Ganoderic Acid A Promotes Amyloid-β Clearance (In Vitro) and Ameliorates Cognitive Deficiency in Alzheimer's Disease (Mouse Model) through Autophagy Induced by Activating Axl

Ganoderic acid A ameliorates depressive-like behaviors in CSDS mice: Insights from proteomic profiling and molecular mechanisms

OBJECTIVE

Ganoderic Acid A (GAA), a primary bioactive component in Ganoderma, has demonstrated ameliorative effects on depressive-like behaviors in a Chronic Social Defeat Stress (CSDS) mouse model. This study aims to elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms through proteomic analysis.

METHODS

C57BL/6 J mice were allocated into control (CON), chronic social defeat stress (CSDS), GAA, and imipramine (IMI) groups. Post-depression induction via CSDS, the GAA and IMI groups received respective treatments of GAA (2.5 mg/kg) and imipramine (10 mg/kg) for five days. Behavioral assessments utilized standardized tests. Proteins from the prefrontal cortex were analyzed using LC-MS, with further examination via bioinformatics and PRM for differential expression. Western blot analysis confirmed protein expression levels.

RESULTS

Chronic social defeat stress (CSDS) induced depressive-like behaviors in mice, which were significantly alleviated by GAA treatment, comparably to imipramine (IMI). Proteomic analysis identified distinct proteins in control (305), GAA-treated (949), and IMI-treated (289) groups. Enrichment in mitochondrial and synaptic proteins was evident from GO and PPI analyses. PRM analysis revealed significant expression changes in proteins crucial for mitochondrial and synaptic functions (namely, Naa30, Bnip1, Tubgcp4, Atxn3, Carmil1, Nup37, Apoh, Mrpl42, Tprkb, Acbd5, Dcx, Erbb4, Ppp1r2, Fam3c, Rnf112, and Cep41). Western blot validation in the prefrontal cortex showed increased levels of Mrpl42, Dcx, Fam3c, Ppp1r2, Rnf112, and Naa30 following GAA treatment.

CONCLUSION

GAA exhibits potential antidepressant properties, with its action potentially tied to the modulation of synaptic functions and mitochondrial activities.

The Biological Activity of Ganoderma lucidum on Neurodegenerative Diseases: The Interplay between Different Active Compounds and the Pathological Hallmarks

Neurodegenerative diseases represent a cluster of conditions characterized by the progressive degeneration of the structure and function of the nervous system. Despite significant advancements in understanding these diseases, therapeutic options remain limited. The medicinal mushroom Ganoderma lucidum has been recognized for its comprehensive array of bioactive compounds with anti-inflammatory and antioxidative effects, which possess potential neuroprotective properties. This literature review collates and examines the existing research on the bioactivity of active compounds and extracts from Ganoderma lucidum in modulating the pathological hallmarks of neurodegenerative diseases. The structural information and preparation processes of specific components, such as individual ganoderic acids and unique fractions of polysaccharides, are presented in detail to facilitate structure-activity relationship research and scale up the investigation of in vivo pharmacology. The mechanisms of these components against neurodegenerative diseases are discussed on multiple levels and elaborately categorized in different patterns. It is clearly presented from the patterns that most polysaccharides of Ganoderma lucidum possess neurotrophic effects, while ganoderic acids preferentially target specific pathogenic proteins as well as regulating autophagy. Further clinical trials are necessary to assess the translational potential of these components in the development of novel multi-target drugs for neurodegenerative diseases.

Passive immunotherapy for Alzheimer's disease: challenges & future directions

Passive immunotherapy with specific antibodies targeting Amyloid β (Aβ) peptide or tubulin-associated unit (tau) protein has emerged as a promising therapeutic approach in Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, in a recent phase III clinical study, Sperling et al. (N Engl J Med 10.1056/NEJMoa2305032, 2023) reported that solanezumab, a monoclonal antibody targeting Aβ peptide, failed to slow cognitive decline in AD patients. Previously, three other anti-Aβ antibodies, bapineuzumab, crenezumab, and gantenerumab, have also failed to show similar beneficial effects. In addition, three humanized antibodies targeting tau protein failed in their phase II trials. However, other anti-Aβ antibodies, such as lecanemab (a humanized mAb binds to soluble Aβ protofibrils), donanemab (a humanized mAb binds to insoluble, N-terminal truncated form of Aβ peptides) and aducanumab (a human mAb binds to the aggregated form of Aβ), have been shown to slow the decline of cognitive functions in early stage AD patients. The specific targets used in passive immunotherapy in these clinical trials may explain the divergent clinical outcomes. There are several challenges and limitations of passive immunotherapy using anti-Aβ antibodies and long term longitudinal studies are needed to assess their efficacy, side effects and cost effectiveness in a wider spectrum of subjects, from pre-dementia to more advanced dementia. A combination therapeutic approach using both anti-Aβ antibodies and other pharmaceutical agents should also be explored.

