The Chemotaxonomy of Common Sage (Salvia officinalis) Based on the Volatile Constituents

Evaluation of the yield, chemical composition and biological properties of essential oil from bioreactor-grown cultures of Salvia apiana microshoots

Microshoot cultures of the North American endemic Salvia apiana were established for the first time and evaluated for essential oil production. Stationary cultures, grown on Schenk-Hildebrandt (SH) medium, supplemented with 0.22 mg/L thidiazuron (TDZ), 2.0 mg/L 6-benzylaminopurine and 3.0% (w/v) sucrose, accumulated 1.27% (v/m dry weight) essential oil, consisting mostly of 1,8-cineole, β-pinene, α-pinene, β-myrcene and camphor. The microshoots were adapted to agitated culture, showing biomass yields up to ca. 19 g/L. Scale-up studies demonstrated that S. spiana microshoots grow well in temporary immersion systems (TIS). In the RITA bioreactor, up to 19.27 g/L dry biomass was obtained, containing 1.1% oil with up to ca. 42% cineole content. The other systems employed, i.e. Plantform (TIS) and a custom made spray bioreactor (SGB), yielded ca. 18 and 19 g/L dry weight, respectively. The essential oil content of Plantform and SGB-grown microshoots was comparable to RITA bioreactor, however, the content of cineole was substantially higher (ca. 55%). Oil samples isolated from in vitro material proved to be active in acetylcholinesterase (up to 60.0% inhibition recorded for Plantform-grown microshoots), as well as hyaluronidase and tyrosinase-inhibitory assays (up to 45.8 and 64.5% inhibition observed in the case of the SGB culture).

Antibacterial Potential of Microwave-Assisted Extraction Prepared Hydrolates from Different Salvia Species

Salvia is a widely used herb that also contains essential oils and other valuable compounds. In this work, the hydrolates of five Salvia sp. were evaluated for their potential antimicrobial and antioxidant activity against four bacterial strains. The hydrolates were obtained from fresh leaves by microwave-assisted extraction. Chemical composition analysis by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry revealed that their major constituents were isopulegol (38.2-57.1%), 1,8-cineole (4.7-19.6%), and thujone (5.6-14.1%). The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the plant hydrolates was tested by the microdilution method at concentrations ranging from 1.0 to 512 μg/mL. The hydrolates prepared from Salvia officinalis and S. sclarea showed inhibitory activity on the tested Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, taxon Salvia nemorosa showed inhibitory activity only partially. The hydrolate of S. divinorum had practically no antibacterial effect. Enterobacter asburiae was the only bacterium for which we found sensitivity to the hydrolate of S. aethiopis, with a MIC50 value of 216.59 µL/mL. The antioxidant activity of the hydrolates was low, ranging from 6.4 to 23.3%. Therefore, salvia hydrolates could be used as antimicrobial agents in medicine, cosmetics, and food preservation.

Plant Essential Oils as Healthy Functional Ingredients of Nutraceuticals and Diet Supplements: A Review

Essential oils (EOs) are mixtures of volatile molecules endowed with health-promoting biological activities that go beyond their role as aromas and natural preservatives and can be exploited to develop functional foods and diet supplements. Their composition is briefly addressed along with regulatory aspects. The potential health benefit of human diet supplementation with EOs is outlined through a review of the recent literature on available clinical trials and preclinical research concerning EOs activity towards: (1) irritable bowel syndrome; (2) inflammatory bowel disease; (3) regulation of microbiota; (4) gastroprotection; (5) hepatoprotection; (6) protection of the urinary tract and diuresis; (7) management of metabolic disorders including hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia; (8) anti-inflammatory and pain control; (9) immunomodulation and protection from influenza; and (10) neuroprotection and modulation of mood and cognitive performance. The emerging potential in such activities of selected EOs is given focus, particularly green and black cumin, bergamot, orange, myrtle, peppermint, sage, eucalyptus, lavender, thyme, lemon balm, ginger, and garlic.

