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Snipstad S, Sulheim E, Åslund AKO, Hyldbakk A, Wågbø AM, Klinkenberg G, Mørch Y. Nanoparticle-loaded microbubbles for treatment of lung cancer. Eur J Pharm Sci 2024; 199:106804. [PMID: 38763448 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2024.106804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2023] [Revised: 03/20/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/21/2024]
Abstract
Lung cancer is one of the most common cancers and a leading cause of death, with poor prognosis and high unmet clinical need. Chemotherapy is a common part of the treatment, either alone or in combination with other treatment modalities, but with limited efficacy and severe side effects. Encapsulation of drugs into nanoparticles can enable a more targeted delivery with reduced off-target toxicity. Delivery to the lungs is however often insufficient due to various biological barriers in the body and in the tumor microenvironment. Here we demonstrate that by incorporating drug-loaded nanoparticles into air-filled microbubbles, a more effective targeting to the lungs can be achieved. Fluorescence imaging and mass spectrometry revealed that the microbubbles could significantly improve accumulation of drug in the lungs of mice, compared to injecting either the free drug by itself or only the drug-loaded nanoparticles. Therapeutic efficacy was verified in a preclinical mouse model with non-small cell lung cancer, monitoring tumor growth by luminescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofie Snipstad
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway; Cancer Clinic, St. Olavs Hospital, Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Einar Sulheim
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway; Institute for Research in Biomedicine, Bellinzona, Switzerland
| | - Andreas K O Åslund
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Astrid Hyldbakk
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Ane Marit Wågbø
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Geir Klinkenberg
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Yrr Mørch
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway; NaDeNo Nanoscience AS, Trondheim, Norway
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2
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Marzi A, Eder KM, Barroso Á, Kemper B, Schnekenburger J. Quantitative Phase Imaging as Sensitive Screening Method for Nanoparticle-Induced Cytotoxicity Assessment. Cells 2024; 13:697. [PMID: 38667312 PMCID: PMC11049110 DOI: 10.3390/cells13080697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2024] [Revised: 04/10/2024] [Accepted: 04/16/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The assessment of nanoparticle cytotoxicity is challenging due to the lack of customized and standardized guidelines for nanoparticle testing. Nanoparticles, with their unique properties, can interfere with biochemical test methods, so multiple tests are required to fully assess their cellular effects. For a more reliable and comprehensive assessment, it is therefore imperative to include methods in nanoparticle testing routines that are not affected by particles and allow for the efficient integration of additional molecular techniques into the workflow. Digital holographic microscopy (DHM), an interferometric variant of quantitative phase imaging (QPI), has been demonstrated as a promising method for the label-free assessment of the cytotoxic potential of nanoparticles. Due to minimal interactions with the sample, DHM allows for further downstream analyses. In this study, we investigated the capabilities of DHM in a multimodal approach to assess cytotoxicity by directly comparing DHM-detected effects on the same cell population with two downstream biochemical assays. Therefore, the dry mass increase in RAW 264.7 macrophages and NIH-3T3 fibroblast populations measured by quantitative DHM phase contrast after incubation with poly(alkyl cyanoacrylate) nanoparticles for 24 h was compared to the cytotoxic control digitonin, and cell culture medium control. Viability was then determined using a metabolic activity assay (WST-8). Moreover, to determine cell death, supernatants were analyzed for the release of the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase (LDH assay). In a comparative analysis, in which the average half-maximal effective concentration (EC50) of the nanocarriers on the cells was determined, DHM was more sensitive to the effect of the nanoparticles on the used cell lines compared to the biochemical assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Marzi
- Biomedical Technology Center, University of Muenster, Mendelstraße 17, D-48149 Muenster, Germany; (K.M.E.); (Á.B.); (B.K.)
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3
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Valsalakumari R, Pandya AD, Prasmickaite L, Kvalvaag A, Myrann AG, Åslund AKO, Kjos MS, Fontecha-Cuenca C, Haroon HB, Ribeiro ARS, Horejs-Hoeck J, Moghimi SM, Mørch Ý, Skotland T, Sandvig K, Mælandsmo GM, Iversen TG. Preclinical Efficacy of Cabazitaxel Loaded Poly(2-alkyl cyanoacrylate) Nanoparticle Variants. Int J Nanomedicine 2024; 19:3009-3029. [PMID: 38562610 PMCID: PMC10982070 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s450283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 03/09/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Biodegradable poly(alkyl cyanoacrylate) (PACA) nanoparticles (NPs) are receiving increasing attention in anti-cancer nanomedicine development not only for targeted cancer chemotherapy, but also for modulation of the tumor microenvironment. We previously reported promising results with cabazitaxel (CBZ) loaded poly(2-ethylbutyl cyanoacrylate) NPs (PEBCA-CBZ NPs) in a patient derived xenograft (PDX) model of triple-negative breast cancer, and this was associated with a decrease in M2 macrophages. The present study aims at comparing two endotoxin-free PACA NP variants (PEBCA and poly(2-ethylhexyl cyanoacrylate); PEHCA), loaded with CBZ and test whether conjugation with folate would improve their effect. Methods Cytotoxicity assays and cellular uptake of NPs by flow cytometry were performed in different breast cancer cells. Biodistribution and efficacy studies were performed in PDX models of breast cancer. Tumor associated immune cells were analyzed by multiparametric flow cytometry. Results In vitro studies showed similar NP-induced cytotoxicity patterns despite difference in early NP internalization. On intravenous injection, the liver cleared the majority of NPs. Efficacy studies in the HBCx39 PDX model demonstrated an enhanced effect of drug-loaded PEBCA variants compared with free drug and PEHCA NPs. Furthermore, the folate conjugated PEBCA variant did not show any enhanced effects compared with the unconjugated counterpart which might be due to unfavorable orientation of folate on the NPs. Finally, analyses of the immune cell populations in tumors revealed that treatment with drug loaded PEBCA variants affected the myeloid cells, especially macrophages, contributing to an inflammatory, immune activated tumor microenvironment. Conclusion We report for the first time, comparative efficacy of PEBCA and PEHCA NP variants in triple negative breast cancer models and show that CBZ-loaded PEBCA NPs exhibit a combined effect on tumor cells and on the tumor associated myeloid compartment, which may boost the anti-tumor response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Remya Valsalakumari
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, 0379, Norway
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, University of Oslo, Oslo, 0379, Norway
- Department of Tumor Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, 0379, Norway
| | - Abhilash D Pandya
- Department of Tumor Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, 0379, Norway
| | - Lina Prasmickaite
- Department of Tumor Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, 0379, Norway
| | - Audun Kvalvaag
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, 0379, Norway
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, University of Oslo, Oslo, 0379, Norway
| | - Anne Grethe Myrann
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, 0379, Norway
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, University of Oslo, Oslo, 0379, Norway
| | - Andreas K O Åslund
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF AS, Trondheim, 7034, Norway
| | | | - Cristina Fontecha-Cuenca
- School of Pharmacy, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Hajira B Haroon
- School of Pharmacy, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK
| | - Ana R S Ribeiro
- Department of Biosciences and Medical Biology, Paris Lodron University Salzburg, Salzburg, 5020, Austria
| | - Jutta Horejs-Hoeck
- Department of Biosciences and Medical Biology, Paris Lodron University Salzburg, Salzburg, 5020, Austria
- Cancer Cluster Salzburg, Salzburg, 5020, Austria
| | - S Moein Moghimi
- School of Pharmacy, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4HH, UK
- Colorado Center for Nanomedicine and Nanosafety, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Center, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Ýrr Mørch
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF AS, Trondheim, 7034, Norway
| | - Tore Skotland
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, 0379, Norway
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, University of Oslo, Oslo, 0379, Norway
| | - Kirsten Sandvig
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, 0379, Norway
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, University of Oslo, Oslo, 0379, Norway
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, 0316, Norway
| | - Gunhild Mari Mælandsmo
- Department of Tumor Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, 0379, Norway
- Department of Medical Biology, University of Tromsø, Tromsø, 9019, Norway
| | - Tore Geir Iversen
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, 0379, Norway
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, University of Oslo, Oslo, 0379, Norway
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Park J, Pho T, Champion JA. Chemical and biological conjugation strategies for the development of multivalent protein vaccine nanoparticles. Biopolymers 2023; 114:e23563. [PMID: 37490564 PMCID: PMC10528127 DOI: 10.1002/bip.23563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2023] [Revised: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 07/03/2023] [Indexed: 07/27/2023]
Abstract
The development of subunit vaccine platforms has been of considerable interest due to their good safety profile and ability to be adapted to new antigens, compared to other vaccine typess. Nevertheless, subunit vaccines often lack sufficient immunogenicity to fully protect against infectious diseases. A wide variety of subunit vaccines have been developed to enhance antigen immunogenicity by increasing antigen multivalency, as well as stability and delivery properties, via presentation of antigens on protein nanoparticles. Increasing multivalency can be an effective approach to provide a potent humoral immune response by more strongly engaging and clustering B cell receptors (BCRs) to induce activation, as well as increased uptake by antigen presenting cells and their subsequent T cell activation. Proper orientation of antigen on protein nanoparticles is also considered a crucial factor for enhanced BCR engagement and subsequent immune responses. Therefore, various strategies have been reported to decorate highly repetitive surfaces of protein nanoparticle scaffolds with multiple copies of antigens, arrange antigens in proper orientation, or combinations thereof. In this review, we describe different chemical bioconjugation methods, approaches for genetic fusion of recombinant antigens, biological affinity tags, and enzymatic conjugation methods to effectively present antigens on the surface of protein nanoparticle vaccine scaffolds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaeyoung Park
