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Morelli AM, Scholkmann F. Should the standard model of cellular energy metabolism be reconsidered? Possible coupling between the pentose phosphate pathway, glycolysis and extra-mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation. Biochimie 2024; 221:99-109. [PMID: 38307246 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2024.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2023] [Revised: 01/17/2024] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/04/2024]
Abstract
The process of cellular respiration occurs for energy production through catabolic reactions, generally with glucose as the first process step. In the present work, we introduce a novel concept for understanding this process, based on our conclusion that glucose metabolism is coupled to the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) and extra-mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation in a closed-loop process. According to the current standard model of glycolysis, glucose is first converted to glucose 6-phosphate (glucose 6-P) and then to fructose 6-phosphate, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and pyruvate, which then enters the Krebs cycle in the mitochondria. However, it is more likely that the pyruvate will be converted to lactate. In the PPP, glucose 6-P is branched off from glycolysis and used to produce NADPH and ribulose 5-phosphate (ribulose 5-P). Ribulose 5-P can be converted to fructose 6-P and glyceraldehyde 3-P. In our view, a circular process can take place in which the ribulose 5-P produced by the PPP enters the glycolysis pathway and is then retrogradely converted to glucose 6-P. This process is repeated several times until the complete degradation of glucose 6-P. The role of mitochondria in this process is to degrade lipids by beta-oxidation and produce acetyl-CoA; the function of producing ATP appears to be only secondary. This proposed new concept of cellular bioenergetics allows the resolution of some previously unresolved controversies related to cellular respiration and provides a deeper understanding of metabolic processes in the cell, including new insights into the Warburg effect.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Felix Scholkmann
- Neurophotonics and Biosignal Processing Research Group, Biomedical Optics Research Laboratory, Department of Neonatology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
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Woyda-Ploszczyca AM. Direct and indirect targets of carboxyatractyloside, including overlooked toxicity toward nucleoside diphosphate kinase (NDPK) and mitochondrial H + leak. PHARMACEUTICAL BIOLOGY 2023; 61:372-390. [PMID: 36799406 PMCID: PMC9946330 DOI: 10.1080/13880209.2023.2168704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Revised: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT The toxicity of atractyloside/carboxyatractyloside is generally well recognized and commonly ascribed to the inhibition of mitochondrial ADP/ATP carriers, which are pivotal for oxidative phosphorylation. However, these glycosides may 'paralyze' additional target proteins. OBJECTIVE This review presents many facts about atractyloside/carboxyatractyloside and their plant producers, such as Xanthium spp. (Asteraceae), named cockleburs. METHODS Published studies and other information were obtained from databases, such as 'CABI - Invasive Species Compendium', 'PubMed', and 'The World Checklist of Vascular Plants', from 1957 to December 2022. The following major keywords were used: 'carboxyatractyloside', 'cockleburs', 'hepatotoxicity', 'mitochondria', 'nephrotoxicity', and 'Xanthium'. RESULTS In the third decade of the twenty first century, public awareness of the severe toxicity of cockleburs is still limited. Such toxicity is often only perceived by specialists in Europe and other continents. Interestingly, cocklebur is among the most widely distributed invasive plants worldwide, and the recognition of new European stands of Xanthium spp. is provided here. The findings arising from field and laboratory research conducted by the author revealed that (i) some livestock populations may instinctively avoid eating cocklebur while grazing, (ii) carboxyatractyloside inhibits ADP/GDP metabolism, and (iii) the direct/indirect target proteins of carboxyatractyloside are ambiguous. CONCLUSIONS Many aspects of the Xanthium genus still require substantial investigation/revision in the future, such as the unification of the Latin nomenclature of currently distinguished species, bur morphology status, true fruit (achene) description and biogeography of cockleburs, and a detailed description of the physiological roles of atractyloside/carboxyatractyloside and the toxicity of these glycosides, mainly toward mammals. Therefore, a more careful interpretation of atractyloside/carboxyatractyloside data, including laboratory tests using Xanthium-derived extracts and purified toxins, is needed.
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Rybalka E, Kourakis S, Bonsett CA, Moghadaszadeh B, Beggs AH, Timpani CA. Adenylosuccinic Acid: An Orphan Drug with Untapped Potential. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:822. [PMID: 37375769 PMCID: PMC10304260 DOI: 10.3390/ph16060822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Revised: 05/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Adenylosuccinic acid (ASA) is an orphan drug that was once investigated for clinical application in Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). Endogenous ASA participates in purine recycling and energy homeostasis but might also be crucial for averting inflammation and other forms of cellular stress during intense energy demand and maintaining tissue biomass and glucose disposal. This article documents the known biological functions of ASA and explores its potential application for the treatment of neuromuscular and other chronic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Rybalka
- Institute for Health and Sport (IHeS), Victoria University, Melbourne, VIC 8001, Australia; (S.K.); (C.A.T.)