GC-MS and LC-DAD-MS Phytochemical Profiling for Characterization of Three Native Salvia Taxa from Eastern Mediterranean with Antiglycation Properties

Salvia fruticosa and S. pomifera subsp. calycina are native to Eastern Mediterranean and S. pomifera subsp. pomifera is endemic to Greece. The primary aim of this study was to develop an analytical methodology for metabolomic profiling and to study their efficacy in combating glycation, the major biochemical complication of diabetes. After sequential ultrasound-assisted extraction of 2 g of leaves with petroleum ether and 70% methanol, the volatile metabolites in the petroleum ether extracts were studied with GC-MS (Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry), whereas the polar metabolites in the hydroalcoholic extracts were determined and quantified by UHPLC-DAD-ESI-MS (Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Diode Array Detector-Mass Spectrometry). This methodology was applied to five populations belonging to the three native taxa. 1,8-Cineole was the predominant volatile (34.8-39.0%) in S. fruticosa, while S. pomifera had a greater content of α-thujone (19.7-41.0%) and β-thujone (6.0-39.1%). Principal Component Analysis (PCA) analysis of the volatiles could discriminate the different taxa. UHPLC-DAD-ESI-MS demonstrated the presence of 50 compounds, twenty of which were quantified. PCA revealed that not only the taxa but also the populations of S. pomifera subsp. pomifera could be differentiated. All Salvia samples inhibited advanced glycation end-product formation in a bovine serum albumin/2-deoxyribose assay; rosmarinic and carnosic acid shared this activity. This study demonstrates the antiglycation activity of S. fruticosa and S. pomifera extracts for the first time and presents a miniaturized methodology for their metabolomic profiling, which could aid chemotaxonomic studies and serve as a tool for their authentication and quality control.

Hydrosols of Veronica Species-Natural Source of Free Volatile Compounds with Potential Pharmacological Interest

In this study, free volatile compounds (FVCs) were isolated from the water fractions (hydrosols) of 10 Croatian Veronica species obtained by hydrodistillation (HD) and microwave-assisted extraction (MAE). The use of different isolation techniques is important for the analysis of the influence of extraction conditions on the qualitative and quantitative composition of the isolated constituents. The composition of the hydrosols was analyzed using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. The compounds β-ionone and benzene acetaldehyde were detected in all 10 Veronica hydrosols studied. E-caryophyllene was also identified in all isolates except the MAE isolate of V. arvensis L. Caryophyllene oxide was isolated in all isolates apart from the HD isolate of V. catenata Pennell. (E)-β-Damascenone is significantly present in all isolates except the MAE isolates of V. catanata and V. cymbalaria Bodard. In these two species, α-muurolol was identified in a high percentage. The same basic phytochemical constituents and compounds characteristic of a given Veronica species suggest the importance of further research. Antioxidant activity was tested for all extracts using two methods, ORAC and DPPH. Therefore, it is crucial to identify as many specialized metabolites from Veronica species as possible, especially hydrosols, which are natural products of potential pharmacological interest.

An Overview of Herbal-Based Antidiabetic Drug Delivery Systems: Focus on Lipid- and Inorganic-Based Nanoformulations

Diabetes is a metabolic pathology with chronic high blood glucose levels that occurs when the pancreas does not produce enough insulin or the body does not properly use the insulin it produces. Diabetes management is a puzzle and focuses on a healthy lifestyle, physical exercise, and medication. Thus far, the condition remains incurable; management just helps to control it. Its medical treatment is expensive and is to be followed for the long term, which is why people, especially from low-income countries, resort to herbal medicines. However, many active compounds isolated from plants (phytocompounds) are poorly bioavailable due to their low solubility, low permeability, or rapid elimination. To overcome these impediments and to alleviate the cost burden on disadvantaged populations, plant nanomedicines are being studied. Nanoparticulate formulations containing antidiabetic plant extracts or phytocompounds have shown promising results. We herein aimed to provide an overview of the use of lipid- and inorganic-based nanoparticulate delivery systems with plant extracts or phytocompounds for the treatment of diabetes while highlighting their advantages and limitations for clinical application. The findings from the reviewed works showed that these nanoparticulate formulations resulted in high antidiabetic activity at low doses compared to the corresponding plant extracts or phytocompounds alone. Moreover, it was shown that nanoparticulate systems address the poor bioavailability of herbal medicines, but the lack of enough preclinical and clinical pharmacokinetic and/or pharmacodynamic trials still delays their use in diabetic patients.