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 950 Atlantic Dr. NW, Atlanta, GA, 30332-2000, USA
| | - Thomas Pho
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 950 Atlantic Dr. NW, Atlanta, GA, 30332-2000, USA
- BioEngineering Program
| | - Julie A. Champion
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 950 Atlantic Dr. NW, Atlanta, GA, 30332-2000, USA
- BioEngineering Program
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5
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Hyldbakk A, Fleten KG, Snipstad S, Åslund AKO, Davies CDL, Flatmark K, Mørch Y. Intraperitoneal administration of cabazitaxel-loaded nanoparticles in peritoneal metastasis models. NANOMEDICINE : NANOTECHNOLOGY, BIOLOGY, AND MEDICINE 2023; 48:102656. [PMID: 36646195 DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2023.102656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Revised: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/01/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Colorectal and ovarian cancers frequently develop peritoneal metastases with few treatment options. Intraperitoneal chemotherapy has shown promising therapeutic effects, but is limited by rapid drug clearance and systemic toxicity. We therefore encapsulated the cabazitaxel taxane in poly(alkyl cyanoacrylate) (PACA) nanoparticles (NPs), designed to improve intraperitoneal delivery. Toxicity of free and encapsulated cabazitaxel was investigated in rats by monitoring clinical signs, organ weight and blood hematological and biochemical parameters. Pharmacokinetics, biodistribution and treatment response were evaluated in mice. Biodistribution was investigated by measuring both cabazitaxel and the 2-ethylbutanol NP degradation product. Drug encapsulation was shown to increase intraperitoneal drug retention, leading to prolonged intraperitoneal drug residence time and higher drug concentrations in peritoneal tumors. As a result, encapsulation of cabazitaxel improved the treatment response in two in vivo models bearing intraperitoneal tumors. Together, these observations indicate a strong therapeutic potential of NP-based cabazitaxel encapsulation as a novel treatment for peritoneal metastases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid Hyldbakk
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Karianne Giller Fleten
- Department of Tumor Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Sofie Snipstad
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway; Cancer Clinic, St. Olav's Hospital, Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Andreas K O Åslund
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway.
| | | | - Kjersti Flatmark
- Department of Tumor Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Yrr Mørch
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway.
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Zhang D, Tang Q, Chen J, Wei Y, Chen J. Novel Development of Nanoparticles-A Promising Direction for Precise Tumor Management. Pharmaceutics 2022; 15:pharmaceutics15010024. [PMID: 36678653 PMCID: PMC9862928 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15010024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 12/04/2022] [Accepted: 12/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the clinical application of nanoparticles is still limited by biological barriers and distribution, with the deepening of our understanding of nanoparticles over the past decades, people are gradually breaking through the previous limitations in the diagnosis and treatment of tumors, providing novel strategies for clinical decision makers. The transition of nanoparticles from passive targeting to active tumor-targeting by abundant surface-modified nanoparticles is also a development process of precision cancer treatment. Different particles can be used as targeted delivery tools of antitumor drugs. The mechanism of gold nanoparticles inducing apoptosis and cycle arrest of tumor cells has been discovered. Moreover, the unique photothermal effect of gold nanoparticles may be widely used in tumor therapy in the future, with less side effects on surrounding tissues. Lipid-based nanoparticles are expected to overcome the blood-brain barrier due to their special characteristics, while polymer-based nanoparticles show better biocompatibility and lower toxicity. In this paper, we discuss the development of nanoparticles in tumor therapy and the challenges that need to be addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dengke Zhang
- Department of Surgery, The Eighth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Qingqing Tang
- Department of Surgery, The Eighth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Juan Chen
- Department of Medicine & Rehabilitation, Tung Wah Eastern Hospital, Hong Kong, China
| | - Yanghui Wei
- Department of Surgery, The Eighth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
- Correspondence: (Y.W.); (J.C.)
| | - Jiawei Chen
- Department of Surgery, The Eighth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
- Correspondence: (Y.W.); (J.C.)
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7
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Hyldbakk A, Mørch Y, Snipstad S, Åslund AKO, Klinkenberg G, Nakstad VT, Wågbø AM, Schmid R, Molesworth PP. Identification of novel cyanoacrylate monomers for use in nanoparticle drug delivery systems prepared by miniemulsion polymerisation - A multistep screening approach. Int J Pharm X 2022; 4:100124. [PMID: 35898812 PMCID: PMC9310130 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpx.2022.100124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Revised: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Poly (alkyl cyanoacrylate) (PACA) polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) are promising drug carriers in drug delivery. However, the selection of commercially available alkyl cyanoacrylate (ACA) monomers is limited, because most monomers were designed for use in medical and industrial glues and later repurposed for drug encapsulation. This study therefore aimed to seek out novel ACA materials for use in NP systems using a toxicity led screening approach. A multistep strategy, including cytotoxicity screening of alcohols as degradation products of PACA (44 alcohols), NPs (14 polymers), and a final in vivo study (2 polymers) gave poly (2-ethylhexyl cyanoacrylate) PEHCA as a promising novel PACA candidate. For the first time, this work presents cytotoxicity data on several novel ACAs, PEHCA in vivo toxicity data, and miniemulsion polymerisation-based encapsulation of the cabazitaxel and NR688 in novel PACA candidates. Furthermore, several of the ACA candidates were compatible with a wider selection of lipophilic active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) versus commercially available controls. Combined, this work demonstrates the potential benefits of expanding the array of available ACA materials in drug delivery. Novel ACAs have the potential to encapsulate a wider range of APIs in miniemulsion polymerisation processes and may also broaden PACA applicability in other fields. Screening of novel poly(alkylcyanoacrylate) (PACA) materials to broaden PACA nanomedicine potential. A comprehensive screening process evaluated the toxicity of novel poly(alkylcyanoacrylate) (PACA) materials. Novel poly(2-ethylhexyl cyanoacrylate) nanoparticles has a promising safety profile. Novel ACA materials show potential to enable encapsulation of a wider range of APIs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid Hyldbakk
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway.,Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Yrr Mørch
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Sofie Snipstad
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway.,Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.,Cancer Clinic, St. Olavs Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Andreas K O Åslund
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Geir Klinkenberg
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Vu To Nakstad
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Ane-Marit Wågbø
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Ruth Schmid
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Peter P Molesworth
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway
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8
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Interlaboratory evaluation of a digital holographic microscopy-based assay for label-free in vitro cytotoxicity testing of polymeric nanocarriers. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2022; 12:2207-2224. [PMID: 35799027 PMCID: PMC9263039 DOI: 10.1007/s13346-022-01207-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/25/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
State-of-the-art in vitro test systems for nanomaterial toxicity assessment are based on dyes and several staining steps which can be affected by nanomaterial interference. Digital holographic microscopy (DHM), an interferometry-based variant of quantitative phase imaging (QPI), facilitates reliable proliferation quantification of native cell populations and the extraction of morphological features in a fast and label- and interference-free manner by biophysical parameters. DHM therefore has been identified as versatile tool for cytotoxicity testing in biomedical nanotechnology. In a comparative study performed at two collaborating laboratories, we investigated the interlaboratory variability and performance of DHM in nanomaterial toxicity testing, utilizing complementary standard operating procedures (SOPs). Two identical custom-built off-axis DHM systems, developed for usage in biomedical laboratories, equipped with stage-top incubation chambers were applied at different locations in Europe. Temporal dry mass development, 12-h dry mass increments and morphology changes of A549 human lung epithelial cell populations upon incubation with two variants of poly(alkyl cyanoacrylate) (PACA) nanoparticles were observed in comparison to digitonin and cell culture medium controls. Digitonin as cytotoxicity control, as well as empty and cabazitaxel-loaded PACA nanocarriers, similarly impacted 12-h dry mass development and increments as well as morphology of A549 cells at both participating laboratories. The obtained DHM data reflected the cytotoxic potential of the tested nanomaterials and are in agreement with corresponding literature on biophysical and chemical assays. Our results confirm DHM as label-free cytotoxicity assay for polymeric nanocarriers as well as the repeatability and reproducibility of the technology. In summary, the evaluated DHM assay could be efficiently implemented at different locations and facilitates interlaboratory in vitro toxicity testing of nanoparticles with prospects for application in regulatory science.
