Training and Competition Load in Female Basketball: A Systematic Review

Intensity Thresholds for External Workload Demands in Basketball: Is Individualization Based on Playing Positions Necessary?

Currently, basketball teams use inertial devices for monitoring external and internal workload demands during training and competitions. However, the intensity thresholds preset by device manufacturers are generic and not adapted for specific sports (e.g., basketball) and players' positions (e.g., guards, forwards, and centers). Using universal intensity thresholds may lead to failure in accurately capturing the true external load faced by players in different positions. Therefore, the present study aimed to identify external load demands based on playing positions and establish different intensity thresholds based on match demands in order to have specific reference values for teams belonging to the highest competitive level of Spanish basketball. Professional male players (n = 68) from the Spanish ACB league were monitored during preseason official games. Three specific positions were used to group the players: guards, forwards, and centers. Speed, accelerations, decelerations, impacts/min, and player load/min were collected via inertial devices. Two-step clustering and k-means clustering categorized load metrics into intensity zones for guards, forwards, and centers. Guards covered more distance at high speeds (12.72-17.50 km/h) than forwards and centers (p < 0.001). Centers experienced the most impacts/min (p < 0.001). Guards exhibited greater accelerations/decelerations, albeit mostly low magnitude (p < 0.001). K-means clustering allowed the setting of five zones revealing additional thresholds. All positions showed differences in threshold values (p < 0.001). The findings provide insights into potential disparities in the external load during competition and help establish position-specific intensity thresholds for optimal monitoring in basketball. These data are highly applicable to the design of training tasks at the highest competitive level.

Training stress, neuromuscular fatigue and well-being in volleyball: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Volleyball, with its unique calendar structure, presents distinct challenges in training and competition scheduling. Like many team sports, volleyball features an unconventional schedule with brief off-season and pre-season phases, juxtaposed against an extensive in-season phase characterized by a high density of matches and training. This compact calendar necessitates careful management of training loads and recovery periods. The effectiveness of this management is a critical factor, influencing the overall performance and success of volleyball teams. In this review, we explore the associations between training stress measures, fatigue, and well-being assessments within this context, to better inform future research and practice.

METHODS

A systematic literature search was conducted in databases including PsycINFO, MEDLINE/PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, and Scopus. Inclusion criteria were original research papers published in peer-reviewed journals involving volleyball athletes.

RESULTS

Of the 2535 studies identified, 31 were thoroughly analysed. From these 31 articles, 22 included professional athletes, seven included collegiate-level volleyball athletes, and two included young athletes. Nine studies had female volleyball players, while the remaining 22 had male volleyball athletes.

CONCLUSIONS

Internal training load should be collected daily after training sessions and matches with the session rating of perceived exertion method. External training load should also be measured daily according to the methods based on jump height, jump count, and kinetic energy. If force platforms are available, neuromuscular fatigue can be assessed weekly using the FT:CT ratio of a countermovement jump or, in cases where force platforms are not available, the average jump height can also be used. Finally, the Hooper Index has been shown to be a measure of overall wellness, fatigue, stress, muscle soreness, mood, and sleep quality in volleyball when used daily.

A comparative study of Chinese women 3 × 3 basketball players exercise load in Tokyo Olympic preparation cycle

Objective: The aim of this study was to compare the variances in-game loads exhibited by Chinese women's 3 × 3 basketball team across different stages of the preparation cycle for the Tokyo Olympic Games, and to summarize the fundamental regulations governing Chinese women's 3 × 3 basketball training and games, in order to establish a theoretical research foundation for the team's new preparation cycle. Methods: This study measured load-related data during the preparation and main competition periods of the 2019-2021 Tokyo Olympics, from April to August 2019 and from April to June 2021. The aim was to compare the changes and differences in a load of competition during different stages and to explore patterns of load changes during the preparation period. This study used wearable devices authorized by FIFA and NBA, along with the Catapult GPS performance monitoring system from Australia (Catapult&Polar Team) as instruments for collecting sports load data. The OptimEye S5 device was worn around the athlete's neck to collect data prior to the game, while the Open Field™ system was utilized for data editing and report generation post-game. Results: Compared to the primary competition load during the 2019 preparation period, the 2021 preparation period exhibited significant increases and decreases (p < 0.05) in competition load, high-intensity load, the number of explosive moves, the number of high-intensity acceleration, several changes to the left and right, and the number of explosive jumps. During the 2021 preparation period, the mean heart rate, mean heart rate percentage, and mean speed of the race demonstrated significant decreases in comparison to the race during the 2019 preparation period (p < 0.05). Throughout the training period spanning from 2019 to 2021, no significant differences were observed in running distance and maximum speed (p > 0.05). Conclusion: The findings of this study reveal that the national training team has fostered positive adaptive changes in athletes, resulting in a significant enhancement in both load and sports performance science data during competition from 2019 to 2021.