In Silico Study for Algerian Essential Oils as Antimicrobial Agents against Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria Isolated from Pus Samples

In the context of the globally growing problem of resistance to most used antibacterial agents, essential oils offer promising solutions against multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacterial pathogens. The present study aimed to evaluate the prevalence, etiology, and antibiotic-resistance profiles of bacteria responsible for pyogenic infections in Regional Military University Hospital of Constantine. Disc diffusion and broth microdilution (MIC) methods were used to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of essential oils from five Algerian aromatic plants growing wild in the north of Algeria-Salvia officinalis (Sage), Thymus vulgaris (Thyme), Mentha pulegium L. (Mentha), Rosmarinus officinalis (Rosemary), and Pelargonium roseum (Geranium)-against reference and MDR strains. During three months of the prospective study, 112 isolates out of 431 pus samples were identified. Staphylococcus aureus was the most predominant species (25%), followed by Klebsiella pneumoniae (21.42%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (21%), and Escherichia coli (17.95%). Among pus isolates, 65 were MDR (58.03%). The radial streak-line assay showed that R. officinalis and M. pulegium L. had weak activity against the tested strains, whereas P. roseum showed no activity at all. Meanwhile, T. vulgaris was the most potent, with an inhibition zone of 12-26 mm and an MIC value ranging between 0.25 and 1.25%, followed by S. officinalis with an inhibition zone of 8-12 mm and an MIC value ranging between 0.62 and 2.5%. Generally, A. baumannii and S. aureus ATCC6538P were the most sensitive strains, whereas P. aeruginosa ATCC27853 was the most resistant strain to the oils. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of chemical composition revealed the presence of borneol (76.42%) and thymol (17.69%) as predominant in thyme, whereas camphor (36.92%) and α- thujone (34.91%) were the major volatiles in sage. The in-silico study revealed that sesquiterpenes and thymol had the highest binding free energies against the vital enzymes involved in biosynthesis and repair of cell walls, proteins, and nucleic acids compared to monoterpenes. The results demonstrated that T. vulgaris and S. officinalis are ideal candidates for developing future potentially active remedies against MDR strains.

White Sage (Salvia apiana)-a Ritual and Medicinal Plant of the Chaparral: Plant Characteristics in Comparison with Other Salvia Species

Salvia apiana, commonly known as white sage, is an aromatic evergreen subshrub of the chaparral, commonly found in coastal plains in California and Baja California. It has been traditionally used by the Chumash people as a ritual and medicinal plant and used as a calmative, a diuretic, and a remedy for the common cold. However, until recently, relatively little has been known about the composition and biological activity of white sage. Phytochemical studies on S. apiana revealed the presence of substantial amounts of essential oil, accompanied by a variety of triterpenes, C23 terpenoids, diterpenes, and flavonoids. Extracts of the plant have been shown to exhibit antioxidative, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic effects. The influence of white sage constituents on the nervous system, including GABA, opioid, and cannabinoid receptors, has also been documented. The review aimed to compile information on the taxonomy, botany, chemical composition, and biological activities of S. apiana. White sage was compared with other representatives of the genus in terms of chemical composition. The differences and similarities between S. apiana and other sage species were noted and discussed in the context of their therapeutic applications. Reports on ethnomedicinal uses of white sage were confronted with reports on chemistry, bioactivity, and bioavailability of S. apiana constituents. Finally, a critical assessment of the available data was made and perspectives for the use of white sage preparations in modern phytomedicine were discussed.

Non-Volatile and Volatile Bioactives of Salvia officinalis L., Thymus serpyllum L. and Laurus nobilis L. Extracts with Potential Use in the Development of Functional Beverages