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Eder KM, Marzi A, Wågbø AM, Vermeulen JP, de la Fonteyne-Blankestijn LJJ, Rösslein M, Ossig R, Klinkenberg G, Vandebriel RJ, Schnekenburger J. Standardization of an in vitro assay matrix to assess cytotoxicity of organic nanocarriers: a pilot interlaboratory comparison. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2022; 12:2187-2206. [PMID: 35794354 PMCID: PMC9360155 DOI: 10.1007/s13346-022-01203-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Nanotechnologies such as nanoparticles are established components of new medical devices and pharmaceuticals. The use and distribution of these materials increases the requirement for standardized evaluation of possible adverse effects, starting with a general cytotoxicity screening. The Horizon 2020 project "Regulatory Science Framework for Nano(bio)material-based Medical Products and Devices (REFINE)" identified in vitro cytotoxicity quantification as a central task and first step for risk assessment and development for medical nanocarriers. We have performed an interlaboratory comparison on a cell-assay matrix including a kinetic lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release cell death and WST-8 cell viability assay adapted for testing organic nanocarriers in four well-characterized cell lines of different organ origins. Identical experiments were performed by three laboratories, namely the Biomedical Technology Center (BMTZ) of the University of Münster, SINTEF Materials and Chemistry (SINTEF), and the National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM) of the Netherlands according to new standard operating procedures (SOPs). The experiments confirmed that LipImage™ 815 lipidots® are non-cytotoxic up to a concentration of 128 µg/mL and poly(alkyl cyanoacrylate) (PACA) nanoparticles for drug delivery of cytostatic agents caused dose-dependent cytotoxic effects on the cell lines starting from 8 µg/mL. PACA nanoparticles loaded with the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) cabazitaxel showed a less pronounced dose-dependent effect with the lowest concentration of 2 µg/mL causing cytotoxic effects. The mean within laboratory standard deviation was 4.9% for the WST-8 cell viability assay and 4.0% for the LDH release cell death assay, while the between laboratory standard deviation was 7.3% and 7.8% for the two assays, respectively. Here, we demonstrated the suitability and reproducibility of a cytotoxicity matrix consisting of two endpoints performed with four cell lines across three partner laboratories. The experimental procedures described here can facilitate a robust cytotoxicity screening for the development of organic nanomaterials used in medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Moritz Eder
- Biomedical Technology Center (BMTZ) of the Medical Faculty, University of Muenster, 48149, Münster, Germany.
| | - Anne Marzi
- Biomedical Technology Center (BMTZ) of the Medical Faculty, University of Muenster, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Ane Marit Wågbø
- SINTEF Materials and Chemistry (SINTEF), 7034, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Jolanda P Vermeulen
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720 BA, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | | | - Matthias Rösslein
- Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology (EMPA), CH-9014, St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Rainer Ossig
- Biomedical Technology Center (BMTZ) of the Medical Faculty, University of Muenster, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Geir Klinkenberg
- SINTEF Materials and Chemistry (SINTEF), 7034, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Rob J Vandebriel
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720 BA, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Jürgen Schnekenburger
- Biomedical Technology Center (BMTZ) of the Medical Faculty, University of Muenster, 48149, Münster, Germany
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10
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Tutty MA, Vella G, Prina-Mello A. Pre-clinical 2D and 3D toxicity response to a panel of nanomaterials; comparative assessment of NBM-induced liver toxicity. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2022; 12:2157-2177. [PMID: 35763196 PMCID: PMC9360078 DOI: 10.1007/s13346-022-01170-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Nanobiomaterials, or NBMs, have been used in medicine and bioimaging for decades, with wide-reaching applications ranging from their uses as carriers of genes and drugs, to acting as sensors and probes. When developing nanomedicine products, it is vitally important to evaluate their safety, ensuring that both biocompatibility and efficacy are achieved so their applications in these areas can be safe and effective. When discussing the safety of nanomedicine in general terms, it is foolish to make generalised statements due to the vast array of different manufactured nanomaterials, formulated from a multitude of different materials, in many shapes and sizes; therefore, NBM pre-clinical screening can be a significant challenge. Outside of their distribution in the various tissues, organs and cells in the body, a key area of interest is the impact of NBMs on the liver. A considerable issue for researchers today is accurately predicting human-specific liver toxicity prior to clinical trials, with hepatotoxicity not only the most cited reasons for withdrawal of approved drugs, but also a primary cause of attrition in pre-launched drug candidates. To date, no simple solution to adequately predict these adverse effects exists prior to entering human experimentation. The limitations of the current pre-clinical toolkit are believed to be one of the main reasons for this, with questions being raised on the relevance of animal models in pre-clinical assessment, and over the ability of conventional, simplified in vitro cell–based assays to adequately assess new drug candidates or NBMs. Common 2D cell cultures are unable to adequately represent the functions of 3D tissues and their complex cell–cell and cell–matrix interactions, as well as differences found in diffusion and transport conditions. Therefore, testing NBM toxicity in conventional 2D models may not be an accurate reflection of the actual toxicity these materials impart on the body. One such method of overcoming these issues is the use of 3D cultures, such as cell spheroids, to more accurately assess NBM-tissue interaction. In this study, we introduce a 3D hepatocellular carcinoma model cultured from HepG2 cells to assess both the cytotoxicity and viability observed following treatment with a variety of NBMs, namely a nanostructured lipid carrier (in the specific technical name = LipImage™ 815), a gold nanoparticle (AuNP) and a panel of polymeric (in the specific technical name = PACA) NBMs. This model is also in compliance with the 3Rs policy of reduction, refinement and replacement in animal experimentation [1], and meets the critical need for more advanced in vitro models for pre-clinical nanotoxicity assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Anne Tutty
- Nanomedicine and Molecular Imaging Group, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute (TTMI), School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 8, Ireland. .,Laboratory for Biological Characterisation of Advanced Materials (LBCAM), TTMI, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 8, Ireland.
| | - Gabriele Vella
- Nanomedicine and Molecular Imaging Group, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute (TTMI), School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 8, Ireland.,Laboratory for Biological Characterisation of Advanced Materials (LBCAM), TTMI, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 8, Ireland
| | - Adriele Prina-Mello
- Nanomedicine and Molecular Imaging Group, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute (TTMI), School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 8, Ireland. .,Laboratory for Biological Characterisation of Advanced Materials (LBCAM), TTMI, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 8, Ireland. .,Trinity St James's Cancer Institute, Trinity College Dublin, St James's Hospital, Dublin 8, Ireland.
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11
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Evaluating nanobiomaterial-induced DNA strand breaks using the alkaline comet assay. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2022; 12:2243-2258. [PMID: 35612707 PMCID: PMC9360128 DOI: 10.1007/s13346-022-01178-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Due to their unique chemical and physical properties, nanobiomaterials (NBMs) are extensively studied for applications in medicine and drug delivery. Despite these exciting properties, their small sizes also make them susceptible to toxicity. Whilst nanomaterial immunotoxicity and cytotoxicity are studied in great depth, there is still limited data on their potential genotoxicity or ability to cause DNA damage. In the past years, new medical device regulations, which came into place in 2020, were developed, which require the assessment of long-term NBM exposure; therefore, in recent years, increased attention is being paid to genotoxicity screening of these materials. In this article, and through an interlaboratory comparison (ILC) study conducted within the Horizon 2020 REFINE project, we assess five different NBM formulations, each with different uses, namely, a bio-persistent gold nanoparticle (AuNP), an IR-780 dye-loaded liposome which is used in deep tissue imaging (LipImage™815), an unloaded PACA polymeric nanoparticle used as a drug delivery system (PACA), and two loaded PACA NBMs, i.e. the cabazitaxel drug-loaded PACA (CBZ-PACA) and the NR668 dye-loaded PACA (NR668 PACA) for their potential to cause DNA strand breaks using the alkaline comet assay and discuss the current state of genotoxicity testing for nanomaterials. We have found through our interlaboratory comparison that the alkaline comet assay can be suitably applied to the pre-clinical assessment of NBMs, as a reproducible and repeatable methodology for assessing NBM-induced DNA damage.