External Load Monitoring in Female Basketball: A Systematic Review

The primary aim of this systematic review was to summarize the current state of research in relation to external load monitoring in female basketball. The review was conducted according to the PRISMA-P® statement. Publications included in the review: 1) were original research, 2) evaluated healthy female basketball players, and 3) monitored basketball practice and competition. The STROBE scale was used to assess quality. A total of 40 publications were included. The external load was assessed during practice (n = 9), competition (n = 11) or both events (n = 8). Also, time-motion analysis was implemented in practice (n = 2), competition (n = 9), or both events (n = 1). Accelerometry (n = 28) and time-motion (n = 12) analysis were the most frequently used methods. However, a wide range in methods and variables were used to quantify the external load. Placement of devices on the upper back and measuring with a sampling frequency of 100 Hz were most common. Player Load (PL) values increased with the competitive level of players and were higher in competition compared to training. Small-sided games can be used to gradually increase loads in female basketball (PL 5v5: 34.8 ± 8, PL 3v3: 47.6 ± 7.4, TD 5v5: 209.2 ± 35.8 m, and TD 3v3: 249.3 ± 2.8 m). Tasks without defense seemed to be less demanding. More research is needed to reach a consensus on load control in women's basketball, on what data are important to collect, and how to use and transfer knowledge to stakeholders.

Acute physiological, perceived exertion and enjoyment responses during a 4-week basketball training: a small-sided game vs. high-intensity interval training

Introduction

Although previous research found that small-sided game (SSG) training was more enjoyable than high-intensity interval training (HIT) in various sports, no data were provided during longer training period in basketball. Furthermore, the comparison of internal loads between the two training approaches needs to be further examined. Thus, this study aimed to examine the acute physiological, perceived exertion and enjoyment responses during 4-week progressive basketball SSG or HIT programs.

Methods

Nineteen female collegiate basketball players were randomly assigned to two groups that performed either HIT (n = 10) or SSG (n = 9) 3 times per week for 4 continuous weeks. Average and percentage of maximal heart rate (HR_mean and %HR_max), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and physical activity enjoyment (PACES) were determined during each training session.

Results

There was a main group effect in PACES (p < 0.001; ηp2 = 0.44, moderate), and SSG had higher PACES than HIT in each week (p < 0.05). There were no significant interactions or main group effects in HR_mean, %HR_max or RPE, but a main time effect was found in HR_mean (p = 0.004; ηp2 = 0.16, minimum), %HR_max (p < 0.001; ηp2 = 0.25, minimum), and RPE (p < 0.001; ηp2 = 0.31, moderate), respectively. In the SSG group, although no significant differences were found in HR responses, %HR_max was below 90% in week 1 and week 2. Accompanied with changes in %HR_max, RPE in week 1 and week 2 was lower than that in week 3 and week 4 (p < 0.05).

Conclusion

Our findings suggest that SSG and HIT elicit similar acute HR response and RPE level, but SSG is perceived as more enjoyable and therefore it is more likely to increase exercise motivation and adherence comparing to HIT. Moreover, it seems that half-court, 2 vs. 2 SS Gtraining format with modified rules and lasting ≥ 7.5 min should be prescribed as an enjoyable training alternative to provide optimal cardiovascular stimuli (> 90% of HR_max) for female basketball players.

Monitoring Internal Load in Women's Basketball via Subjective and Device-Based Methods: A Systematic Review

The monitoring of internal load in basketball can be used to understand the effects and potential physiological adaptations caused by external load. The main aim of this systematic review was to identify the methods and variables used to quantify internal load in female basketball. The studies included different populations and events: youth athletes, elite, and amateur players. Subjective methods included using the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) method, and sensor-based methods included monitoring the cardiac response to exercise, using heart rate (HR) as the primary metric. The results showed that the HRAvg exhibited a wider range of values during training than during competition, and different metrics were used to evaluate internal load, such as HRMax, HRmin, %HRMax, total time and % of time spent in different HR zones (2-8 zones), Banister's TRIMP, and summated HR zones. RPE and HR metrics were the most commonly used methods. However, the use of multiple metrics with little standardization resulted in significant heterogeneity among studies, limiting meaningful comparisons. The review provides a reference for current research on female basketball. Future research could address this limitation by adopting more consistent measurement protocols standardizing the use of metrics.

Effects of high-intensity interval training on aerobic capacity and sports-specific skills in basketball players

INTRODUCTION

High intensity interval training (HIIT) are widely used to improve the cardiac performance in Basketball players. The current study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of High-Intensity Interval Training on the Aerobic Capacity and sports-specific skills in basketball players.

METHODS

40 male basketball players in the age group 18-25 years were recruited after necessary ethical clearance. Athletes were categorized into two groups of 20 people each: Group 1 control group (age: 21.9 ± 2.4 years, height: 184.6 ± 12.1 cm BMI: 23 ± 3 kg/m2) and Group 2 study group with HIIT (age: 21.4 ± 2.6 years, height: 177.4 ± 6.0 cm BMI: 22.1 ± 2.3 kg/m2). The study group players underwent 5 weeks (10 sessions) of HIIT training. Pre and post intervention evaluation of the Aerobic Capacity (VO2 max) and sports-specific skills were quantified for both the groups. Statistical analysis was performed using one tailed t-test with p < 0.05 for significance. Cohen's D method was used to calculate the effect size and minimum important difference.