- Inherited and Acquired Myopathy Program, Australian Institute for Musculoskeletal Science (AIMSS), St Albans, VIC 3021, Australia
- Department of Medicine—Western Health, Melbourne Medical School, The University of Melbourne, St Albans, VIC 3021, Australia
- Division of Neuropaediatrics and Developmental Medicine, University Children’s Hospital of Basel (UKBB), 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stephanie Kourakis
- Institute for Health and Sport (IHeS), Victoria University, Melbourne, VIC 8001, Australia; (S.K.); (C.A.T.)
- Inherited and Acquired Myopathy Program, Australian Institute for Musculoskeletal Science (AIMSS), St Albans, VIC 3021, Australia
| | - Charles A. Bonsett
- Dystrophy Concepts Incorporated, Indianapolis, IN 46226, USA;
- School of Medicine, Indiana University, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
| | - Behzad Moghadaszadeh
- The Manton Center for Orphan Disease Research, Division of Genetics and Genomics, Boston Children’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; (B.M.); (A.H.B.)
| | - Alan H. Beggs
- The Manton Center for Orphan Disease Research, Division of Genetics and Genomics, Boston Children’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; (B.M.); (A.H.B.)
| | - Cara A. Timpani
- Institute for Health and Sport (IHeS), Victoria University, Melbourne, VIC 8001, Australia; (S.K.); (C.A.T.)
- Inherited and Acquired Myopathy Program, Australian Institute for Musculoskeletal Science (AIMSS), St Albans, VIC 3021, Australia
- Department of Medicine—Western Health, Melbourne Medical School, The University of Melbourne, St Albans, VIC 3021, Australia
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Atlante A, Valenti D. Mitochondria Have Made a Long Evolutionary Path from Ancient Bacteria Immigrants within Eukaryotic Cells to Essential Cellular Hosts and Key Players in Human Health and Disease. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2023; 45:4451-4479. [PMID: 37232752 PMCID: PMC10217700 DOI: 10.3390/cimb45050283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2023] [Revised: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria have made a long evolutionary path from ancient bacteria immigrants within the eukaryotic cell to become key players for the cell, assuming crucial multitasking skills critical for human health and disease. Traditionally identified as the powerhouses of eukaryotic cells due to their central role in energy metabolism, these chemiosmotic machines that synthesize ATP are known as the only maternally inherited organelles with their own genome, where mutations can cause diseases, opening up the field of mitochondrial medicine. More recently, the omics era has highlighted mitochondria as biosynthetic and signaling organelles influencing the behaviors of cells and organisms, making mitochondria the most studied organelles in the biomedical sciences. In this review, we will especially focus on certain 'novelties' in mitochondrial biology "left in the shadows" because, although they have been discovered for some time, they are still not taken with due consideration. We will focus on certain particularities of these organelles, for example, those relating to their metabolism and energy efficiency. In particular, some of their functions that reflect the type of cell in which they reside will be critically discussed, for example, the role of some carriers that are strictly functional to the typical metabolism of the cell or to the tissue specialization. Furthermore, some diseases in whose pathogenesis, surprisingly, mitochondria are involved will be mentioned.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Atlante
- Institute of Biomembranes, Bioenergetics and Molecular Biotechnologies (IBIOM), National Research Council (CNR), Via G. Amendola 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Daniela Valenti
- Institute of Biomembranes, Bioenergetics and Molecular Biotechnologies (IBIOM), National Research Council (CNR), Via G. Amendola 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy
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García-Rodríguez FJ, Buchrieser C, Escoll P. Legionella and mitochondria, an intriguing relationship. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2023; 374:37-81. [PMID: 36858656 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ircmb.2022.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Legionella pneumophila is the causative agent of Legionnaires' disease, a severe pneumonia. L. pneumophila injects via a type-IV-secretion-system (T4SS) more than 300 bacterial proteins into macrophages, its main host cell in humans. Certain of these bacterial effectors target organelles in the infected cell and hijack multiple processes to facilitate all steps of the intracellular life cycle of this pathogen. In this review, we discuss the interplay between L. pneumophila, an intracellular bacterium fully armed with virulence tools, and mitochondria, the extraordinary eukaryotic organelles playing prominent roles in cellular bioenergetics, cell-autonomous immunity and cell death. We present and discuss key findings concerning the multiple interactions of L. pneumophila with mitochondria during infection and the mechanisms employed by T4SS effectors that target mitochondrial functions to subvert infected cells.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Carmen Buchrieser
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, Biologie des Bactéries Intracellulaires and CNRS UMR 6047, Paris, France.
| | - Pedro Escoll
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, Biologie des Bactéries Intracellulaires and CNRS UMR 6047, Paris, France.