Functional beverages based on herbal extracts are highly demanded products due to the presence of bioactives with promising health benefits and interesting and characteristic sensory properties. Mediterranean medicinal and aromatic herbs contain a wide range of bioactives (non-volatile polyphenols, volatile terpenes) that are important constituents of herbal extracts and essential oils. The antioxidant capacity and potential health benefits of these bioactives could be associated with their synergistic effects. Therefore, this study aimed to characterize the non-volatile and volatile bioactives of sage (Salvia officinalis L.), wild thyme (Thymus serpyllum L.) and laurel (Laurus nobilis L.) aqueous extracts and their two- and three-component mixtures as well as their antioxidant capacity. The content of total phenols, flavonoids, hydroxycinnamic acids and flavonols was determined spectrophotometrically. Individual polyphenols were analyzed by LC-MS/MS, the volatiles were analyzed by HS-SPME/GC-MS, and the antioxidant capacity was analyzed by ORAC and DPPH assays. The results showed that aqueous extracts of all examined herbs and their mixtures contained a high content of phenolic compounds ranging from 0.97 to 2.79 g L^-1 of the sample, among which the most common were flavonols. At the same time, mono- and sesquiterpenes were the main volatiles. All extracts showed high antioxidant capacity, especially L. nobilis (781.62 ± 5.19 μmol TE mL^-1 of the sample in the DPPH assay; 1896.10 ± 8.77 μmol TE mL^-1 of the sample in the ORAC assay) and the two-component mixture of L. nobilis and T. serpyllum (679.12 ± 5.19 μmol TE mL^-1 in the DPPH assay; 1913.38 ± 8.77 μmol TE mL^-1 in the ORAC assay). Mixtures of herbal extracts have been shown to possess additive or synergistic effects, consequently contributing to higher antioxidant capacity. Therefore, two-component mixtures of herbal extracts showed promising potential for the production of functional beverages.

Sperm flow cytometric parameters, antioxidant status, and testicular histomorphology in roosters fed diets supplemented with camphor

Genetic selection based on the high growth rate and consequently high slaughter weight in broiler chickens has caused many problems in broiler breeders. A negative correlation between growth and reproductive traits has declined semen quality and fertility in roosters. The present study aimed to evaluate the effects of camphor levels on some reproductive parameters included semen parameters, antioxidant status, and testicular development in broiler breeder roosters. Thirty-five ROSS 308 broiler breeder roosters were divided into 5 groups to receive camphor (C) levels: C0, C50, C250, C750, and C1000 ppm for 12 consecutive weeks (31–43 wk). Body weight, seminal volume, sperm concentration, and percentage of live and morphologically normal sperm were not affected by diets (P > 0.05), however, significantly were changed by bird age over the experiment (P < 0.05). Semen quality factor (SQF) significantly was affected by both diets and age (P < 0.05). Mitochondrial activity, apoptotic-like changes, and DNA fragmentation were improved in the groups fed camphor levels compared to the control group (P < 0.05). Testes weight (left, right, and combined weights) and gonadosomatic index were increased linearly by the camphor supplementation (P < 0.05). The serum activity of glutathione peroxidase (GP_X) was not affected by treatments, however, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, ferric ion reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity were significantly higher in C50, C250, and C750, respectively (P < 0.05). The lower malondialdehyde (MDA) content in the testes and liver samples was observed in C750 (P < 0.05). Excluding the number of Sertoli cells and blood vessels, other histomorphological traits of testes showed one of the linear or quadratic responses to the camphor levels (P < 0.05). It can be concluded that camphor as an antioxidant source may improve reproduction performance in roosters.

Salvia officinalis L. Essential Oil: Characterization, Antioxidant Properties, and the Effects of Aromatherapy in Adult Patients

The purpose of this study is to reveal the chemical and biochemical characteristics and the potential aromatherapy applications of the essential oil (EO) of Salvia officinalis (common sage) within a hospital environment. The chemical composition was determined by gas chromatography with mass spectrometry and ATR-FTIR spectroscopy. Three types of sage EOs were included in this study: two commercial oils and one oil obtained by in-house hydrodistillation. Based on the findings, these EOs were included in different chemotypes. The first two samples were similar to the most common chemotype (α-thujone > camphor > 1,8-cineole > β-thujone), while the in-house sage EO revealed a high content of 1,8-cineole, borneol, α-thujone, similar to the Dalmatian type. The latter sample was selected to be evaluated for its antioxidant and medical effects, as borneol, a bicyclic monoterpene, is known as a substance with anesthetic and analgesic effects in traditional Asian medicine. The study suggests that the antioxidant capacity of the sage EO is modest (33.61% and 84.50% inhibition was determined by DPPH and ABTS assays, respectively), but also that the inhalation of sage EO with high borneol content by hospitalized patients could improve these patients’ satisfaction.

