Brain Structure, Cardiorespiratory Fitness, and Executive Control Changes after a 9-Week Exercise Intervention in Young Adults: A Randomized Controlled Trial

The Effect of 6 weeks Physical Activity on Cognitive Control and Trait Impulsivity in Multi-problem Young Adults: First Findings of an RCT-study

This study aimed to report the effect of a 6-week light-active versus moderate-active physical activity intervention embedded in a multimodal day treatment program on selected measures of cognitive control (i.e., response inhibition, error processing, and cognitive interference) and trait impulsivity. A randomized controlled design was implemented, including male multi-problem young adults (aged 18-27) assigned to either light-active (N = 12) or moderate-active physical activity lessons (N = 11). A repeated measures design was used to examine treatment effects between the two groups over time on response inhibition, error processing, and cognitive interference (measured respectively with a Go/NoGo task, a Flanker task, and the Stroop) and trait impulsivity (measured with the Dutch Baratt Impulsiveness Scale). Cognitive control, but not trait impulsivity, improved over time. Specifically, enhancements in inhibition and reduced cognitive interference were observed after 6 weeks. Error processing did not improve, but we did observe improved performance on an error-processing task. No interaction with physical activity intensity was found, suggesting similar treatment effects regardless of intensity. Results should be interpreted with caution due to several limitations, including the small sample size. Overall, due to current limitations (i.e., physical activity embedded in a larger treatment program, small sample size at follow-up, and low intervention adherence), it is not possible to draw any definite conclusions. However, the current findings contribute to a growing body of evidence suggesting potential benefits of physical activity (embedded in a multi-modal day treatment program) in the enhancement of cognitive control deficits in at-risk populations, independent of exercise intensity.

Greater physical fitness ( VO 2 max ) in healthy older adults associated with increased integrity of the locus coeruleus-noradrenergic system

AIM

Physical activity (PA) is a key component for brain health and Reserve, and it is among the main dementia protective factors. However, the neurobiological mechanisms underpinning Reserve are not fully understood. In this regard, a noradrenergic (NA) theory of cognitive reserve (Robertson, 2013) has proposed that the upregulation of NA system might be a key factor for building reserve and resilience to neurodegeneration because of the neuroprotective role of NA across the brain. PA elicits an enhanced catecholamine response, in particular for NA. By increasing physical commitment, a greater amount of NA is synthetised in response to higher oxygen demand. More physically trained individuals show greater capabilities to carry oxygen resulting in greaterVo 2 max - a measure of oxygen uptake and physical fitness (PF).

METHODS

We hypothesized that greaterVo 2 max would be related to greater Locus Coeruleus (LC) MRI signal intensity. In a sample of 41 healthy subjects, we performed Voxel-Based Morphometry analyses, then repeated for the other neuromodulators as a control procedure (Serotonin, Dopamine and Acetylcholine).

RESULTS

As hypothesized, greaterVo 2 max related to greater LC signal intensity, and weaker associations emerged for the other neuromodulators.

CONCLUSION

This newly established link betweenVo 2 max and LC-NA system offers further understanding of the neurobiology underpinning Reserve in relationship to PA. While this study supports Robertson's theory proposing the upregulation of the NA system as a possible key factor building Reserve, it also provides ground for increasing LC-NA system resilience to neurodegeneration viaVo 2 max enhancement.

Hippocampal subfield plasticity is associated with improved spatial memory

Physical exercise studies are generally underrepresented in young adulthood. Seventeen subjects were randomized into an intervention group (24.2 ± 3.9 years; 3 trainings/week) and 10 subjects into a passive control group (23.7 ± 4.2 years), over a duration of 6 months. Every two months, performance diagnostics, computerized spatial memory tests, and 3 Tesla magnetic resonance imaging were conducted. Here we find that the intervention group, compared to controls, showed increased cardiorespiratory fitness, spatial memory performance and subregional hippocampal volumes over time. Time-by-condition interactions occurred in right cornu ammonis 4 body and (trend only) dentate gyrus, left hippocampal tail and left subiculum. Increases in spatial memory performance correlated with hippocampal body volume changes and, subregionally, with left subicular volume changes. In conclusion, findings support earlier reports of exercise-induced subregional hippocampal volume changes. Such exercise-related plasticity may not only be of interest for young adults with clinical disorders of hippocampal function, but also for sedentary normal cohorts.

Effects of Mind-Body Qigong Exercise on Overall Health, Fatigue/Sleep, and Cognition in Older Chinese Immigrants in the US: An Intervention Study with Control

Background

Culturally relevant exercises may help improve health and address disparities faced by older immigrants due to language and cultural barriers. Few studies have focused on such exercise interventions among older Chinese immigrants at US daycare centers.