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Zhao Y, Zhao H, Xu H, An P, Ma B, Lu H, Zhou Q, Li X, Xiong Y. Perfluorooctane sulfonate exposure induces preeclampsia-like syndromes by damaging trophoblast mitochondria in pregnant mice. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2022; 247:114256. [PMID: 36327784 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.114256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Revised: 10/23/2022] [Accepted: 10/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Preeclampsia, defined as a hypertensive disorder during pregnancy, is a major cause of maternal and fetal mortality. Observational studies have shown that the exposure of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, such as perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), is emerging as a significant environmental factor associated with preeclampsia risk. However, epidemiologic evidence is of correlative in nature, and unable to establish a causal relationship. Here, we established an animal model of PFOS-induced preeclampsia to explore the molecular mechanism of PFOS in placental trophoblast. In the mouse model, PFOS exposure by gavage at a dose of 10 mg/kg/d from embryonic day 7.5-16.5 was sufficient to induce preeclampsia-like symptoms such as hypertension, proteinuria, and renal glomerular endotheliosis, accompanied with placental abnormal stromal collagen deposition. In-vitro experiments of JEG-3 cells, PFOS exposure impaired trophoblast motility including the compromised abilities of migration, invasion and vascularization. Mechanistically, these pathological effects on cells resulted from SLC25A5-mediated mitochondrial damages, characterized by excessive ROS generation, decreased ATP production and mitochondrial membrane potential loss, and accompanied by the activation of p38 MAPK and JNK signaling pathways. This pioneering study provided biological plausibility to the causality verified by the animal model and the in vitro experiments, which indicates that PFOS exposure may cause preeclampsia during pregnancy via impairing trophoblast mitochondria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Zhao
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200090, China
| | - Huanqiang Zhao
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200090, China
| | - Huangfang Xu
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200090, China
| | - Ping An
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200090, China
| | - Bo Ma
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200090, China
| | - Huiqing Lu
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200090, China
| | - Qiongjie Zhou
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200090, China
| | - Xiaotian Li
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200090, China.
| | - Yu Xiong
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200090, China.
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Liu S, Liu S, Jiang H. Multifaceted roles of mitochondrial stress responses under ETC dysfunction - repair, destruction and pathogenesis. FEBS J 2022; 289:6994-7013. [PMID: 34918460 DOI: 10.1111/febs.16323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Electron transport chain (ETC) dysfunction is a common feature of mitochondrial diseases and induces severe cellular stresses, including mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm ) reduction, mitochondrial matrix acidification, metabolic derangements and proteostatic stresses. Extensive studies of ETC dysfunction in yeast, Caenorhabditis elegans, cultured cells and mouse models have revealed multiple mitochondrial stress response pathways. Here, we summarise the current understanding of the triggers, sensors, signalling mechanisms and the functional outcomes of mitochondrial stress responses in different species. We highlight Δψm reduction as a major trigger of stress responses in different species, but the responses are species-specific and the outcomes are context-dependent. ETC dysfunction elicits a mitochondrial unfolded protein response (UPRmt ) to repair damaged mitochondria in C. elegans, and activates a global adaptive programme to maintain Δψm in yeast. Yeast and C. elegans responses are remarkably similar at the downstream responses, although they are activated by different signalling mechanisms. UPRmt generally protects ETC-defective worms, but its constitutive activation is toxic for wildtype worms and worms carrying mutant mtDNA. In contrast to lower organisms, ETC dysfunction in mammals mainly activates a mitochondrial integrated stress response (ISRmt ) to reprogramme metabolism and a PINK1-Parkin mitophagy pathway to degrade damaged mitochondria. Accumulating in vivo results suggest that the ATF4 branch of ISRmt exacerbates metabolic derangements to accelerate mitochondrial disease progression. The in vivo roles of mitophagy in mitochondrial diseases are also context-dependent. These results thus reveal the common and unique aspects of mitochondrial stress responses in different species and highlight their multifaceted roles in mitochondrial diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanshan Liu
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Cell Biology for Animal Aging, China.,Tsinghua Institute of Multidisciplinary Biomedical Research, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Siqi Liu
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Cell Biology for Animal Aging, China.,Tsinghua Institute of Multidisciplinary Biomedical Research, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Hui Jiang
