and linear modelling were used to assess associations between environment measures and metabolic health, accounting for physical activity behaviours. Higher pedestrian connectivity was associated with an increase in the chance of having any International Diabetes Federation metabolic risk factors for males only. Pedestrian connectivity was related to fat free mass in males in unadjusted analyses only. This study provides evidence for the importance of pedestrian network connectivity for health in adolescent males. Future research is required to expand the limited evidence in neighbourhood environments and adolescent metabolic health.