RESULT

There was a significant increase (p < 0.05) in VO2 max (pre:52.8 ± 2.3 ml/min/kg to post: 54.5 ± 2.4 ml/min/kg) in Group 2 whereas in Group 1 the change was not significant (pre:51.1 ± 2.6 ml/min/kg to post: 51.4 ± 2.9 ml/min/kg). Similarly, there was an increase in agility for Group 2 (pre:11.0 ± 1.0 s to post: 10.1 ± 1.0 s) compared to Group 1. In sports specific skills: Control Dribble, passing skills, Lower body power and shooting skills there was a significant increase in post HIIT training for Group 2, whereas in Group 1 there was no significant difference.

DISCUSSION

The HIIT training improved the aerobic capacity (VO2 max) and sports-specific skills in basketball players.

CONCLUSION

A 5-week HIIT training improved the aerobic capacity and sports specific skills and may be included as a part of training regime to improve the athletic performance in basketball players.

The effect of small-sided games using the FIT LIGHT training system on some harmonic abilities and some basic skills of basketball players

Introduction

The aim of this research is to identify the effect of Small-sided games using the FITLIGHT training system on some of the harmonic abilities and some of the basic skills of basketball Players.

Methods

The researchers used the experimental method on 24 basketball players. They were randomly divided into two groups: one experimental (n = 12, age = 10.92 ± 0.79 years; height = 138.50 ± 2.78 cm; weight = 40.25 ± 2.01 kg) and a control group (n = 12, age = 11.17 ± 0. 72 years; length = 139.92 ± 3.53 cm; weight = 40.50 ± . 1.73 kg). The homogeneity between the two groups was calculated and showed that there were no differences between the two samples. In the research variables, the proposed program was applied for 10 weeks at the rate of 4 weekly training units.

Results and Discussion

The proposed training program had a positive impact on the harmonic abilities and basic skills of basketball players and the differences in improvement rates for all variables were in favor of the experimental group. Therefore, the research suggests that Small-sided games using FITLIGHT positively affect all the variables under research. This leads to significant differences between the post-tests and benefits the experimental group.

Physical Fitness as a Predictor of Performance during Competition in Professional Women's Basketball Players

The evaluation of physical fitness in team sports is enjoying greater importance in the training of professional teams. The objectives of this research were to characterize physical fitness and game indicators based on the game position. This is an empirical study, with a quantitative, descriptive and cross-sectional methodology. In addition, different relationships between the level of physical fitness and the game indicators during the competition were determined. Finally, a predictive analysis of the selected variables was carried out in order to know the importance of the variables in the performance and at what time of the season they had the greatest impact. For this, a professional female basketball team (n = 12) with a mean age of 25.25 ± 7.617 years, height 178.25 ± 9.206 cm and a body mass of 72.33 ± 11.657 kg was analyzed. Each player was equipped with a WIMUPRO inertial device, and all competition statistics were analyzed. The results obtained show that there were no differences among all the skills evaluated and game indicators depending on the game position. Likewise, a relationship was determined between the level of physical fitness and the technical-tactical contribution, being different between different times of the season. Moreover, physical fitness only predicted the player's final performance in the competition for female player centers in the first and second rounds of the championship, and for forwards in the first round. Four physical-physiological profiles with contributions to the different ones during the competition were also determined. Finally, three groups of female players by playing position were identified according to their sport performance, namely PIR, high, medium and low ratings, associated with physical performances. In all groups, there were significant differences between playing positions, PIR and physical performances.

External and Internal Load Variables Encountered During Training and Games in Female Basketball Players According to Playing Level and Playing Position: A Systematic Review

Background

Despite the growing global participation of females in basketball and number of studies conducted on the topic, no research has summarized the external and internal load variables encountered by female basketball players during training and games.

Objective

To collate existing literature investigating external and internal load variables during training and games in female basketball players according to playing level (club, high-school, representative, collegiate, semi-professional, and professional) and playing position (backcourt and frontcourt players).

Methods

A systematic review of the literature was performed using PubMed, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science to identify studies published from database inception until June 11, 2021. Studies eligible for inclusion were observational and cross-sectional studies, published in English, reporting external and/or internal load variables during training sessions and/or games. Methodological quality and bias were assessed for each study prior to data extraction using a modified Downs and Black checklist. Weighted means according to playing level and playing position were calculated and compared if a load variable was reported across two or more player samples and were consistent regarding key methodological procedures including the seasonal phase monitored, minimum exposure time set for including player data (playing time during games), approach to measure session duration, and approach to measure session intensity.

Results

The search yielded 5513 studies of which 1541 studies were duplicates. A further 3929 studies were excluded based on title and abstract review, with 11 more studies excluded based on full-text review. Consequently, 32 studies were included in our review. Due to the wide array of methodological approaches utilized across studies for examined variables, comparisons could only be made according to playing level for blood lactate concentration during games, revealing backcourt players experienced higher lactate responses than frontcourt players (5.2 ± 1.9 mmol·L−1 vs. 4.4 ± 1.8 mmol·L−1).