Methods

We conducted a 10-week nonrandomized controlled trial in older Chinese immigrants in Philadelphia, US. The intervention group practiced Chinese Qigong (Baduanjin) 5 days a week guided by trained research assistants and video instructions. The control group maintained their usual daily activities. We collected self-report assessments on overall health, sleep, and fatigue and implemented two computerized cognitive tests measuring psychomotor vigilance task (PVT) and memory twice, preintervention and postintervention. Repeated measures general linear model (GLM) and paired samples t-tests were used for data analyses.

Results

Eighty-eight older adults (Qigong, n = 53; control, n = 35) with an average age of 78.13 (SD = 5.05) were included. Groups showed no significant differences at baseline evaluation. After the 10-week exercise, the intervention group showed significant improvements in overall health (p=0.032), fatigue (p < 0.001), and cognitive functions including memory (p=0.01), response speed (p=0.002), and response time (p=0.012) on the PVT, as well as marginally significant benefits in sleep (p=0.058). Between-group comparisons identified significant group-by-time interactions in health (p=0.024), sleep (p=0.004), fatigue (p=0.004), and memory (p=0.004).

Conclusion

We revealed significant positive effects of Qigong in older Chinese immigrants across multiple health domains. Findings highlight the potential of a culturally relevant exercise in addressing health disparities.

Temporal Interactions between Maintenance of Cerebral Cortex Thickness and Physical Activity from an Individual Person Micro-Longitudinal Perspective and Implications for Precision Medicine

Maintenance of brain structure is essential for neurocognitive health. Precision medicine has interests in understanding how maintenance of an individual person's brain, including cerebral cortical structure, interacts with lifestyle factors like physical activity. Cortical structure, including cortical thickness, has recognized relationships with physical activity, but concepts of these relationships come from group, not individual, focused findings. Whether or how group-focused concepts apply to an individual person is fundamental to precision medicine interests but remains unclear. This issue was studied in a healthy man using concurrent micro-longitudinal tracking of magnetic resonance imaging-defined cortical thickness and accelerometer-defined steps/day over six months. These data permitted detailed examination of temporal relationships between thickness maintenance and physical activity at an individual level. Regression analyses revealed graded significant and trend-level temporal interactions between preceding activity vs. subsequent thickness maintenance and between preceding thickness maintenance vs. subsequent activity. Interactions were bidirectional, delayed/prolonged over days/weeks, positive, bilateral, directionally asymmetric, and limited in strength. These novel individual-focused findings in some ways are predicted, but in other ways remain unaddressed or undetected, by group-focused work. We suggest that individual-focused concepts of temporal interactions between maintenance of cortical structure and activity can provide needed new insight for personalized tailoring of physical activity, cortical, and neurocognitive health.

Cardiorespiratory fitness as a mediator between body fat rate and executive function in college students

Purpose

To examine whether body fat rate (BF%) is associated with cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and whether cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) mediates the association between BF% and Executive function (EF) in young adults.

Methods

In this cross-sectional study, 226 college students were recruited from an university. Flanker, 2-back, and odder and shifting tasks were used to assess EF. The incremental cardiopulmonary exercise tests were performed, and maximal oxygen consumption was recorded during test. The body composition measuring instrument was used to evaluate the participants' BF%.

Results

The BF% of college students was negatively correlated with each EF, BF% was negatively correlated with CRF, and CRF was negatively correlated with EF (P< 0.001). Structural equation modeling (SEM) and simultaneous analysis of several groups were used to construct mediator model. The CRF of college students plays a partial mediating role between BF% and EF, and the mediating effect accounts for 48.8% of the total effect value. Sex has no moderate effect on the relationship between BF%, CRF, and EF.

Conclusions

College students with high BF% can improve their CRF by strengthening physical exercise, thereby indirectly improving their EF. Therefore, college students who have a higher body fat percentage should be compensated for engaging in physical exercise in order to enhance their CRF and mitigate the detrimental effects of obesity and overweight on EF.

Neural mechanisms of long-term exercise intervention on cognitive performance among short-sleep young adults: A hemodynamic study

OBJECTIVES

Short-sleep is becoming increasingly common and may negatively affect brain function including cognitive ability. Physical exercise has been proved to improve cognitive function while intensity matters. This study was conducted to examine the effects of 12-week exercise interventions on cognitive performance and prefrontal cortex activation related to task performance in short-sleep young adults.