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12
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Three-dimensional (3D) liver cell models - a tool for bridging the gap between animal studies and clinical trials when screening liver accumulation and toxicity of nanobiomaterials. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2022; 12:2048-2074. [PMID: 35507131 PMCID: PMC9066991 DOI: 10.1007/s13346-022-01147-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Despite the exciting properties and wide-reaching applications of nanobiomaterials (NBMs) in human health and medicine, their translation from bench to bedside is slow, with a predominant issue being liver accumulation and toxicity following systemic administration. In vitro 2D cell-based assays and in vivo testing are the most popular and widely used methods for assessing liver toxicity at pre-clinical stages; however, these fall short in predicting toxicity for NBMs. Focusing on in vitro and in vivo assessment, the accurate prediction of human-specific hepatotoxicity is still a significant challenge to researchers. This review describes the relationship between NBMs and the liver, and the methods for assessing toxicity, focusing on the limitations they bring in the assessment of NBM hepatotoxicity as one of the reasons defining the poor translation for NBMs. We will then present some of the most recent advances towards the development of more biologically relevant in vitro liver methods based on tissue-mimetic 3D cell models and how these could facilitate the translation of NBMs going forward. Finally, we also discuss the low public acceptance and limited uptake of tissue-mimetic 3D models in pre-clinical assessment, despite the demonstrated technical and ethical advantages associated with them.
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13
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A multistep in vitro hemocompatibility testing protocol recapitulating the foreign body reaction to nanocarriers. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2022; 12:2089-2100. [PMID: 35318565 PMCID: PMC9360154 DOI: 10.1007/s13346-022-01141-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/18/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The development of drug nanocarriers based on polymeric, lipid and ceramic biomaterials has been paving the way to precision medicine, where the delivery of poorly soluble active compounds and personalized doses are made possible. However, the nano-size character of these carriers has been demonstrated to have the potential to elicit pathways of the host response different from those of the same biomaterials when engineered as larger size implants and of the drugs when administered without a carrier. Therefore, a specific regulatory framework needs to be made available that can offer robust scientific insights and provide safety data by reliable tests of these novel nano-devices. In this context, the present work presents a multistep protocol for the in vitro assessment of the hemocompatibility of nanocarriers of different physicochemical properties. Poly (ethyl butyl cyanoacrylate) nanoparticles and lipid-based (LipImage™ 815) nanoparticles of comparable hydrodynamic diameter were tested through a battery of assays using human peripheral blood samples and recapitulating the main pathways of the host response upon systemic administration; i.e., protein interactions, fibrinogen-platelet binding, cytotoxicity, and inflammatory response. The data showed the sensitivity and reproducibility of the methods adopted that were also demonstrated to determine individual variability as well as to discriminate between activation of pathways of inflammation and unintended release of inflammatory signaling caused by loss of cell integrity. Therefore, this multistep testing is proposed as a reliable protocol for nanoparticle development and emerging regulatory frameworks.
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14
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Vennemann A, Breitenstein D, Tallarek E, Mørch Ý, Schmid R, Wiemann M. Subcellular detection of PEBCA particles in macrophages: combining darkfield microscopy, confocal Raman microscopy, and ToF-SIMS analysis. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2022; 12:2075-2088. [PMID: 35182369 PMCID: PMC9360116 DOI: 10.1007/s13346-022-01128-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The detection of biomedical organic nanocarriers in cells and tissues is still an experimental challenge. Here we developed an imaging strategy for the label-free detection of poly (ethylbutyl cyanoacrylate) (PEBCA) particles. Experiments were carried out with phagocytic NR8383 macrophages exposed to non-toxic and non-activating concentrations of fluorescent (PEBCA NR668 and PEBCA NR668/IR), non-fluorescent (PEBCA), and cabazitaxel-loaded PEBCA particles (PEBCA CBZ). Exposure to PEBCA NR668 revealed an inhomogeneous particle uptake similar to what was obtained with the free modified Nile Red dye (NR668). In order to successfully identify the PEBCA-loaded cells under label-free conditions, we developed an imaging strategy based on enhanced darkfield microscopy (DFM), followed by confocal Raman microscopy (CRM) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF–SIMS). Nitrile groups of the PEBCA matrix and PEBCA ions were used as suitable analytes for CRM and ToF–SIMS, respectively. Masses found with ToF–SIMS were further confirmed by Orbitrap-SIMS. The combined approach allowed to image small (< 1 µm) PEBCA-containing phagolysosomes, which were identified as PEBCA-containing compartments in NR8383 cells by electron microscopy. The combination of DFM, CRM, and ToF–SIMS is a promising strategy for the label-free detection of PEBCA particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antje Vennemann
- IBE R&D Institute for Lung Health gGmbH, Mendelstr. 11, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | | | | | - Ýrr Mørch
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Ruth Schmid
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Martin Wiemann
- IBE R&D Institute for Lung Health gGmbH, Mendelstr. 11, 48149, Münster, Germany.
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15
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Eder KM, Marzi A, Barroso Á, Ketelhut S, Kemper B, Schnekenburger J. Label-Free Digital Holographic Microscopy for In Vitro Cytotoxic Effect Quantification of Organic Nanoparticles. Cells 2022; 11:cells11040644. [PMID: 35203295 PMCID: PMC8870653 DOI: 10.3390/cells11040644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 02/11/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cytotoxicity quantification of nanoparticles is commonly performed by biochemical assays to evaluate their biocompatibility and safety. We explored quantitative phase imaging (QPI) with digital holographic microscopy (DHM) as a time-resolved in vitro assay to quantify effects caused by three different types of organic nanoparticles in development for medical use. Label-free proliferation quantification of native cell populations facilitates cytotoxicity testing in biomedical nanotechnology. Therefore, DHM quantitative phase images from measurements on nanomaterial and control agent incubated cells were acquired over 24 h, from which the temporal course of the cellular dry mass was calculated within the observed field of view. The impact of LipImage™ 815 lipidots® nanoparticles, as well as empty and cabazitaxel-loaded poly(alkyl cyanoacrylate) nanoparticles on the dry mass development of four different cell lines (RAW 264.7, NIH-3T3, NRK-52E, and RLE-6TN), was observed vs. digitonin as cytotoxicity control and cells in culture medium. The acquired QPI data were compared to a colorimetric cell viability assay (WST-8) to explore the use of the DHM assay with standard biochemical analysis methods downstream. Our results show that QPI with DHM is highly suitable to identify harmful or low-toxic nanomaterials. The presented DHM assay can be implemented with commercial microscopes. The capability for imaging of native cells and the compatibility with common 96-well plates allows high-throughput systems and future embedding into existing experimental routines for in vitro cytotoxicity assessment.