Ganoderic acid A suppresses autophagy by regulating the circFLNA/miR-486-3p/CYP1A1/XRCC1 axis to strengthen the sensitivity of lung cancer cells to cisplatin

OBJECTIVES

Reportedly, ganoderic acid A (GA-A) increases the sensitivity of hepatocellular carcinoma cells to cisplatin (DDP) chemotherapy. Therefore, this study aims to fathom the influence of GA-A on lung cancer cells.

METHODS

After the construction of A549/DDP cells through exposure to DDP, the effects of GA-A on A549 and A549/DDP cells were revealed by cellular functional assays, western blot and quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR). The DDP-resistant lung cancer tumor was established in vivo, followed by further validation of the mechanism of GA-A.

RESULTS

GA-A suppressed the viability, migration, and invasion while downregulating Beclin and autophagy marker LC3II/LC3I levels and upregulating P62 levels in A549 and A549/DDP cells. These effects were reversed by circFLNA overexpression. Also, GA-A reinforced the sensitivity of A549/DDP cells to DDP, elevated the apoptosis and regulated the circFLNA/miR-486-3p/cytochrome P450 family 1 subfamily A member 1 (CYP1A1)/X-ray repair cross-complementing 1 (XRCC1) axis. The reversal effects of circFLNA overexpression on GA-A-induced viability and apoptosis of A549/DDP cells could all be counteracted in the presence of 3MA. GA-A inhibited lung cancer tumor growth and blocked autophagy.

CONCLUSION

GA-A suppresses autophagy by regulating the circFLNA/miR-486-3p/CYP1A1/XRCC1 axis to strengthen the sensitivity of lung cancer cells to DDP.

Therapeutic potential of the medicinal mushroom Ganoderma lucidum against Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a high-incidence neurodegenerative disorder, characterized by cognitive impairment, memory loss, and psychiatric abnormalities. Ganoderma lucidum is a famous medicinal fungus with a long history of dietary intake, containing various bioactive components, and have been documented to exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-aging, and immunomodulatory effects, among others. Recent studies have shown that G. lucidum and its components have promising therapeutic potential against AD from various aspects, which can delay the progression of AD, improve cognitive function and quality of life. The underlying mechanisms mainly include inhibiting tau hyperphosphorylation, inhibiting Aβ formation, affecting activated microglia, regulating NF-κB/MAPK signalling pathway, inhibiting neuronal apoptosis, modulating immune system, and inhibiting acetylcholinesterase, etc. This paper systematically reviewed the relevant studies on the therapeutic potential of G. lucidum and its active components for treatment of AD, key points related with the mechanism studies and clinical trials have been discussed, and further perspectives have been proposed. Totally, as a natural medicinal mushroom, G. lucidum has the potential to be developed as effective adjuvant for AD treatment owing to its therapeutic efficacy against multiple pathogenesis of AD. Further mechanical investigation and clinical trials can help unlock the complete potential of G. lucidum as a therapeutic option for AD.

Ganoderic Acid A: A Potential Natural Neuroprotective Agent for Neurological Disorders: A Review

Ganoderic acid A (GAA) is one of the major triterpenoids in Ganoderma lucidum (GL). Accumulating evidence has indicated that GAA demonstrates multiple pharmacological effects and exhibits treatment potential for various neurological disorders. Here, the effects and mechanisms of GAA in the treatment of neurological disorders were evaluated and discussed through previous research results. By summarizing previous research results, we found that GAA may play a neuroprotective role through various mechanisms: anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative stress, anti-apoptosis, protection of nerve cells, and regulation of nerve growth factor. Therefore, GAA is a promising natural neuroprotective agent and this review would contribute to the future development of GAA as a novel clinical candidate drug for treating neurological diseases.