METHODS

A total of 50 subjects (23.62 ± 5.28 years and 24 men) with regular short-sleep conditions (<7 h per night) participated in this study and were divided into three groups: control, moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT), and high-intensity interval training (HIIT) group. As task performance (congruent and incongruent Stroop) was monitored, changes in prefrontal oxygenated hemoglobin (oxyHb), an indicator of cortical activation, were measured using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to explore the hemodynamics mechanism.

RESULTS

Post 12-week intervention, significant differences in reaction time for congruent [β (95%CI): -0.045 (-0.088, -0.002), p = 0.039] and incongruent Stroop tests [β (95%CI): -0.058 (-0.113, -0.003), p = 0.038] were found only in the MICT intervention group. However, HIIT did not show significant improvements in cognitive function. Left middle frontal gyrus (Frontal Mid L) and right dorsolateral superior frontal gyrus (Frontal Sup R) were both stimulated by MICT and HIIT. Moreover, left dorsolateral superior frontal gyrus (Frontal Sup L) was stimulated by MICT.

CONCLUSION

The findings indicated that 12-week MICT improved cognition by significantly increasing cortical activity across more brain regions. Thus, we suggested that maintaining moderate-intensity exercise could benefit cognitive function despite short sleep.

Greater physical fitness (Vo2Max) in healthy older adults associated with increased integrity of the Locus Coeruleus-Noradrenergic system

Physical activity (PA) is a key component for brain health and Reserve, and it is among the main dementia protective factors. However, the neurobiological mechanisms underpinning Reserve are not fully understood. In this regard, a noradrenergic (NA) theory of cognitive reserve (Robertson, 2013) has proposed that the upregulation of NA system might be a key factor for building reserve and resilience to neurodegeneration because of the neuroprotective role of NA across the brain. PA elicits an enhanced catecholamine response, in particular for NA. By increasing physical commitment, a greater amount of NA is synthetised in response to higher oxygen demand. More physically trained individuals show greater capabilities to carry oxygen resulting in greater Vo2max - a measure of oxygen uptake and physical fitness (PF). In the current study, we hypothesised that greater Vo2 max would be related to greater Locus Coeruleus (LC) MRI signal intensity. As hypothesised, greater Vo2max related to greater LC signal intensity across 41 healthy adults (age range 60-72). As a control procedure, in which these analyses were repeated for the other neuromodulators' seeds (for Serotonin, Dopamine and Acetylcholine), weaker associations emerged. This newly established link between Vo2max and LC-NA system offers further understanding of the neurobiology underpinning Reserve in relationship to PA. While this study supports Robertson's theory proposing the upregulation of the noradrenergic system as a possible key factor building Reserve, it also provide grounds for increasing LC-NA system resilience to neurodegeneration via Vo2max enhancement.

Greater physical fitness (Vo2Max) in healthy older adults associated with increased integrity of the Locus Coeruleus-Noradrenergic system

Physical activity (PA) is a key component for brain health and Reserve, and it is among the main dementia protective factors. However, the neurobiological mechanisms underpinning Reserve are not fully understood. In this regard, a noradrenergic (NA) theory of cognitive reserve (Robertson, 2013) has proposed that the upregulation of NA system might be a key factor for building reserve and resilience to neurodegeneration because of the neuroprotective role of NA across the brain. PA elicits an enhanced catecholamine response, in particular for NA. By increasing physical commitment, a greater amount of NA is synthetised in response to higher oxygen demand. More physically trained individuals show greater capabilities to carry oxygen resulting in greater Vo2max - a measure of oxygen uptake and physical fitness (PF). In the current study, we hypothesised that greater Vo2 max would be related to greater Locus Coeruleus (LC) MRI signal intensity. As hypothesised, greater Vo2max related to greater LC signal intensity across 41 healthy adults (age range 60-72). As a control procedure, in which these analyses were repeated for the other neuromodulators' seeds (for Serotonin, Dopamine and Acetylcholine), weaker associations emerged. This newly established link between Vo2max and LC-NA system offers further understanding of the neurobiology underpinning Reserve in relationship to PA. While this study supports Robertson's theory proposing the upregulation of the noradrenergic system as a possible key factor building Reserve, it also provide grounds for increasing LC-NA system resilience to neurodegeneration via Vo2max enhancement.

Exploring the Relationship between Cardiorespiratory Fitness and Executive Functioning in Adults with ADHD

OBJECTIVE

Associations between measures of executive functioning (EF) and cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) were examined for adults with and without ADHD.