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16
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Mehrabian A, Mashreghi M, Dadpour S, Badiee A, Arabi L, Hoda Alavizadeh S, Alia Moosavian S, Reza Jaafari M. Nanocarriers Call the Last Shot in the Treatment of Brain Cancers. Technol Cancer Res Treat 2022; 21:15330338221080974. [PMID: 35253549 PMCID: PMC8905056 DOI: 10.1177/15330338221080974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Our brain is protected by physio-biological barriers. The blood–brain barrier (BBB) main mechanism of protection relates to the abundance of tight junctions (TJs) and efflux pumps. Although BBB is crucial for healthy brain protection against toxins, it also leads to failure in a devastating disease like brain cancer. Recently, nanocarriers have been shown to pass through the BBB and improve patients’ survival rates, thus becoming promising treatment strategies. Among nanocarriers, inorganic nanocarriers, solid lipid nanoparticles, liposomes, polymers, micelles, and dendrimers have reached clinical trials after delivering promising results in preclinical investigations. The size of these nanocarriers is between 10 and 1000 nm and is modified by surface attachment of proteins, peptides, antibodies, or surfactants. Multiple research groups have reported transcellular entrance as the main mechanism allowing for these nanocarriers to cross BBB. Transport proteins and transcellular lipophilic pathways exist in BBB for small and lipophilic molecules. Nanocarriers cannot enter via the paracellular route, which is limited to water-soluble agents due to the TJs and their small pore size. There are currently several nanocarriers in clinical trials for the treatment of brain cancer. This article reviews challenges as well as fitting attributes of nanocarriers for brain tumor treatment in preclinical and clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amin Mehrabian
- School of Pharmacy, Biotechnology Research Center, 37552Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,School of Pharmacy, 37552Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Nanotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, 37552Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
| | - Mohammad Mashreghi
- School of Pharmacy, 37552Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Nanotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, 37552Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Saba Dadpour
- School of Pharmacy, 37552Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Nanotechnology Research Center, Student Research Committee, 37552Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Ali Badiee
- School of Pharmacy, 37552Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Nanotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, 37552Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Leila Arabi
- School of Pharmacy, 37552Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Nanotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, 37552Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Seyedeh Hoda Alavizadeh
- School of Pharmacy, 37552Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Nanotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, 37552Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Seyedeh Alia Moosavian
- School of Pharmacy, 37552Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Nanotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, 37552Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Mahmoud Reza Jaafari
- School of Pharmacy, Biotechnology Research Center, 37552Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,School of Pharmacy, 37552Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Nanotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, 37552Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
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17
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Sønstevold T, Engedal N, Torgersen ML. Perturbation of Cellular Redox Homeostasis Dictates Divergent Effects of Polybutyl Cyanoacrylate (PBCA) Nanoparticles on Autophagy. Cells 2021; 10:3432. [PMID: 34943939 PMCID: PMC8699722 DOI: 10.3390/cells10123432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Revised: 11/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Nanoparticles (NPs) are used in our everyday life, including as drug delivery vehicles. However, the effects of NPs at the cellular level and their impacts on autophagy are poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate that the NP drug delivery vehicle poly(butyl cyanoacrylate) (PBCA) perturbs redox homeostasis in human epithelial cells, and that the degree of redox perturbation dictates divergent effects of PBCA on autophagy. Specifically, PBCA promoted functional autophagy at low concentrations, whereas it inhibited autophagy at high concentrations. Both effects were completely abolished by the antioxidant N-acetyl cysteine (NAC). High concentrations of PBCA inhibited MAP1LC3B/GABARAP lipidation and LC3 flux, and blocked bulk autophagic cargo flux induced by mTOR inhibition. These effects were mimicked by the redox regulator H2O2. In contrast, low concentrations of PBCA enhanced bulk autophagic cargo flux in a Vps34-, ULK1/2- and ATG13-dependent manner, yet interestingly, without an accompanying increase in LC3 lipidation or flux. PBCA activated MAP kinase signaling cascades in a redox-dependent manner, and interference with individual signaling components revealed that the autophagy-stimulating effect of PBCA required the action of the JNK and p38-MK2 pathways, whose activities converged on the pro-autophagic protein Beclin-1. Collectively, our results reveal that PBCA exerts a dual effect on autophagy depending on the severity of the NP insult and the resulting perturbation of redox homeostasis. Such a dual autophagy-modifying effect may be of general relevance for redox-perturbing NPs and have important implications in nanomedicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tonje Sønstevold
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Montebello, N-0379 Oslo, Norway;
| | - Nikolai Engedal
- Department of Tumor Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Montebello, N-0379 Oslo, Norway;
| | - Maria Lyngaas Torgersen
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Montebello, N-0379 Oslo, Norway;
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18
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Sulheim E, Hanson I, Snipstad S, Vikedal K, Mørch Y, Boucher Y, Davies CDL. Sonopermeation with Nanoparticle‐Stabilized Microbubbles Reduces Solid Stress and Improves Nanomedicine Delivery to Tumors. ADVANCED THERAPEUTICS 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/adtp.202100147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Einar Sulheim
- Department of Physics Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) Trondheim NO‐7491 Norway
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine SINTEF AS Trondheim 7034 Norway
- Cancer Clinic St.Olavs Hospital Trondheim 7030 Norway
| | - Ingunn Hanson
- Department of Physics Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) Trondheim NO‐7491 Norway
| | - Sofie Snipstad
- Department of Physics Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) Trondheim NO‐7491 Norway
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine SINTEF AS Trondheim 7034 Norway
- Cancer Clinic St.Olavs Hospital Trondheim 7030 Norway
| | - Krister Vikedal
- Department of Physics Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) Trondheim NO‐7491 Norway
| | - Yrr Mørch
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine SINTEF AS Trondheim 7034 Norway
| | - Yves Boucher
- Edwin L. Steele Laboratory for Tumor Biology Massachusetts General Hospital Boston MA 02114 USA
| | - Catharina de Lange Davies
- Department of Physics Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) Trondheim NO‐7491 Norway
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19
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Øverbye A, Torgersen ML, Sønstevold T, Iversen TG, Mørch Ý, Skotland T, Sandvig K. Cabazitaxel-loaded poly(alkyl cyanoacrylate) nanoparticles: toxicity and changes in the proteome of breast, colon and prostate cancer cells. Nanotoxicology 2021; 15:865-884. [PMID: 34047629 DOI: 10.1080/17435390.2021.1924888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Nanoparticles composed of poly(alkyl cyanoacrylate) (PACA) have shown great promise due to their biodegradability and high drug loading capacity. Development of optimal PACA nanocarriers requires detailed analysis of the overall cellular impact exerted by PACA variants. We here perform a comprehensive comparison of cabazitaxel (CBZ)-loaded nanocarriers composed of three different PACA monomers, i.e. poly(n-butyl cyanoacrylate) (PBCA), poly(2-ethylbutyl cyanoacrylate) (PEBCA) and poly(octyl cyanoacrylate) (POCA). The cytotoxicity of drug-loaded and empty PACA nanoparticles were compared to that of free CBZ across a panel of nine cancer cell lines by assessing cellular metabolism, proliferation and protein synthesis. The analyses revealed that the cytotoxicity of all CBZ-loaded PACAs was similar to that of free CBZ for all cell lines tested, whereas the empty PACAs exerted much lower toxicity. To increase our understanding of the toxic effects of these treatments comprehensive MS-based proteomics were performed with HCT116, MDA-MB-231 and PC3 cells incubated with PACA-CBZ variants or free CBZ. Interestingly, PACA-CBZ specifically led to decreased levels of proteins involved in focal adhesion and stress fibers in all cell lines. Since we recently demonstrated that encapsulation of CBZ within PEBCA nanoparticles significantly improved the therapeutic effect of CBZ on a patient derived xenograft model in mice, we investigated the effects of this PACA variant more closely by immunoblotting. Interestingly, we detected several changes in the protein expression and degree of phosphorylation of SRC-pathway proteins that can be relevant for the therapeutic effects of these substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anders Øverbye
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Maria Lyngaas Torgersen
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Tonje Sønstevold
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Tore Geir Iversen
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ýrr Mørch
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF AS, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Tore Skotland
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Kirsten Sandvig
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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20
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Surface Functionalization of PLGA Nanoparticles to Increase Transport across the BBB for Alzheimer’s Disease. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/app11094305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disorder that accounts for about 60% of all diagnosed cases of dementia worldwide. Although there are currently several drugs marketed for its treatment, none are capable of slowing down or stopping the progression of AD. The role of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) plays a key role in the design of a successful treatment for this neurodegenerative disease. Nanosized particles have been proposed as suitable drug delivery systems to overcome BBB with the purpose of increasing bioavailability of drugs in the brain. Biodegradable poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles (PLGA-NPs) have been particularly regarded as promising drug delivery systems as they can be surface-tailored with functionalized molecules for site-specific targeting. In this review, a thorough discussion about the most recent functionalization strategies based on PLGA-NPs for AD and their mechanisms of action is provided, together with a description of AD pathogenesis and the role of the BBB in brain targeting.
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21
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Snipstad S, Mørch Ý, Sulheim E, Åslund A, Pedersen A, Davies CDL, Hansen R, Berg S. Sonopermeation Enhances Uptake and Therapeutic Effect of Free and Encapsulated Cabazitaxel. ULTRASOUND IN MEDICINE & BIOLOGY 2021; 47:1319-1333. [PMID: 33549379 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2020.12.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Revised: 09/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Delivery of drugs and nanomedicines to tumors is often heterogeneous and insufficient and, thus, of limited efficacy. Microbubbles in combination with ultrasound have been found to improve delivery to tumors, enhancing accumulation and penetration. We used a subcutaneous prostate cancer xenograft model in mice to investigate the effect of free and nanoparticle-encapsulated cabazitaxel in combination with ultrasound and microbubbles with a lipid shell or a shell of nanoparticles. Sonopermeation reduced tumor growth and prolonged survival (26%-100%), whether the free drug was co-injected with lipid-shelled microbubbles or the nanoformulation was co-injected with lipid-shelled or nanoparticle-shelled microbubbles. Coherently with the improved therapeutic response, we found enhanced uptake of nanoparticles directly after ultrasound treatment that lasted several weeks (2.3 × -15.8 × increase). Neither cavitation dose nor total accumulation of nanoparticles could explain the variation within treatment groups, emphasizing the need for a better understanding of the tumor biology and mechanisms involved in ultrasound-mediated treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofie Snipstad
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway; Cancer Clinic, St. Olav's Hospital, Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Ýrr Mørch
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Einar Sulheim
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway; Cancer Clinic, St. Olav's Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Andreas Åslund
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - André Pedersen
- Department of Health Research, SINTEF Digital, Trondheim, Norway
| | | | - Rune Hansen
- Department of Health Research, SINTEF Digital, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Circulation and Medical imaging, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Sigrid Berg
- Cancer Clinic, St. Olav's Hospital, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Health Research, SINTEF Digital, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Circulation and Medical imaging, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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22
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Snipstad S, Hanstad S, Bjørkøy A, Mørch Ý, de Lange Davies C. Sonoporation Using Nanoparticle-Loaded Microbubbles Increases Cellular Uptake of Nanoparticles Compared to Co-Incubation of Nanoparticles and Microbubbles. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:640. [PMID: 33946327 PMCID: PMC8146007 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13050640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Revised: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Therapeutic agents can benefit from encapsulation in nanoparticles, due to improved pharmacokinetics and biodistribution, protection from degradation, increased cellular uptake and sustained release. Microbubbles in combination with ultrasound have been shown to improve the delivery of nanoparticles and drugs to tumors and across the blood-brain barrier. Here, we evaluate two different microbubbles for enhancing the delivery of polymeric nanoparticles to cells in vitro: a commercially available lipid microbubble (Sonazoid) and a microbubble with a shell composed of protein and nanoparticles. Various ultrasound parameters are applied and confocal microscopy is employed to image cellular uptake. Ultrasound enhanced cellular uptake depending on the pressure and duty cycle. The responsible mechanisms are probably sonoporation and sonoprinting, followed by uptake, and to a smaller degree enhanced endocytosis. The use of commercial Sonazoid microbubbles leads to significantly lower uptake than when using nanoparticle-loaded microbubbles, suggesting that proximity between cells, nanoparticles and microbubbles is important, and that mainly nanoparticles in the shell are taken up, rather than free nanoparticles in solution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofie Snipstad
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Høgskoleringen 5, 7491 Trondheim, Norway; (S.H.); (A.B.); (C.d.L.D.)