Proteostasis and neurodegeneration: a closer look at autophagy in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by the accumulation of misfolded amyloid-beta and tau proteins. Autophagy acts as a proteostasis process to remove protein clumps, although it progressively weakens with aging and AD, thus facilitating the accumulation of toxic proteins and causing neurodegeneration. This review examines the impact of impaired autophagy on the progression of AD disease pathology. Under normal circumstances, autophagy removes abnormal proteins and damaged organelles, but any dysfunction in this process can lead to the exacerbation of amyloid and tau pathology, particularly in AD. There is increasing attention to therapeutic tactics to revitalize autophagy, including reduced caloric intake, autophagy-stimulating drugs, and genetic therapy. However, the translation of these strategies into clinical practice faces several hurdles. In summary, this review integrates the understanding of the intricate role of autophagy dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease progression and reinforces the promising prospects of autophagy as a beneficial target for treatments to modify the course of Alzheimer's disease.

H3K27 acetylation-induced FSTL1 upregulation by P300/RUNX1 co-activation exacerbated autophagy-mediated neuronal damage and NF-κB-stimulated inflammation in Alzheimer's disease

Follistatin-like protein 1 (FSTL1) has been demonstrated to participate in the pathogenesis of several neurological diseases. The current study informed the role of H3K27 acetylation-induced FSTL1 upregulation in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Our investigation discovered the upregulated FSTL1 expression and enhanced autophagy activity in AD. FSTL1 knockdown successfully attenuated the injuries of Aβ1-42-challenged SH-SY5Y cells through the inhibition of autophagy activity. Besides, FSTL1 deficiency suppresses the inflammatory response and NF-κB signaling in AD. Moreover, it was found that p300 was recruited by transcriptional factor RUNX1 to stimulate the H3K27 acetylation in FSTL1 promoter region, which caused the upregulation of FSTL1 in AD. To summarize, p300 acted as a co-activator of RUNX1 to trigger the activation of FSTL1 in AD, resulting in the exacerbated injuries and inflammatory responses of Aβ1-42-induced SH-SY5Y cells.

Unveiling the Therapeutic Potentials of Mushroom Bioactive Compounds in Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) stands as a prevailing neurodegenerative condition (NDs), leading to the gradual deterioration of brain cells and subsequent declines in memory, thinking, behavior, and emotion. Despite the intensive research efforts and advances, an effective curative treatment for the disease has not yet been found. Mushrooms, esteemed globally for their exquisite flavors and abundant nutritional benefits, also hold a wealth of health-promoting compounds that contribute to improving AD health. These compounds encompass polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, terpenoids, phenols, and various other bioactive substances. Particularly noteworthy are the potent neuroprotective small molecules found in mushrooms, such as ergothioneine, erinacine, flavonoids, alkaloids, ergosterol, and melanin, which warrant dedicated scrutiny for their therapeutic potential in combating AD. This review summarizes such positive effects of mushroom bioactive compounds on AD, with a hope to contribute to the development of functional foods as an early dietary intervention for this neurodegenerative disease.

Multiple Metabolites Derived from Mushrooms and Their Beneficial Effect on Alzheimer's Diseases

Mushrooms with edible and medicinal potential have received widespread attention because of their diverse biological functions, nutritional value, and delicious taste, which are closely related to their rich active components. To date, many bioactive substances have been identified and purified from mushrooms, including proteins, carbohydrates, phenols, and vitamins. More importantly, molecules derived from mushrooms show great potential to alleviate the pathological manifestations of Alzheimer's disease (AD), which seriously affects the health of elderly people. Compared with current therapeutic strategies aimed at symptomatic improvement, it is particularly important to identify natural products from resource-rich mushrooms that can modify the progression of AD. This review summarizes recent investigations of multiple constituents (carbohydrates, peptides, phenols, etc.) isolated from mushrooms to combat AD. In addition, the underlying molecular mechanisms of mushroom metabolites against AD are discussed. The various mechanisms involved in the antiAD activities of mushroom metabolites include antioxidant and anti-neuroinflammatory effects, apoptosis inhibition, and stimulation of neurite outgrowth, etc. This information will facilitate the application of mushroom-derived products in the treatment of AD. However, isolation of new metabolites from multiple types of mushrooms and further in vivo exploration of the molecular mechanisms underlying their antiAD effect are still required.

Identification of potential neuroprotective compound from Ganoderma lucidum extract targeting microtubule affinity regulation kinase 4 involved in Alzheimer's disease through molecular dynamics simulation and MMGBSA

Objective

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the most prevalent neurological ailments, affecting around 50 million individuals globally. The condition is characterized by nerve cell damage due to the formation of amyloid-beta plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. Only a few US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved medications are available in the market which are devoid of side effects, thus, making it imperative to investigate new alternatives for countering this disease. According to a recent study, microtubule affinity regulation kinase 4 (MARK4) is attributed as one of the most promising drug targets for AD, thus, being selected for this study. Compounds from Ganoderma lucidum (Reishi mushroom) extracts were selected to be used as ligands for this study.