Conclusions

Inconsistencies in the methods utilized to measure common load variables across studies limited our ability to report and compare typical external and internal loads during training and games according to playing level and position in female basketball players. It is essential that standardized methodological approaches are established for including player data as well as measuring session duration (e.g., total time, live time) and intensity (e.g., consistent rating of perceived exertion scales, intensity zone cut points) in future female basketball research to permit meaningful interpretation and comparisons of load monitoring data across studies.

Match Analysis in Team Ball Sports: An Umbrella Review of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses

Background

Match analysis has evolved exponentially over the past decades in team sports resulting in a significant number of published systematic reviews and meta-analyses. An umbrella review of the available literature is needed to provide an integrated overview of current knowledge and contribute to more robust theoretical explanations of team performance.

Methods

The Web of Science (all databases), PubMed, Cochrane Library (Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews), Scopus, and SPORTDiscus databases were searched for relevant publications prior to 19 February 2021. Appraisal of the methodological quality of included articles was undertaken using the tool for Assessing the Methodological Quality of Systematic Reviews (AMSTAR-2). Twenty-four studies were reviewed that met the following criteria: (1) contained relevant data from match analyses in team ball sports; (2) were defined as systematic reviews or/and meta-analyses; and (3) were written in the English language.

Results

The overall methodological quality of the 24 included reviews, obtained through the AMSTAR-2, revealed very low confidence ratings (Critically Low, n = 12) for the results of most systematic reviews of match analyses in team ball sports. Additionally, the results showed that research is focused mainly on four levels of analysis: (1) dyadic (microlevel); (2) individual (molecular level; predominant); (3) group (mesolevel), and (4) team dynamics (macrolevel). These levels of analysis included tactical, technical, physical, and psychosocial variables. Team performance was contextualized at two levels, with reference to: (1) match context (e.g. match status, match location, match period, quality of opposition) and (2) sociodemographic and environmental constraints (sex, age groups, competitive level, altitude, temperature, pitch surface).

Conclusions

The evolution of methods for match analysis in team ball sports indicates that: (1) an individual-level performance analysis was predominant; (2) the focus on intermediate levels of analysis, observing performance in dyadic and group interactions, has received less attention from researchers; (3) neglected areas of research include psychosocial aspects of team sports and women’s performance; and (4) analyses of match contexts need greater depth.

Registration: The protocol was registered in the International Platform of Registered Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocols with the number 202080067 and the DOI number https://doi.org/10.37766/inplasy2020.8.0067.

INFLUENCIA DEL PERFIL DEL ENTRENADOR EN EL ENTRENAMIENTO EN BALONCESTO FORMATIVO

Una de las principales necesidades de los entrenadores es conocer si sus procesos de entrenamiento reúnen los requisitos planificados. Para ello, los objetivos de esta investigación fueron evaluar cómo Variables Pedagógicas y de Carga Externa afectaban al entrenamiento y describir las diferencias según la metodología empleada. Esta investigación se clasificó como estudio empírico con metodología descriptiva y gran validez ecológica. Se analizaron un total de 664 tareas realizadas por dos equipos de baloncesto. Los resultados demostraron que existen diferencias significativas en todas las variables excepto el Tipo de Contenido y el Grado de Oposición en función del entrenador. Por tanto, se concluyó que la metodología influye en el diseño de las tareas, provocando diferencias en las Variables Pedagógicas y de Carga Externa. Estas diferencias provocan que el jugador entrenado bajo una metodología alternativa soporte mayor carga de entrenamiento, repercutiendo en una mejor adaptación a la competición y obteniendo mejores resultados.

MONITORIZACIÓN DE UN MICROCICLO COMPETITIVO EN BALONCESTO FEMENINO PROFESIONAL MEDIANTE DISPOSITIVOS INERCIALES

La implementación de estrategias efectivas de control de carga en el entrenamiento es primordial para mejorar el rendimiento. El objetivo fue caracterizar las demandas soportadas durante un microciclo competitivo de un equipo profesional de baloncesto femenino y su interacción con la competición. Diez jugadoras se equiparon con un dispositivo inercial y una banda de frecuencia cardíaca. Se analizó la carga soportada por las jugadoras durante el entrenamiento y la competición mediante variables de Carga Externa: (i) Distancia recorrida, (ii) Distancia recorrida a alta intensidad, (iii) Playerload, (iv) Saltos, (v) Aceleraciones y Deceleraciones, y (vi) Velocidad máxima y media; y variables de Carga Interna: (i) Frecuencia cardíaca media y máxima, (ii) Zonas de % Frecuencia Cardíaca Máxima. Se analizaron diferencias entre el entrenamiento y la competición mediante un análisis ANOVA, observando que la competición fue la condición más exigente en todas las variables estudiadas a excepción de los saltos por minuto.

The relationship between external and internal load parameters in 3 × 3 basketball tournaments

Purpose

3 × 3 basketball games are characterized by high-intensity accelerations and decelerations, and a high number of changes of direction and jumps. It is played in tournament form with multiple games per day. Therefore, optimal regeneration is crucial for maintaining a high performance level over the course of the tournament. To elucidate how load of a match affects the athletes' bodies (i.e., internal load), muscular responses to the load of 3 × 3 games were analyzed. We aimed to investigate changes in contractility of the m. rectus femoris (RF) and m. gastrocnemius medialis (GC) in response to the load of single 3 × 3 games and a 3 × 3 tournament.