METHOD

Measures of executive functioning including the Stroop task, Wisconsin Card Sorting task, and Operation Span Task were completed virtually (n = 36 ADHD; n = 36 Control). Participants completed the Six-Minute Walk Test to estimate CRF.

RESULTS

Mean performance measures of executive function did not differ by group. However, higher estimated CRF was associated with better Stroop task performance, and the association was strongest for individuals with ADHD.

CONCLUSION

In adults with ADHD, higher estimated CRF was associated with better inhibitory control, but not with other measures of executive functioning.

Physiological, Anatomical and Metabolic Correlates of Aerobic Fitness in Human Primary Motor Cortex: A Multimodal Study

Physical activity (PA) has been shown to benefit various cognitive functions and promote neuroplasticity. Whereas the effects of PA on brain anatomy and function have been well documented in older individuals, data are scarce in young adults. Whether high levels of cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) achieved through regular PA are associated with significant structural and functional changes in this age group remains largely unknown. In the present study, twenty young adults that engaged in at least 8 hours per week of aerobic exercise during the last 5 years were compared to twenty sedentary controls on measures of cortical excitability, white matter microstructure, cortical thickness and metabolite concentration. All measures were taken in the left primary motor cortex and CRF was assessed with VO_2max. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) revealed higher corticospinal excitability in high- compared to low-fit individuals reflected by greater input/output curve amplitude and slope. No group differences were found for other TMS (short-interval intracortical inhibition and intracortical facilitation), diffusion MRI (fractional anisotropy and apparent fiber density), structural MRI (cortical thickness) and magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NAA, GABA, Glx) measures. Taken together, the present data suggest that brain changes associated with increased CRF are relatively limited, at least in primary motor cortex, in contrast to what has been observed in older adults.

Effects on Children's Physical and Mental Well-Being of a Physical-Activity-Based School Intervention Program: A Randomized Study

This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of physically active breaks of a total duration of 10 min a day, introduced during curricular lessons, together with a 10 min physical activity intervention during the daily school recess period on obesity prevention, fitness, cognitive function, and psychological well-being in school-aged children. A sample of 310 children (139 boys vs. 171 girls), aged between 8 and 10 years (9.82 ± 0.51), was selected. Our strategy was implemented over a 6-month period and the participants were randomly assigned to either the intervention group (n = 157) or the non-intervention (control) group (n =153). In the intervention group, a significant decrease (p < 0.05) in body mass index, waist circumference, waist-height ratio, and relative body fat mass was achieved after the intervention (T1) compared to the values measured before intervention (T0); in the control group, no differences emerged between T0 and T1 for any of the parameters considered. We found a significant increase in the intervention group in standing long jump, Ruffier, and sit and reach test scores (p < 0.001 for all). At T0, cognitive test scores did not differ between the girls and boys or between the intervention and control groups; instead at T1, significant differences were observed in the two groups regarding the total number of responses and the concentration performance scores (p < 0.001). Consistently, in the intervention group, well-being levels significantly increased between T0 and T1 (p < 0.001). Finally, the intervention had significant effects on the children regardless of gender. We may therefore conclude that schools should create more opportunities for teachers and students to introduce intervention strategies to promote regular PA during school recess.

Regional cortical perfusion increases induced by a 6-month endurance training in young sedentary adults

Physical inactivity is documented as a health risk factor for chronic diseases, accelerated aging, and cognitive impairment. Physical exercise, on the other hand, plays an important role in healthy aging by promoting positive muscular, cardiovascular, and central nervous system adaptions. Prior studies on the effects of exercise training on cerebral perfusion have focused largely on elderly cohorts or patient cohorts, while perfusion effects of exercise training in young sedentary adults have not yet been fully assessed. Therefore, the present study examined the physiological consequence of a 6-month endurance exercise training on brain perfusion in 28 young sedentary adults randomly assigned to an intervention group (IG; regular physical exercise) or a control group (CG; without physical exercise). The IG performed an extensive running interval training three times per week over 6 months. Performance diagnostics and MRI were performed every 2 months, and training intensity was adapted individually. Brain perfusion measurements with pseudo-continuous arterial spin labeling were analyzed using the standard Oxford ASL pipeline. A significant interaction effect between group and time was found for right superior temporal gyrus (STG) perfusion, driven by an increase in the IG and a decrease in the CG. Furthermore, a significant time effect was observed in the right middle occipital region in the IG only. Perfusion increases in the right STG, in the ventral striatum, and in primary motor areas were significantly associated with increases in maximum oxygen uptake (VO_2max). Overall, this study identified region-specific increases in local perfusion in a cohort of young adults that partly correlated with individual performance increases, hence, suggesting exercise dose dependency. Respective adaptations in brain perfusion are discussed in the context of physical exercise-induced vascular plasticity.