Methods

In this study, the five most potent compounds from Ganoderma lucidum were selected and their absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity (ADMET) analysis was performed, followed by molecular docking, and molecular dynamics simulation of each compound with MARK4 and supported by molecular mechanics generalized born surface area (MMGBSA) binding free energy calculations.

Results

The promising compounds were selected based on their ADMET profile and interactions with the active site residues of MARK4. Based on docking scores of -9.1 and -10.3 kcal/ mol, respectively, stability assessment by molecular dynamics simulation, and MMGBSA calculations, ganoderic acid A and ganoderenic acid B were found to be the most promising compounds against MARK4 which will require further in vitro and in vivo validations.

Conclusion

Through this study, it is suggested that ganoderic acid A and ganoderenic acid B might be a class of promising compounds against AD, based on computational research, and can be further studied for preclinical and clinical studies.

Activation of hypothalamic-enhanced adult-born neurons restores cognitive and affective function in Alzheimer's disease

Patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) exhibit progressive memory loss, depression, and anxiety, accompanied by impaired adult hippocampal neurogenesis (AHN). Whether AHN can be enhanced in impaired AD brain to restore cognitive and affective function remains elusive. Here, we report that patterned optogenetic stimulation of the hypothalamic supramammillary nucleus (SuM) enhances AHN in two distinct AD mouse models, 5×FAD and 3×Tg-AD. Strikingly, the chemogenetic activation of SuM-enhanced adult-born neurons (ABNs) rescues memory and emotion deficits in these AD mice. By contrast, SuM stimulation alone or activation of ABNs without SuM modification fails to restore behavioral deficits. Furthermore, quantitative phosphoproteomics analyses reveal activation of the canonical pathways related to synaptic plasticity and microglia phagocytosis of plaques following acute chemogenetic activation of SuM-enhanced (vs. control) ABNs. Our study establishes the activity-dependent contribution of SuM-enhanced ABNs in modulating AD-related deficits and informs signaling mechanisms mediated by the activation of SuM-enhanced ABNs.

Inhibition of Astrocytic Carbohydrate Sulfotransferase 15 Promotes Nerve Repair After Spinal Cord Injury via Mitigation of CSPG Mediated Axonal Inhibition

Nerve tissue regeneration is a significant problem. After neural diseases and damage such as spinal cord injury (SCI), the accumulation of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPG) comprising axonal inhibitory glycosaminoglycan chains in the microenvironment is a major barrier that obstructs nerve repair. Interfering with the production of glycosaminoglycans, especially the critical inhibitory chains, could be a potential therapeutic strategy for SCI, which is, however, poorly defined. This study identifies Chst15, the chondroitin sulfotransferase controlling the generation of axonal inhibitory chondroitin sulfate-E, as a therapeutic target of SCI. Using a recently reported small molecular Chst15 inhibitor, this study investigates the effects of Chst15 inhibition on astrocyte behaviors and the associated consequences of in vivo disruption of the inhibitory microenvironment. Deposition of CSPGs in the extracellular matrix and migration of astrocytes are both significantly impaired by Chst15 inhibition. Administration of the inhibitor in transected spinal cord tissues of rats effectively promotes motor functional restoration and nerve tissue regeneration by a mechanism related to the attenuation of inhibitory CSPGs, glial scar formation and inflammatory responses. This study highlights the role of Chst15 in the CSPG-mediated inhibition of neural recovery after SCI and proposes an effective neuroregenerative therapeutic strategy that uses Chst15 as a potential target.

Ganoderic Acid A and Its Amide Derivatives as Potential Anti-Cancer Agents by Regulating the p53-MDM2 Pathway: Synthesis and Biological Evaluation

The mechanisms of action of natural products and the identification of their targets have long been a research hotspot. Ganoderic acid A (GAA) is the earliest and most abundant triterpenoids discovered in Ganoderma lucidum. The multi-therapeutic potential of GAA, in particular its anti-tumor activity, has been extensively studied. However, the unknown targets and associated pathways of GAA, together with its low activity, limit in-depth research compared to other small molecule anti-cancer drugs. In this study, GAA was modified at the carboxyl group to synthesize a series of amide compounds, and the in vitro anti-tumor activities of the derivatives were investigated. Finally, compound A2 was selected to study its mechanism of action because of its high activity in three different types of tumor cell lines and low toxicity to normal cells. The results showed that A2 could induce apoptosis by regulating the p53 signaling pathway and may be involved in inhibiting the interaction of MDM2 and p53 by binding to MDM2 (K_D = 1.68 µM). This study provides some inspiration for the research into the anti-tumor targets and mechanisms of GAA and its derivatives, as well as for the discovery of active candidates based on this series.