Methods

Inertial movement analysis was conducted to capture game load in 3 × 3. Changes in contractility were measured using tensiomyography (TMG). During a two-day tournament, TMG measurements were conducted in the morning and after each game. Additionally, off-game performance analysis consisting of jump and change-of-direction (COD) tests was conducted the day before the tournament.

Results

Significant changes of the muscle contractility were found for GC with TMG values being higher in the baseline than in the post-game measurements. In contrast to athletes of the GC group, athletes of the RF group responded with either decreased or increased muscle contractility after a single 3 × 3 game. A significant correlation between external and internal load parameters could not be shown. Concerning off-game performance, significant correlations can be reported for COD test duration, CMJ height and ∆Vc as well as COD test duration and ∆Dm. No systematic changes in muscle contractility were found over the course of the tournament in RF and GC.

Conclusion

The athletes' external 3 × 3 game load and their performance level did not seem to affect muscular contractility after a single 3 × 3 game or a complete 3 × 3 tournament within this investigation. This might indicate that elite athletes can resist external load without relevant local muscular fatigue. With respect to the course of the tournament, it can therefore be concluded that the breaks between games seem to be sufficient to return to the initial level of muscle contractility.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13102-022-00530-1.

Effect of Situational and Individual Factors on Training Load and Game Performance in Liga Femenina 2 Basketball Female Players

There is research that has shown how individual characteristics and performance indicators influence the load in basketball; however, studies on the influence of situational variables on performance are lacking. The aim of this study was to determine the influence of certain situational and individual variables on the training load (weekly load, game load and pre-game recovery) and the individual performance (statistical game evaluation) of female basketball players of Liga Femenina 2 during competition. The 28 games played by the 13 players of a group B team of the Liga Femenina 2 of the Spanish Basketball Federation (FEB) during the 2020/2021 season were analyzed. Data on rate of perceived exertion (RPE), perceived performance and recovery were collected through the Quanter mobile application as well as performance statistics from the FEB website. Five mixed linear analyses for repeated measures were performed to evaluate the effect of each situational and individual variable on each dependent variable (weekly load, game load, game RPE, pre-game recovery, and game statistical assessment). The results show how the weekly load increases after playing against a low-level opponent (p < 0.001). In games, the players who play the most minutes and accumulate the most load are also the most valued (p < 0.001). The pre-game recovery worsens as the season progresses (p < 0.001). After playing against a high-level opponent, the pre-game recovery values for the next game are lower (p = 0.031). The results obtained indicate that the situational and individual variables should be taken into account to monitor the workload. These results help coaches and physical trainers to better plan training weeks, taking into account the situational variables studied.

Physical Persistency across Game Quarters and during Consecutive Games in Elite Junior Basketball Players

Given the intermittent nature of basketball and the different demands that occur during playing time that are specific to every level of competition, the ratio of accelerations/decelerations and the intensity level across quarters were evaluated in female elite junior basketball players (n = 48; age: 16.8 ± 0.7 years; height: 1.76 ± 0.07 cm; body mass: 67.2 ± 6.2 kg). The following variables were analyzed to determine physical persistency across game quarters:(a) total distance covered (m), (b) high-intensity running (HIR) (14–21 km·h⁻¹) distance covered (m), (c) sprint (21–30 km·h⁻¹) distance covered (m), (d) total accelerations (n), (e) total decelerations (n), (f) relative accelerations (n·min⁻¹), (g) relative decelerations (n·min⁻¹), (h) ratio of acceleration/deceleration (A/D), (i) total jumps (j) relative jumps (n·min⁻¹) (k) player load (AU). using the WIMU PRO^® system. Higher but shorter acceleration intensity occurred during the last quarters due to the tight results of the matches. The results suggest that high-intensity efforts such as sprints and HIR seem to increase the A/D ratio (guard and forward positions). Therefore, specific conditioning, as well as eccentric strength training, could be included by practitioners in training programs to improve the performance of these positions during competition, especially as a prior preparation to a game-congested event. Centers seem to have a more variable performance through quarters than do other positions, perhaps highlighting the need for specific conditioning strategies.

Positional Differences in Physique, Physical Strength, and Lower Extremity Stability in Korean Male Elite High School Basketball Athletes

No studies have measured the physical strength and lower extremity stability of elite male high school basketball players. This study aimed to measure the physique, physical strength, and lower extremity stability of such athletes in Korea and analyze the differences according to their play positions. Overall, 204 male elite basketball players participated and were classified as guard (n = 97), forward (n = 69), and center (n = 38) according to their main playing position. All sub-variables of physique were significantly higher in the forward and center groups than in the guard group, and were significantly higher in the center group than in the forward group. Strength was significantly higher in the forward and center groups than in the guard group. Agility and speed were significantly faster in the guard group than in the forward and center groups. Y-balance analysis showed that the composite score of both feet tended to be higher in the order of center, forward, and guard, and it was significantly higher in the guard group than in the center group. These results could be used as basic data for selecting players, determining positions, and setting specific training goals for players of each position to improve physical strength and prevent injuries.