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Sem Sælandsvei 2A, 7034 Trondheim, Norway;
- Cancer Clinic, St. Olav’s Hospital, Prinsesse Kristinas Gate 1, 7030 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Sigurd Hanstad
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Høgskoleringen 5, 7491 Trondheim, Norway; (S.H.); (A.B.); (C.d.L.D.)
| | - Astrid Bjørkøy
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Høgskoleringen 5, 7491 Trondheim, Norway; (S.H.); (A.B.); (C.d.L.D.)
| | - Ýrr Mørch
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Sem Sælandsvei 2A, 7034 Trondheim, Norway;
| | - Catharina de Lange Davies
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Høgskoleringen 5, 7491 Trondheim, Norway; (S.H.); (A.B.); (C.d.L.D.)
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23
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Pandya AD, Iversen TG, Moestue S, Grinde MT, Mørch Ý, Snipstad S, Åslund AKO, Øy GF, Kildal W, Engebråten O, Sandvig K, Skotland T, Mælandsmo GM. Biodistribution of Poly(alkyl cyanoacrylate) Nanoparticles in Mice and Effect on Tumor Infiltration of Macrophages into a Patient-Derived Breast Cancer Xenograft. NANOMATERIALS 2021; 11:nano11051140. [PMID: 33924869 PMCID: PMC8145722 DOI: 10.3390/nano11051140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Revised: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
We have investigated the biodistribution and tumor macrophage infiltration after intravenous injection of the poly(alkyl cyanoacrylate) nanoparticles (NPs): PEBCA (poly(2-ethyl-butyl cyanoacrylate), PBCA (poly(n-butyl cyanoacrylate), and POCA (poly(octyl cyanoacrylate), in mice. These NPs are structurally similar, have similar PEGylation, and have previously been shown to give large variations in cellular responses in vitro. The PEBCA NPs had the highest uptake both in the patient-derived breast cancer xenograft MAS98.12 and in lymph nodes, and therefore, they are the most promising of these NPs for delivery of cancer drugs. High-resolution magic angle spinning magnetic resonance (HR MAS MR) spectroscopy did not reveal any differences in the metabolic profiles of tumors following injection of the NPs, but the PEBCA NPs resulted in higher tumor infiltration of the anti-tumorigenic M1 macrophages than obtained with the two other NPs. The PEBCA NPs also increased the ratio of M1/M2 (anti-tumorigenic/pro-tumorigenic) macrophages in the tumors, suggesting that these NPs might be used both as a vehicle for drug delivery and to modulate the immune response in favor of enhanced therapeutic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhilash D. Pandya
- Department of Tumor Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, 0379 Oslo, Norway; (A.D.P.); (G.F.Ø.); (O.E.)
| | - Tore-Geir Iversen
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, 0379 Oslo, Norway; (T.-G.I.); (K.S.)
| | - Siver Moestue
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway;
| | - Maria T. Grinde
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway;
| | - Ýrr Mørch
- SINTEF AS, Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, 7034 Trondheim, Norway; (Ý.M.); (S.S.); (A.K.O.Å.)
| | - Sofie Snipstad
- SINTEF AS, Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, 7034 Trondheim, Norway; (Ý.M.); (S.S.); (A.K.O.Å.)
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
- Cancer Clinic, St. Olav’s Hospital, 7030 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Andreas K. O. Åslund
- SINTEF AS, Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, 7034 Trondheim, Norway; (Ý.M.); (S.S.); (A.K.O.Å.)
| | - Geir F. Øy
- Department of Tumor Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, 0379 Oslo, Norway; (A.D.P.); (G.F.Ø.); (O.E.)
| | - Wanja Kildal
- Institute for Cancer Genetics and Informatics, Oslo University Hospital, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, 0379 Oslo, Norway;
| | - Olav Engebråten
- Department of Tumor Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, 0379 Oslo, Norway; (A.D.P.); (G.F.Ø.); (O.E.)
- Department of Oncology, Oslo University Hospital, 0450 Oslo, Norway
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, Medical Faculty, University of Oslo, 0315 Oslo, Norway
| | - Kirsten Sandvig
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, 0379 Oslo, Norway; (T.-G.I.); (K.S.)
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, 0315 Oslo, Norway
| | - Tore Skotland
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, 0379 Oslo, Norway; (T.-G.I.); (K.S.)
- Correspondence: (T.S.); (G.M.M.)
| | - Gunhild M. Mælandsmo
- Department of Tumor Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, 0379 Oslo, Norway; (A.D.P.); (G.F.Ø.); (O.E.)
- Department of Medical Biology, University of Tromsø, 9019 Tromsø, Norway
- Correspondence: (T.S.); (G.M.M.)
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Exploring the Interplay between Drug Release and Targeting of Lipid-Like Polymer Nanoparticles Loaded with Doxorubicin. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26040831. [PMID: 33562687 PMCID: PMC7915178 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26040831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2021] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Targeted delivery of doxorubicin still poses a challenge with regards to the quantities reaching the target site as well as the specificity of the uptake. In the present approach, two colloidal nanocarrier systems, NanoCore-6.4 and NanoCore-7.4, loaded with doxorubicin and characterized by different drug release behaviors were evaluated in vitro and in vivo. The nanoparticles utilize a specific surface design to modulate the lipid corona by attracting blood-borne apolipoproteins involved in the endogenous transport of chylomicrons across the blood–brain barrier. When applying this strategy, the fine balance between drug release and carrier accumulation is responsible for targeted delivery. Drug release experiments in an aqueous medium resulted in a difference in drug release of approximately 20%, while a 10% difference was found in human serum. This difference affected the partitioning of doxorubicin in human blood and was reflected by the outcome of the pharmacokinetic study in rats. For the fast-releasing formulation NanoCore-6.4, the AUC0→1h was significantly lower (2999.1 ng × h/mL) than the one of NanoCore-7.4 (3589.5 ng × h/mL). A compartmental analysis using the physiologically-based nanocarrier biopharmaceutics model indicated a significant difference in the release behavior and targeting capability. A fraction of approximately 7.310–7.615% of NanoCore-7.4 was available for drug targeting, while for NanoCore-6.4 only 5.740–6.057% of the injected doxorubicin was accumulated. Although the targeting capabilities indicate bioequivalent behavior, they provide evidence for the quality-by-design approach followed in formulation development.