An insight into the TAM system in Alzheimer's disease

The TAM receptors may help delay the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). AD is the most common neurodegenerative disease associated with human aging. The TAM receptors, derived from the first letter of its three constituents -Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk, are associated with immune responses, cellular differentiation and migration, and clearance of apoptotic cells and debris, with the two canonical ligands, Growth Arrest Specific 6 (Gas6) and ProS1. Several kinds of research have indicated the participation of the TAM system in AD pathology. Also, the TAMs regulate multiple features of microglia, the significant sensors of disorder in the central nervous system (CNS). In this review, we describe the biology of the TAM receptors and ligands in the CNS. Then, we discuss the relationship between the TAM system and AD, specially focusing on its functional expression in the microglia. Finally, we also summarize some agents that could interfere with the TAM signaling pathways and discuss potential difficulties and strategies for drug development.

Ganoapplins A and B with an unprecedented 6/6/6/5/6-fused pentacyclic skeleton from Ganoderma inhibit Tau pathology through activating autophagy

Ganoapplins A and B (1 and 2) with a 6/6/6/5/6-fused pentacyclic skeleton containing an aromatic E ring, were obtained from Ganoderma applanatum. Their structures were established through extensive spectroscopic analyses, quantum chemical calculations, including calculated chemical shifts with DP4 + analysis and electronic circular dichroism (ECD). A plausible biosynthetic pathway for 1 and 2 was proposed. Furthermore, their roles in activating autophagy were investigated and the cellular assays showed that 1 and 2 can inhibit tau pathology by inducing autophagy, suggesting their potential against Alzheimer's disease (AD).

Beyond the classical amyloid hypothesis in Alzheimer's disease: Molecular insights into current concepts of pathogenesis, therapeutic targets, and study models

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the progressive neurodegenerative disorders and the most common cause of dementia in the elderly worldwide causing difficulties in the daily life of the patient. AD is characterized by the aberrant accumulation of β-amyloid plaques and tau protein-containing neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) in the brain giving rise to neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, synaptic failure, and eventual neuronal cell death. The total cost of care in AD treatment and related health care activities is enormous and pharmaceutical drugs approved by Food and Drug Administration have not manifested sufficient efficacy in protection and therapy. In recent years, there are growing studies that contribute a fundamental understanding to AD pathogenesis, AD-associated risk factors, and pharmacological intervention. However, greater molecular process-oriented research in company with suitable experimental models is still of the essence to enhance the prospects for AD therapy and cell lines as a disease model are still the major part of this milestone. In this review, we provide an insight into molecular mechanisms, particularly the recent concept in gut-brain axis, vascular dysfunction and autophagy, and current models used in the study of AD. Here, we emphasized the importance of therapeutic strategy targeting multiple mechanisms together with utilizing appropriate models for the discovery of novel effective AD therapy. This article is categorized under: Neurological Diseases > Molecular and Cellular Physiology.

Focus on Alzheimer's Disease: The Role of Fibroblast Growth Factor 21 and Autophagy

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a disorder of the central nervous system that is typically marked by progressive cognitive impairment and memory loss. Amyloid β plaque deposition and neurofibrillary tangles with hyperphosphorylated tau are the two hallmark pathologies of AD. In mammalian cells, autophagy clears aberrant protein aggregates, thus maintaining proteostasis as well as neuronal health. Autophagy affects production and metabolism of amyloid β and accumulation of phosphorylated tau proteins, whose malfunction can lead to the progression of AD. On the other hand, defective autophagy has been found to induce the production of the neuroprotective factor fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21), although the underlying mechanism is unclear. In this review, we highlight the significance of aberrant autophagy in the pathogenesis of AD, discuss the possible mechanisms by which defective autophagy induces FGF21 production, and analyze the potential of FGF21 in the treatment of AD. The findings provide some insights into the potential role of FGF21 and autophagy in the pathogenesis of AD.