Posture Monitoring of Basketball Training Based on Intelligent Wearable Device

The relevant content of China's sport work clearly pointed out that it is necessary to improve the physical and mental health of the citizens. Combining the current development hotspots of mobile smart terminals and smart wearable devices, smart wearable devices are analyzed from the function and development history in order to find an effective combination of smart wearable devices and sports work. This article describes the youth as the main body receiving grassroots physical education of nonsports special students and basketball enthusiasts. In the process of physical education teaching, the problem of pain points is more prominent because most teenagers in the basketball education at the grass-roots level do not have the opportunity to get one-to-one private counseling. When there are problems in the operation, students cannot be guided to conduct training or practice by themselves. This paper aims to meet the demand of real-time monitoring of dribbling posture in basketball dribbling training and proposes a low-cost product solution to help teenagers carry out basketball dribbling training by themselves: intelligent wearable product of head wrist and dribbling assistant DribbleAid, which is used to monitor common bad posture problems of users in dribbling training and give corresponding reminders to deal with users' pain points. In this work, various experiments have been carried out for the proposed method and system. A large number of experimental results show that the method designed in this paper can effectively monitor the basketball training posture.

Individualization of Intensity Thresholds on External Workload Demands in Women's Basketball by K-Means Clustering: Differences Based on the Competitive Level

In previous studies found in the literature speed (SP), acceleration (ACC), deceleration (DEC), and impact (IMP) zones have been created according to arbitrary thresholds without considering the specific workload profile of the players (e.g., sex, competitive level, sport discipline). The use of statistical methods based on raw data could be considered as an alternative to be able to individualize these thresholds. The study purposes were to: (a) individualize SP, ACC, DEC, and IMP zones in two female professional basketball teams; (b) characterize the external workload profile of 5 vs. 5 during training sessions; and (c) compare the external workload according to the competitive level (first vs. second division). Two basketball teams were recorded during a 15-day preseason microcycle using inertial devices with ultra-wideband indoor tracking technology and microsensors. The zones of external workload variables (speed, acceleration, deceleration, impacts) were categorized through k-means clusters. Competitive level differences were analyzed with Mann–Whitney’s U test and with Cohen’s d effect size. Five zones were categorized in speed (<2.31, 2.31–5.33, 5.34–9.32, 9.33–13.12, 13.13–17.08 km/h), acceleration (<0.50, 0.50–1.60, 1.61–2.87, 2.88–4.25, 4.26–6.71 m/s²), deceleration (<0.37, 0.37–1.13, 1.14–2.07, 2.08–3.23, 3.24–4.77 m/s²), and impacts (<1, 1–2.99, 3–4.99, 5–6.99, 7–10 g). The women’s basketball players covered 60–51 m/min, performed 27–25 ACC-DEC/min, and experienced 134–120 IMP/min. Differences were found between the first and second division teams, with higher values in SP, ACC, DEC, and IMP in the first division team (p < 0.03; d = 0.21–0.56). In conclusion, k-means clustering can be considered as an optimal tool to categorize intensity zones in team sports. The individualization of external workload demands according to the competitive level is fundamental for designing training plans that optimize sports performance and reduce injury risk in sport.

A Glimpse of the Sports Nutrition Awareness in Spanish Basketball Players

Basketball is a team sport, with many fans and practitioners worldwide from all ages and levels. In all cases, players accumulate high levels of fatigue, and there is also limited time to recover between games or practices. In particular, nutrition plays a key role in optimizing performance and recovery. However, it is typical to observe erroneous nutritional behaviors among basketball players. It has been theorized that these behaviors are influenced by habits acquired based on the individual’s knowledge. Therefore, the main aim of this study was to conduct a descriptive research of the sports nutrition knowledge and practices in a sample of Spanish basketball players, from athletes under 18 years old (n = 69) to nonprofessional (n = 14) and professional adult players (n = 21). The sample was comprised of 49 men and 55 women. This was a transversal, cross-sectional, observational and descriptive study. All participants (n = 104) completed an anonymous online survey in order to analyze their sports nutrition knowledge and practices. In view of the obtained results, we can conclude that the knowledge of sport-specific nutrition in players under 18 years old, as well as non-professional and professional adult basketball players, is insufficient through all the categories and levels. The lack of professional support and time management difficulties were identified as some of the main barriers.

Influence of the Pedagogical Model and Experience on the Internal and External Task Load in School Basketball