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Cell Biology for Animal Aging, China.,Tsinghua Institute of Multidisciplinary Biomedical Research, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
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Arsenic-Induced Injury of Mouse Hepatocytes through Lysosome and Mitochondria: An In Vitro Study. Int J Hepatol 2022; 2022:1546297. [PMID: 36117518 PMCID: PMC9477643 DOI: 10.1155/2022/1546297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS The cellular mechanism of liver injury related to arsenic toxicity is ill defined. It is thought that oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction may play some role in arsenic-induced liver damage. In this study, we evaluated subcellular events within the primary cultured mouse hepatocytes when exposed to inorganic arsenic. METHODS Primary cultured mouse hepatocytes were treated with 10 μM arsenic for different time periods. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, functional changes of the lysosome and mitochondria, and mode of hepatocytes death were studied by laser confocal microscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, and flow cytometry. Expression of proapoptotic member of the BCL-2 family of genes BAX and antiapoptotic BCL-2 mRNA expression were studied by real-time PCR. Cytochrome c expression was studied by Western blotting. RESULTS Fluorescence spectroscopy as well as flow cytometric analysis revealed that arsenic-induced formation of ROS was time dependent. Confocal microscopy showed initiation of ROS formation from periphery of the hepatocytes at 30 min of arsenic exposure that progressed to central part of the hepatocytes at 3 h of arsenic exposure. The ROS formation was found to be NADPH oxidase (NOX) dependent. This low level of intracellular ROS induced lysosomal membrane permeabilization (LMP) and subsequently released cathepsin B to the cytosol. The LMP further increased intracellular ROS which in turn triggered induction of mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT). Pretreatment of hepatocytes with LMP inhibitor bafilomycin A (BafA) significantly decreased, and LMP inducer chloroquine (ChQ) significantly increased the production of ROS suggesting that LMP preceded enhanced ROS generation in response to arsenic. MPT was accompanied with increase in BAX : BCL2 mRNA ratio resulting in upregulation of caspase 3 and increased hepatocyte apoptosis. CONCLUSION Although arsenic-related oxidative liver injury is well established, neither the site of origin of ROS nor the early sequence of events in arsenic toxicity due to ROS is known. We believe that our study provides evidences elucidating the early sequence of events that culminates in the death of the mouse hepatocytes during arsenic exposure.
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Dysfunction of Mitochondria in Alzheimer’s Disease: ANT and VDAC Interact with Toxic Proteins and Aid to Determine the Fate of Brain Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23147722. [PMID: 35887070 PMCID: PMC9316216 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23147722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Revised: 07/10/2022] [Accepted: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD), certainly the most widespread proteinopathy, has as classical neuropathological hallmarks, two groups of protein aggregates: senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. However, the research interest is rapidly gaining ground in a better understanding of other pathological features, first, of all the mitochondrial dysfunctions. Several pieces of evidence support the hypothesis that abnormal mitochondrial function may trigger aberrant processing of amyloid progenitor protein or tau and thus neurodegeneration. Here, our aim is to emphasize the role played by two ‘bioenergetic’ proteins inserted in the mitochondrial membranes, inner and outer, respectively, that is, the adenine nucleotide translocator (ANT) and the voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC), in the progression of AD. To perform this, we will magnify the ANT and VDAC defects, which are measurable hallmarks of mitochondrial dysfunction, and collect all the existing information on their interaction with toxic Alzheimer’s proteins. The pathological convergence of tau and amyloid β-peptide (Aβ) on mitochondria may finally explain why the therapeutic strategies used against the toxic forms of Aβ or tau have not given promising results separately. Furthermore, the crucial role of ANT-1 and VDAC impairment in the onset/progression of AD opens a window for new therapeutic strategies aimed at preserving/improving mitochondrial function, which is suspected to be the driving force leading to plaque and tangle deposition in AD.
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van Rensburg D, Lindeque Z, Harvey BH, Steyn SF. Reviewing the mitochondrial dysfunction paradigm in rodent models as platforms for neuropsychiatric disease research. Mitochondrion 2022; 64:82-102. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mito.2022.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Valenti D, Atlante A. Mitochondrial Bioenergetics in Different Pathophysiological Conditions. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22147562. [PMID: 34299182 PMCID: PMC8303587 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22147562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria are complex intracellular organelles involved in many aspects of cellular life, with a primary role in bioenergy production via oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) [...].
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