Is there a relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and executive performance as function of mental workload in young adults?

In the current study, we have decided to investigate the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and executive functions in young adults as a function of mental workload. To achieve our objectives, we have solicited 29 young adults (18–25 years; 12 women) who have first realized the Random Number Generation (RNG) task with two levels of complexity. After each level of complexity, the participants were asked to report on their perceived difficulty. Secondly, participants performed the RABIT® test, during which oxygen consumption was measured through the Metamax 3B-R2. The results showed that executive performance and perceived difficulty deteriorate with increasing task complexity. Additionally, oxygen consumption increased significantly to reach a peak during the hardest phase of the RABIT® test. Finally, as in previous studies, we could not observe a correlation between cardiorespiratory fitness and executive functions. Our findings support the lack of a direct relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and executive functions. Future studies should explore the relationship between the composite measure of executive function, hemodynamic activity, and cardiorespiratory fitness in healthy youth and their peers with cardiovascular disease. This will examine an indirect effect of Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) on Executive functions (EFs) through brain activity.

Association Between Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Consumption and Executive Function Among Chinese Tibetan Adolescents at High Altitude

Objective

To estimate the association between sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) consumption and executive function (EF) among Chinese Tibetan adolescents.

Method

Using three stages by stratified cluster sampling, 1,427 Chinese Tibetan adolescents were recruited from Tibet, China. SSB consumption status was obtained by questionnaires and the three core EFs (inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility) were tested by a modified Eriksen flanker task, N-back shift, and a more-odd shifting task. One-way ANOVA or Chi-square test was used to compare SSB consumption in different categories. Taking the SSB consumption 0 time/week group as the reference, general linear regression (for continuous variable) or Logical regression (classified variable) in three Models was conducted to analyze the relationship between SSB consumption and EF for Chinese Tibetan children and adolescents.

Result

After adjustment of all the covariant in Model 2, all the EF indexes were higher in Chinese Tibetan adolescents with SSB consumption ≥2 times/week than that with SSB consumption of 0 times/week by 21.33 ms (95%CI: 6.72, 35.93), 8.21 ms (95%CI: 7.06, 9.35), 90.46 ms (95%CI: 28.69, 152.23), 147.61 ms (95%CI: 81.42, 213.80), 116.18 ms (95%CI: 74.48, 157.87), 112.41 ms (95%CI: 71.30, 153.52) for incongruent RT, RT difference in incongruent and congruent, 1-back RT, 2-back RT, Heterogeneous RT, RT difference in Heterogeneous and Homogeneous respectively.

Conclusions

The results suggested that SSB consumption was associated with poorer EF in Chinese Tibetan adolescents. SSB consumption should be controlled for healthy brain development of Chinese Tibetan adolescents.

The Potential Advantages of Tai Chi Chuan in Promoting Inhibitory Control and Spontaneous Neural Activity in Young Adults

Tai Chi Chuan (TCC) is assumed to exert beneficial effects on functional brain activity and cognitive function in elders. Until now, empirical evidence of TCC induced intra-regional spontaneous neural activity and inhibitory control remains inconclusive. Whether the effect of TCC is better than that of other aerobic exercises is still unknown, and the role of TCC in younger adults is not yet fully understood. Here we used resting-state functional MRI (fMRI) to investigate the effects of 8-week TCC (n = 12) and brisk walking (BW, n = 12) on inhibitory control and fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (fALFF). The results found that TCC had significant effects on inhibitory control performance and spontaneous neural activity that were associated with significantly increased fALFF in the left medial superior frontal gyrus (Cohen's d = 1.533) and the right fusiform gyrus (Cohen's d = 1.436) and decreased fALFF in the right dorsolateral superior frontal gyrus (Cohen's d = 1.405) and the right paracentral lobule (Cohen's d = 1.132).TCC exhibited stronger effects on spontaneous neural activity than the BW condition, as reflected in significantly increased fALFF in the left medial superior frontal gyrus (Cohen's d = 0.862). There was a significant positive correlation between the increase in fALFF in the left medial superior frontal gyrus and the enhancement in inhibitory control performance. The change in fALFF in the left medial superior frontal gyrus was able to explain the change in inhibitory control performance induced by TCC. In conclusion, our results indicated that 8 weeks of TCC intervention could improve processing efficiency related to inhibitory control and alter spontaneous neural activity in young adults, and TCC had potential advantages over BW intervention for optimizing spontaneous neural activity.