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25
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Gagliardi A, Giuliano E, Venkateswararao E, Fresta M, Bulotta S, Awasthi V, Cosco D. Biodegradable Polymeric Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery to Solid Tumors. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:601626. [PMID: 33613290 PMCID: PMC7887387 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.601626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 53.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Advances in nanotechnology have favored the development of novel colloidal formulations able to modulate the pharmacological and biopharmaceutical properties of drugs. The peculiar physico-chemical and technological properties of nanomaterial-based therapeutics have allowed for several successful applications in the treatment of cancer. The size, shape, charge and patterning of nanoscale therapeutic molecules are parameters that need to be investigated and modulated in order to promote and optimize cell and tissue interaction. In this review, the use of polymeric nanoparticles as drug delivery systems of anticancer compounds, their physico-chemical properties and their ability to be efficiently localized in specific tumor tissues have been described. The nanoencapsulation of antitumor active compounds in polymeric systems is a promising approach to improve the efficacy of various tumor treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnese Gagliardi
- Department of Health Sciences, University “Magna Græcia” of Catanzaro, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Elena Giuliano
- Department of Health Sciences, University “Magna Græcia” of Catanzaro, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Eeda Venkateswararao
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Massimo Fresta
- Department of Health Sciences, University “Magna Græcia” of Catanzaro, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Stefania Bulotta
- Department of Health Sciences, University “Magna Græcia” of Catanzaro, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Vibhudutta Awasthi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Donato Cosco
- Department of Health Sciences, University “Magna Græcia” of Catanzaro, Catanzaro, Italy
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26
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Albalawi F, Hussein MZ, Fakurazi S, Masarudin MJ. Engineered Nanomaterials: The Challenges and Opportunities for Nanomedicines. Int J Nanomedicine 2021; 16:161-184. [PMID: 33447033 PMCID: PMC7802788 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s288236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence of nanotechnology as a key enabling technology over the past years has opened avenues for new and innovative applications in nanomedicine. From the business aspect, the nanomedicine market was estimated to worth USD 293.1 billion by 2022 with a perception of market growth to USD 350.8 billion in 2025. Despite these opportunities, the underlying challenges for the future of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) in nanomedicine research became a significant obstacle in bringing ENMs into clinical stages. These challenges include the capability to design bias-free methods in evaluating ENMs' toxicity due to the lack of suitable detection and inconsistent characterization techniques. Therefore, in this literature review, the state-of-the-art of engineered nanomaterials in nanomedicine, their toxicology issues, the working framework in developing a toxicology benchmark and technical characterization techniques in determining the toxicity of ENMs from the reported literature are explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fahad Albalawi
- Department of Medical Laboratory and Blood Bank, King Fahad Specialist Hospital-Tabuk, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia
- Materials Synthesis and Characterization Laboratory, Institute of Advanced Technology (ITMA), Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Zobir Hussein
- Materials Synthesis and Characterization Laboratory, Institute of Advanced Technology (ITMA), Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Sharida Fakurazi
- Department of Human Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
- Natural Medicine and Product Research Laboratory Institute of Bioscience, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Mas Jaffri Masarudin
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
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27
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Tavares GD, Gonçalves JE, Monteiro LM, Löbenberg R, Storpirtis S, Bou-Chacra NA, Consiglieri VO. N,N,N-trimethylchitosan-poly (n-butylcyanoacrylate) core-shell nanoparticles as a potential oral delivery system for acyclovir. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2020; 196:111336. [PMID: 32877830 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2020.111336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2020] [Revised: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 08/16/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the feasibility of polysaccharide-coated poly(n-butyl cyanoacrylate) (PBCA) nanoparticles for oral delivery of acyclovir (ACV). PBCA nanoparticles were obtained by the emulsion polymerization method. Chitosan was chemically modified to obtain N,N,N-trimethylchitosan (TMC), which was used to coat the nanoparticles (PBCA-TMC). Nanoparticles were characterized by dynamic light scattering, zeta potential, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), atomic force microscopy (AFM), cytotoxicity, and the effect on the transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) of the Caco-2 cells. The size of the coated nanoparticles (296.2 nm) was significantly larger than uncoated (175.0 nm). Furthermore, PBCA nanoparticles had a negative charge (-11.7 mV), which was inverted to highly positive values (+36.5 mV) after coating. DSC analysis suggested the occurrence of the coating, which was confirmed by AFM images. The MTT assay revealed concentration-dependent cytotoxicity for the core-shell nanoparticles. Additionally, PBCA-TMC caused a significant but reversible decrease in the Caco-2 cell monolayer TEER. Entrapped ACV (PBCA-ACV-TMC), a Biopharmaceutical Classification System class III drug substance, increased approximately 3.25 times the Papp of ACV in the Caco-2 permeability assay. The nanoparticles were also able to provide in vitro ACV controlled release using media with different pH values (1.2; 6.8; 7.4). Accordingly, this new core-shell nanoparticle showed the potential to improve the oral delivery of ACV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guilherme Diniz Tavares
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - José Eduardo Gonçalves
- Department of Pharmaceutical Products, Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Lis Marie Monteiro
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Raimar Löbenberg
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Silvia Storpirtis
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Nádia Araci Bou-Chacra
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
| | - Vladi Olga Consiglieri
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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28
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Su S, Kang PM. Systemic Review of Biodegradable Nanomaterials in Nanomedicine. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 10:E656. [PMID: 32244653 PMCID: PMC7221794 DOI: 10.3390/nano10040656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2020] [Revised: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Nanomedicine is a field of science that uses nanoscale materials for the diagnosis and treatment of human disease. It has emerged as an important aspect of the therapeutics, but at the same time, also raises concerns regarding the safety of the nanomaterials involved. Recent applications of functionalized biodegradable nanomaterials have significantly improved the safety profile of nanomedicine. OBJECTIVE Our goal is to evaluate different types of biodegradable nanomaterials that have been functionalized for their biomedical applications. METHOD In this review, we used PubMed as our literature source and selected recently published studies on biodegradable nanomaterials and their applications in nanomedicine. RESULTS We found that biodegradable polymers are commonly functionalized for various purposes. Their property of being naturally degraded under biological conditions allows these biodegradable nanomaterials to be used for many biomedical purposes, including bio-imaging, targeted drug delivery, implantation and tissue engineering. The degradability of these nanoparticles can be utilized to control cargo release, by allowing efficient degradation of the nanomaterials at the target site while maintaining nanoparticle integrity at off-target sites. CONCLUSION While each biodegradable nanomaterial has its advantages and disadvantages, with careful design and functionalization, biodegradable nanoparticles hold great future in nanomedicine.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Peter M. Kang
- Cardiovascular Institute, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, 3 Blackfan Circle, CLS 910, Boston, MA 02215, USA;
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29
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Szwed M, Torgersen ML, Kumari RV, Yadava SK, Pust S, Iversen TG, Skotland T, Giri J, Sandvig K. Biological response and cytotoxicity induced by lipid nanocapsules. J Nanobiotechnology 2020; 18:5. [PMID: 31907052 PMCID: PMC6943936 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-019-0567-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 12/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Lipid nanocapsules (LNCs) are promising vehicles for drug delivery. However, since not much was known about cellular toxicity of these nanoparticles in themselves, we have here investigated the mechanisms involved in LNC-induced intoxication of the three breast cancer cell lines MCF-7, MDA-MD-231 and MDA-MB-468. The LNCs used were made of Labrafac™ Lipophile WL1349, Lipoid® S75 and Solutol® HS15. Results High resolution SIM microscopy showed that the DiD-labeled LNCs ended up in lysosomes close to the membrane. Empty LNCs, i.e. without encapsulated drug, induced not only increased lysosomal pH, but also acidification of the cytosol and a rapid inhibition of protein synthesis. The cytotoxicity of the LNCs were measured for up to 72 h of incubation using the MTT assay and ATP measurements in all three cell lines, and revealed that MDA-MB-468 was the most sensitive cell line and MCF-7 the least sensitive cell line to these LNCs. The LNCs induced generation of reactive free oxygen species and lipid peroxidation. Experiments with knock-down of kinases in the near-haploid cell line HAP1 indicated that the kinase HRI is essential for the observed phosphorylation of eIF2α. Nrf2 and ATF4 seem to play a protective role against the LNCs in MDA-MB-231 cells, as knock-down of these factors sensitizes the cells to the LNCs. This is in contrast to MCF-7 cells where the knock-down of these factors had a minor effect on the toxicity of the LNCs. Inhibitors of ferroptosis provided a large protection against LNC toxicity in MDA-MB-231 cells, but not in MCF-7 cells. Conclusions High doses of LNCs showed a different degree of toxicity on the three cell lines studied, i.e. MCF-7, MDA-MD-231 and MDA-MB-468 and affected signaling factors and the cell fate differently in these cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marzena Szwed
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital-The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Maria Lyngaas Torgersen
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital-The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Remya Valsala Kumari
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, India
| | - Sunil Kumar Yadava
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, India
| | - Sascha Pust
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital-The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Tore Geir Iversen
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital-The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Tore Skotland
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital-The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jyotsnendu Giri
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, India.