Delivery of Basic Fibroblast Growth Factor Through an In Situ Forming Smart Hydrogel Activates Autophagy in Schwann Cells and Improves Facial Nerves Generation via the PAK-1 Signaling Pathway

Although studies have shown that basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) can activate autophagy and promote peripheral nerve repair, the role and the molecular mechanism of action of bFGF in the facial nerve are not clear. In this study, a thermosensitive in situ forming poloxamer hydrogel was used as a vehicle to deliver bFGF for treating facial nerve injury (FNI) in the rat model. Using H&E and Masson’s staining, we found that bFGF hydrogel can promote the functional recovery and regeneration of the facial nerve. Furthermore, studies on the mechanism showed that bFGF can promote FNI recovery by promoting autophagy and inhibiting apoptosis. Additionally, this study demonstrated that the role of hydrogel binding bFGF in nerve repair was mediated through the activation of the PAK1 signaling pathway in Schwann cells (SCs). These results indicated that poloxamer thermosensitive hydrogel loaded with bFGF can significantly restore the morphology and function of the injured facial nerve by promoting autophagy and inhibiting apoptosis by activating the PAK1 pathway, which can provide a promising strategy for FNI recovery.

HyMM: hybrid method for disease-gene prediction by integrating multiscale module structure

MOTIVATION

Identifying disease-related genes is an important issue in computational biology. Module structure widely exists in biomolecule networks, and complex diseases are usually thought to be caused by perturbations of local neighborhoods in the networks, which can provide useful insights for the study of disease-related genes. However, the mining and effective utilization of the module structure is still challenging in such issues as a disease gene prediction.

RESULTS

We propose a hybrid disease-gene prediction method integrating multiscale module structure (HyMM), which can utilize multiscale information from local to global structure to more effectively predict disease-related genes. HyMM extracts module partitions from local to global scales by multiscale modularity optimization with exponential sampling, and estimates the disease relatedness of genes in partitions by the abundance of disease-related genes within modules. Then, a probabilistic model for integration of gene rankings is designed in order to integrate multiple predictions derived from multiscale module partitions and network propagation, and a parameter estimation strategy based on functional information is proposed to further enhance HyMM's predictive power. By a series of experiments, we reveal the importance of module partitions at different scales, and verify the stable and good performance of HyMM compared with eight other state-of-the-arts and its further performance improvement derived from the parameter estimation.

CONCLUSIONS

The results confirm that HyMM is an effective framework for integrating multiscale module structure to enhance the ability to predict disease-related genes, which may provide useful insights for the study of the multiscale module structure and its application in such issues as a disease-gene prediction.

((±)-Spiroganoapplanin A, a complex polycyclic meroterpenoid dimer from Ganoderma applanatum displaying the potential against Alzheimer’s disease

A pair of meroterpenoid dimers, (±)-spiroganoapplanain A (1) represents a new subtype of Ganoderma meroterpenoid dimers with a 6/5/5/6/5/6 hexacyclic system were isolated from Ganoderma applanatum. Their structures were determined...

Ganoderic Acid A To Alleviate Neuroinflammation of Alzheimer's Disease in Mice by Regulating the Imbalance of the Th17/Tregs Axis

Ganoderic acid A (GAA) is a kind of lanostane-type triterpenoid isolated from Ganoderma lucidum. Imbalance of the Th17/Tregs axis exists in the progress of neuroinflammation of Alzheimer's disease (AD). In this study, the alleviating neuroinflammatory effect of GAA on d-galactose mice was studied from the aspect of regulating the imbalance of the Th17/Tregs axis. The Morris water maze test was used to evaluate the cognitive ability of AD mice. Flow cytometry was used to detect the percentages of IL-17A, IL-17F, IL-21, IL-22, and CD4⁺CD25⁺Foxp3⁺ in peripheral blood. Transmission electron microscopy was used to assess the cerebral mitochondrial ultrastructure. Metabolomic analysis based on gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was used to evaluate the mitochondrial dysfunction metabolism. Western blot analysis was used to detect the protein expressions of cytokines secreted by Th17 cells and Treg cells in the brain. As the results show, GAA has an alleviating neuroinflammatory effect on AD mice via regulating the imbalance of the Th17/Tregs axis. The potential mechanism was related to inhibition of the JAK/STAT signaling pathway induced by Th17 cells and enhancement of the mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation by regulating Treg cells, thereby improving mitochondrial dysfunction of AD mice.