The methodology used by the teacher in Physical Education sessions conditions the physical fitness of the students, since the design of the tasks determines the physical and physiological demands to which they are exposed. This study aimed to quantify and compare, according to the teaching methodology and students' previous experience, the external (eTL) and internal (iTL) load resulting from the application of three intervention programmes that follow different teaching methodologies to teach school basketball: the Tactical Games Approach (TGA), Direct Instruction (DI) and Service Teacher's Basketball Unit (STBU). The Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPEs) recorded in the assessments (pre-test/post-test) were also studied. A total of 49 students, aged 11 to 12 and divided into three class groups, from the sixth grade of primary education at a state school in Spain, participated in the study. Teaching-learning programs were randomly assigned to student groups. All the sessions were monitored with inertial devices that made it possible to record physical activity and convert the information into kinematic parameters. The results indicated that during the sessions, the students who followed the TGA method recorded higher values of eTL (player load; DI = 4.92, TGA = 6.95, STBU = 2.99) and iTL (mean heart rate; DI = 142.94, TGA = 157.12, STBU = 143.98). In addition, during the evaluation tests, they presented heart rate levels similar to those obtained by the students in the other programmes. However, they spent more time doing high-intensity activity, working longer in the running (DI = 3.42, TGA = 11.26, STBU = 8.32) and sprinting speed ranges (DI = 0.00, TGA = 0.12, STBU = 0.11), and presenting better physical fitness. During the assessments, students with no prior basketball experience showed higher levels of top speed; experienced students had higher levels of heart rate. The TGA method favours the physical condition and health of primary education students, which is why this method is recommended when planning Physical Education sessions.

Analysis of the Research Methodology in Spanish Doctoral Theses on Handball. A Systematic Review

The objective of this investigation was to analyze scientific production assessed by indexed doctoral theses in the Ordered Spanish Theses (TESEO) database, on the topic of the sport of handball in Spain. Productivity was analyzed on the basis of variables grouped by contextual information, methodologies and procedures. Seventy-two indexed theses from between 1976 and 2021 were analyzed. A progressive increase was identified in scientific production based on these theses during this period. The scientific disciplines that presented the highest number of theses were Sport Sciences (n = 33) and Sport Pedagogy (n = 19). The main results show that quantitative approaches are the most common (n = 49), doctoral theses using descriptive studies based on systematic observation represent the majority (73%), the predominant type of data collection was the use of cross-sectional studies (70.8%) versus longitudinal studies (26.4%), and the most used sampling method was that of convenience (n = 65). The results make it possible to ascertain the reality of this research topic, the methodological positioning and research tendencies, and to draw the basic lines for development.

Exploring Physical Fitness Profile of Male and Female Semiprofessional Basketball Players through Principal Component Analysis-A Case Study

Basketball is a sport in continuous evolution, being one of these key aspects of the players' physical fitness that has an impact on the game. Therefore, this study aimed to characterize and identify the physical fitness level and profiles of basketball players according to sex. Total of 26 semi-professional basketball players were assessed (13 male, 13 female) through inertial devices in different previously validated fitness tests. T-test for independent samples and principal component analysis were used to analyze sex-related differences and to identify physical fitness profiles. The results showed differences according to sex in all physical fitness indexes (p < 0.01; d > 1.04) with higher values in males, except in accelerometer load during small-sided games (p = 0.17; d < 0.20). Four principal components were identified in male and female basketball players, being two common ([PC1] aerobic capacity and in-game physical conditioning, [PC4 male, PC3 female] unipodal jump performance) and two different profiles (male: [PC2] bipodal jump capacity and acceleration, [PC3] curvilinear displacement; female: [PC2] bipodal jump capacity and curvilinear displacement, [PC4] deceleration). In conclusion, training design must be different and individualized according to different variables, including physical fitness profiles between them. For practical applications, these results will allow knowing the advantages and weaknesses of each athlete to adapt training tasks and game systems based on the skills and capabilities of the players in basketball.

Multi-Location External Workload Profile in Women's Basketball Players. A Case Study at the Semiprofessional-Level

The external workload measured in one anatomical location does not determine the total load supported by the human body. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to characterize the multi-location external workload through PlayerLoad_RT of 13 semi-professional women’s basketball players, as well as to analyze differences among anatomical locations (inter-scapulae line, lumbar region, 2× knee, 2× ankle) and laterality (left vs. right) during five tests that represent the most common movements in basketball—(a) linear locomotion, 30-15 IFT; (b) acceleration and deceleration, 16.25-m RSA (c) curvilinear locomotion, 6.75-m arc (d) jump, Abalakov test (e) small-sided game, 10’ 3 vs. 3 10 × 15-m. Statistical analysis was composed of a repeated-measures t-test and eta partial squared effect size. Regarding laterality, differences were found only in curvilinear locomotion, with a higher workload in the outer leg (p < 0.01; η_p² = 0.33–0.63). In the vertical profile, differences among anatomical locations were found in all tests (p < 0.01; η_p² = 0.56–0.98). The nearer location to ground contact showed higher values except between the scapulae and lumbar region during jumps (p = 0.83; η_p² = 0.00). In conclusion, the multi-location assessment of external workload through a previously validated test battery will make it possible to understand the individual effect of external workload in each anatomical location that depends on the type of locomotion. These results should be considered when designing specific strategies for training and injury prevention.