| | - Kirsten Sandvig
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital-The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo, Norway. .,Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
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30
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Vauthier C. A journey through the emergence of nanomedicines with poly(alkylcyanoacrylate) based nanoparticles. J Drug Target 2019; 27:502-524. [PMID: 30889991 DOI: 10.1080/1061186x.2019.1588280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Starting in the late 1970s, the pioneering work of Patrick Couvreur gave birth to the first biodegradable nanoparticles composed of a biodegradable synthetic polymer. These nanoparticles, made of poly(alkylcyanoacrylate) (PACA), were the first synthetic polymer-based nanoparticulate drug carriers undergoing a phase III clinical trial so far. Analyzing the journey from the birth of PACA nanoparticles to their clinical evaluation, this paper highlights their remarkable adaptability to bypass various drug delivery challenges found on the way. At present, PACA nanoparticles include a wide range of nanoparticles that can associate drugs of different chemical nature and can be administered in vivo by different routes. The most recent technologies giving the nanoparticles customised functions could also be implemented on this family of nanoparticles. Through different examples, this paper discusses the seminal role of the PACA nanoparticles' family in the development of nanomedicines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Vauthier
- a Institut Galien Paris Sud, UMR CNRS 8612 , Université Paris-Sud , Chatenay-Malabry Cedex , France
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31
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Obinu A, Rassu G, Corona P, Maestri M, Riva F, Miele D, Giunchedi P, Gavini E. Poly (ethyl 2-cyanoacrylate) nanoparticles (PECA-NPs) as possible agents in tumor treatment. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2019; 177:520-528. [PMID: 30822627 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2019.02.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2018] [Revised: 01/29/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Tumor eradication has many challenges due to the difficulty of selectively delivering anticancer drugs to malignant cells avoiding contact with healthy tissues/organs. The improvement of antitumor efficacy and the reduction of systemic side effects can be achieved using drug loaded nanoparticles. In this study, poly (ethyl 2-cyanoacrylate) nanoparticles (PECA-NPs) were prepared using an emulsion polymerization method and their potential for cancer treatment was investigated. The size, polydispersity index and zeta potential of prepared nanoparticles are about 80 nm, 0.08 and -39.7 mV, respectively. The stability test shows that the formulation is stable for 15 days, while an increase in particle size occurs after 30 days. TEM reveals the spherical morphology of nanoparticles; furthermore, FTIR and 1H NMR analyses confirm the structure of PECA-NPs and the complete polymerization. The nanoparticles demonstrate an in vitro concentration-dependent cytotoxicity against human epithelial colorectal adenocarcinoma cell lines (Caco-2), as assessed by MTT assay. The anticancer activity of PECA-NPs was studied on 3D tumor spheroids models of hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) and kidney adenocarcinoma cells (A498) to better understand how the nanoparticles could interact with a complex structure such as a tumor. The results confirm the antitumor activity of PECA-NPs. Therefore, these systems can be considered good candidates in tumor treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonella Obinu
- Department of Clinical-Surgical, Diagnostic and Paediatric Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Giovanna Rassu
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Paola Corona
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Marcello Maestri
- IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo Foundation and Department of Clinical-Surgical, Diagnostic and Paediatric Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Federica Riva
- Department of Public Health, Experimental and Forensic Medicine-Histology and Embryology Unit, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Dalila Miele
- Department of Drug Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Paolo Giunchedi
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy.
| | - Elisabetta Gavini
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy.
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32
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Szwed M, Sønstevold T, Øverbye A, Engedal N, Grallert B, Mørch Ý, Sulheim E, Iversen TG, Skotland T, Sandvig K, Torgersen ML. Small variations in nanoparticle structure dictate differential cellular stress responses and mode of cell death. Nanotoxicology 2019; 13:761-782. [PMID: 30760074 DOI: 10.1080/17435390.2019.1576238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
For optimal exploitation of nanoparticles (NPs) in biomedicine, and to predict nanotoxicity, detailed knowledge of the cellular responses to cell-bound or internalized NPs is imperative. The final outcome of NP-cell interaction is dictated by the type and magnitude of the NP insult and the cellular response. Here, this has been systematically studied by using poly(alkylcyanoacrylate) (PACA) particles differing only in their alkyl side chains; butyl (PBCA), ethylbutyl (PEBCA), or octyl (POCA), respectively. Surprisingly, these highly similar NPs induced different stress responses and modes of cell death in human cell lines. The POCA particles generally induced endoplasmic reticulum stress and apoptosis. In contrast, PBCA and PEBCA particles induced oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation depending on the level of the glutathione precursor cystine and transcription of the cystine transporter SLC7A11. The latter was induced as a protective response by the transcription factors ATF4 and Nrf2. PBCA particles strongly activated ATF4 downstream of the eIF2α kinase HRI, whereas PEBCA particles more potently induced Nrf2 antioxidant responses. Intriguingly, PBCA particles activated the cell death mechanism ferroptosis; a promising option for targeting multidrug-resistant cancers. Our findings highlight that even minor differences in NP composition can severely impact the cellular response to NPs. This may have important implications in therapeutic settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marzena Szwed
- a Department of Molecular Cell Biology , Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital , Oslo , Norway
| | - Tonje Sønstevold
- a Department of Molecular Cell Biology , Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital , Oslo , Norway.,b Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Department of Biosciences , University of Oslo , Oslo , Norway
| | - Anders Øverbye
- a Department of Molecular Cell Biology , Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital , Oslo , Norway
| | - Nikolai Engedal
- c Centre for Molecular Medicine Norway (NCMM), Nordic EMBL Partnership, University of Oslo , Oslo , Norway
| | - Beata Grallert
- d Department of Radiation Biology , Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital , Oslo , Norway
| | - Ýrr Mørch
- e Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine , SINTEF AS , Trondheim , Norway
| | - Einar Sulheim
- e Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine , SINTEF AS , Trondheim , Norway.,f Faculty of Natural Sciences, Department of Physics , The Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) , Trondheim , Norway
| | - Tore-Geir Iversen
- a Department of Molecular Cell Biology , Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital , Oslo , Norway
| | - Tore Skotland
- a Department of Molecular Cell Biology , Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital , Oslo , Norway
| | - Kirsten Sandvig
- a Department of Molecular Cell Biology , Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital , Oslo , Norway.,b Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Department of Biosciences , University of Oslo , Oslo , Norway
| | - Maria L Torgersen
- a Department of Molecular Cell Biology , Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital , Oslo , Norway
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33
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Fusser M, Øverbye A, Pandya AD, Mørch Ý, Borgos SE, Kildal W, Snipstad S, Sulheim E, Fleten KG, Askautrud HA, Engebraaten O, Flatmark K, Iversen TG, Sandvig K, Skotland T, Mælandsmo GM. Cabazitaxel-loaded Poly(2-ethylbutyl cyanoacrylate) nanoparticles improve treatment efficacy in a patient derived breast cancer xenograft. J Control Release 2018; 293:183-192. [PMID: 30529259 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2018.11.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2018] [Revised: 11/28/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The effect of poly(2-ethyl-butyl cyanoacrylate) nanoparticles containing the cytotoxic drug cabazitaxel was studied in three breast cancer cell lines and one basal-like patient-derived xenograft model grown in the mammary fat pad of immunodeficient mice. Nanoparticle-encapsulated cabazitaxel had a much better efficacy than similar concentrations of free drug in the basal-like patient-derived xenograft and resulted in complete remission of 6 out of 8 tumors, whereas free drug gave complete remission only with 2 out of 9 tumors. To investigate the different efficacies obtained with nanoparticle-encapsulated versus free cabazitaxel, mass spectrometry quantification of cabazitaxel was performed in mice plasma and selected tissue samples. Nanoparticle-encapsulated drug had a longer circulation time in blood. There was approximately a three times higher drug concentration in tumor tissue 24 h after injection, and two times higher 96 h after injection of nanoparticles with drug compared to the free drug. The tissue biodistribution obtained after 24 h using mass spectrometry analyses correlates well with biodistribution data obtained using IVIS® Spectrum in vivo imaging of nanoparticles labeled with the fluorescent substance NR668, indicating that these data also are representative for the nanoparticle distribution. Furthermore, immunohistochemistry was used to estimate infiltration of macrophages into the tumor tissue following injection of nanoparticle-encapsulated and free cabazitaxel. The higher infiltration of anti-tumorigenic versus pro-tumorigenic macrophages in tumors treated with the nanoparticles might also contribute to the improved effect obtained with the nanoparticle-encapsulated drug. Tumor infiltration of pro-tumorigenic macrophages was four times lower when using nanoparticles containing cabazitaxel than when using particles without drug, and we speculate that the very good therapeutic efficacy obtained with our cabazitaxel-containing particles may be due to their ability to reduce the level of pro-tumorigenic macrophages in the tumor. In summary, encapsulation of cabazitaxel in poly(2-ethyl-butyl cyanoacrylate) nanoparticles seems promising for treatment of breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Fusser
- Department of Tumor Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Anders Øverbye
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Abhilash D Pandya
- Department of Tumor Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ýrr Mørch
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF AS, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Sven Even Borgos
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF AS, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Wanja Kildal
- Institute for Cancer Genetics and Informatics, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Sofie Snipstad
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF AS, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Physics, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Einar Sulheim
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF AS, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Physics, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Karianne Giller Fleten
- Department of Tumor Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Hanne Arenberg Askautrud
- Institute for Cancer Genetics and Informatics, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Olav Engebraaten
- Department of Tumor Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; Institute for Clinical Medicine, The Medical Faculty, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Kjersti Flatmark
- Department of Tumor Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; Institute for Clinical Medicine, The Medical Faculty, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Tore Geir Iversen
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Kirsten Sandvig
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Tore Skotland
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Gunhild M Mælandsmo
- Department of Tumor Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; Department of Pharmacy, University of Tromsø, Tromsø, Norway
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