Modeling the Keys to Team's Success in the Women's Chinese Basketball Association

The technical characteristics of women’s basketball may differ from men’s basketball, and there is a need to identify the key performance indicators (KPIs) that contribute to the success of women’s teams. The aim of the current study was to examine and quantify the relationships between technical performance indicators and match outcome in elite women’s basketball using both linear and non-linear statistical methods, the effectiveness of the two methods was compared as well. A total of 136 matches (n = 272 teams’ observations) in the regular season of Women’s Chinese Basketball Association (WCBA; season 2020–2021) were analyzed using multiple linear regression (MLR) and quantile regression (QR). Results showed that two-point percentage, offensive rebounds, assists and turnovers had significant effects on the match outcome for both MLR and QR analysis. No significant relationships were observed between match outcome and three-point percentage, steals, and fouls. The results between MLR and QR analysis were different in free-throw percentage, defensive rebounds and blocks. Current results highlighted QR analysis is an advanced statistical model more powerful than the traditional linear method for the identification of KPIs. The identified KPIs may help coaches to develop more specific training interventions and match strategies during match play.

Assessment of the Multi-Location External Workload Profile in the Most Common Movements in Basketball

The present study analyzed the multi-location external workload profile in basketball players using a previously validated test battery and compared the demands among anatomical locations. A basketball team comprising 13 semi-professional male players was evaluated in five tests (abilities/skills/tests): (a) aerobic, linear movement, 30-15 IFT; (b) lactic anaerobic, acceleration and deceleration, 16.25 m RSA (c) alactic anaerobic, curvilinear movement, 6.75 m arc (d) elastic, jump, Abalakov test (e) physical-conditioning, small-sided game, 10' 3 vs.3 10 × 15 m. PlayerLoad_RT was evaluated at six anatomical locations simultaneously (interscapular line, lumbar region, knees and ankles) by six WIMU PRO^TM inertial devices attached to the player using an ad hoc integral suit. Statistical analysis was composed of an ANOVA of repeated measures and partial eta squared effect sizes. Significant differences among anatomical locations were found in all tests with higher values in the location nearer to ground contact (p < 0.01). However, differences between lower limb locations were only found in curvilinear movements, with a higher workload in the outside leg (p < 0.01). Additionally, high between-subject variability was found in team players, especially at lower limb locations. In conclusion, multi-location evaluation in sports movements will make it possible to establish an individual external workload profile and design specific strategies for training and injury prevention programs.

Load Measures in Training/Match Monitoring in Soccer: A Systematic Review

In soccer, the assessment of the load imposed by training and a match is recognized as a fundamental task at any competitive level. The objective of this study is to carry out a systematic review on internal and external load monitoring during training and/or a match, identifying the measures used. In addition, we wish to make recommendations that make it possible to standardize the classification and use of the different measures. The systematic review was carried out according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The search was conducted through the electronic database Web of Science, using the keywords "soccer" and "football", each one with the terms "internal load", "external load", and "workload". Of the 1223 studies initially identified, 82 were thoroughly analyzed and are part of this systematic review. Of these, 25 articles only report internal load data, 20 report only external load data, and 37 studies report both internal and external load measures. There is a huge number of load measures, which requires that soccer coaches select and focus their attention on the most useful and specific measures. Standardizing the classification of the different measures is vital in the organization of this task, as well as when it is intended to compare the results obtained in different investigations.

Video analysis method of basketball training assistant based on deep learning theory during COVID-19 spread

During covid-19, basketball training was stopped. Instead, the basketball video analysis is used. In this paper, literature, theoretical analysis, numerical simulation, experimental research and other research methods are used. The ant colony algorithm model of deep learning optimization for basketball technical and tactical decision-making is established to solve the optimization problem of actual technical and tactical decision-making. In this paper, video image correlation algorithm is used. In the video of players’ free throw basket, there are many independent frames. The real frame set of free throw basket includes the whole process of jumping, arm lifting, squatting and stretching. The shooting frame set and shooting information of the ball are obtained. In this paper, a shot frame detection algorithm is proposed by analyzing multiple samples of multi shot video. The mathematical model of the shooting frame is established, which can locate the shooting frame quickly and accurately and determine the penalty frame set. Further obtain the basketball release status information for preparation. The reliability and robustness of the algorithm are verified by experiments on several samples. It provides a new method for basketball training during covid-19.

Is it enough to use the traditional approach based on average values for basketball physical performance analysis?

Understanding the most demanding scenarios of basketball match-play can optimise training prescription. We established physical demand differences in total distance covered, distance covered at high-speed running, distance covered at high-intensity accelerations and decelerations, number of high-speed running actions and number of high-intensity accelerations comparing the traditional average method with the most demanding scenarios based on 1-minute rolling averages. Physical demand parameters were analysed from 21 elite basketball players according to playing position during a friendly game via local positioning system microtechnology. The results showed that players covered a total distance of 141.3 m·min^-1 (p < 0.001; ES = 7.80) and 25.4 m·min^-1 (p < 0.001; ES = 4.52) at high-speed running using rolling averages, compared to 66.3 and 3.2 m min^-1, respectively, using the traditional average approach. These data represent a very large increase of 113.1% for total distance per minute and 686.4% for high-speed running distance per minute, 252% for the number of high-intensity accelerations and 290.5% for the number of high-intensity decelerations, respectively, demonstrating the relevance of this novel approach. In conclusion, this investigation indicated that the traditional average method underestimates peak physical demands over a 1-minute period during a basketball game. Thus, the average approach should be complemented by analysing the most demanding scenarios in order to have a better understanding of physical demands during basketball competition.