Anti-Salmonella and Antibiofilm Potency of Salvia officinalis L. Essential Oil against Antibiotic-Resistant Salmonella enterica

Raw milk is a significant vehicle for the transmission of different infections. In the present study, we focused on Salmonella enterica from raw milk and its resistance to various antibacterial drugs. Furthermore, we have investigated the antimicrobial and antibiofilm effects of essential oil (EO) obtained from Salvia officinalis L. leaves that were collected from the Aljouf region, Saudi Arabia, against S. enterica. One-dozen strains of S. enterica were found in a batch of a hundred milk samples, and those S. enterica strains were shown to be resistant to several antibiotics, particularly the β-lactam group of antimicrobial drugs. Against multidrug-resistant S. enterica, the inhibitory zones for EO from S. officinalis leaves were found to be 21 mm in diameter. S. officinalis EO at 5% concentration showed a remarkable in vitro inhibitory activity toward the biofilm growth of different S. enterica isolates. Analysis of EO by GC-MS identified 21 distinct components, accounting for 89.94% of the total oil component. The most prominent compounds were 1,8-cineole (39.18%), β-caryophyllene (12.8%), and α--terpineol (10.3%). Taken together, our results unequivocally confirm that the S. officinalis EOs exert numerous bioactivities. Thus, the well-deserved attention on S. officinalis EO usage as a food preservative and adjunctive remedy for bacterial food-borne diseases is justified.

Hydrodistillation and Microwave Extraction of Volatile Compounds: Comparing Data for Twenty-One Veronica Species from Different Habitats

Free volatile compounds were isolated from 21 Croatian Veronica species studied by hydrodistillation (HD) and microwave extraction (ME) and analyzed by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) distinguished some clusters based on the relative proportion of major compounds, such as hexadecanoic acid, hexahydrofarnesyl acetone, phytol, E-caryophyllene, and caryophyllene oxide, which were identified in all species studied by both isolation methods. In addition to these compounds, germacrene D, δ-selinene, and eicosane were also identified in five samples from dry habitats isolated using ME. Allo-aromadendrene and β-ionone are particularly abundant in five species from wet habitats isolated by both methods. The peculiarities of Veronica species from moderate habitats isolated with HD are benzene acetaldehyde, n-nonanal, and the identification of significant compounds from the hydrocarbon class, while the peculiarity of ME is (E)-β-damascenone. In this article, we present new results on the phytochemical characterization of Veronica species from different habitats. The biological potential of these compounds should be further investigated for a better understanding and utilization of the specialized plant metabolites.

Comparative Antioxidant, Anti-Acetylcholinesterase and Anti-α-Glucosidase Activities of Mediterranean Salvia Species

Salvia species have a cosmopolitan distribution and comprise several well-known plants valuable for pharmaceutical and food industries due to their recognized medicinal, food flavouring, and preservative properties. The present study aimed to evaluate and compare the biological activities of seven wild-growing Salvia species from the Mediterranean area (S. fruticosa, S. glutinosa, S. nemorosa, S. officinalis, S. pratensis, S. sclarea, S. verticillata). All studied ethanolic leaf extracts exhibited significant DPPH and NO radical scavenging ability, lipid peroxidation inhibition, and reducing power, as well as moderate iron-chelating properties. Together with S. officinalis and S. fruticosa, S. verticillata showed anti-acetylcholinesterase activity, while S. glutinosa was also found to possess the ability to inhibit α-glucosidase. Total flavonoid (0.37-0.90%), phenolic acid (3.55-12.44%), tannin (1.22-2.60%), and anthocyanin contents (0.03-0.08%) were determined in Salvia leaves. Rosmarinic acid was the predominant hydroxycinnamic acid in all studied sage plants, ranging from 9400 to 38,800 μg/g. The correlation study showed a strong relationship between biological activities and contents of total phenolic acids, total tannins, and rosmarinic acid, indicating their significant contribution to the efficiency of tested Salvia species. Our results highlighted Mediterranean sage plants as rich sources of potent antioxidant, neuroprotective, and hypoglycemic agents which are worthy of further research.

Hydrosols from Rosmarinus officinalis, Salvia officinalis, and Cupressus sempervirens: Phytochemical Analysis and Bioactivity Evaluation

The present work evaluates the aromatic waters of rosemary (Salvia rosmarinus Spenn. syn. Rosmarinus officinalis L.), sage (Salvia officinalis L.), and cypress (Cupressus sempervirens L.) obtained as innovative commercial products of a hydrodistillation process. All extracts were exhaustively analysed by GC-MS, ¹H-NMR, and LC-MS in order to evaluate potential metabolite fingerprint differences. GC-MS appears to be the most exhaustive technique for the qualitative identification of the single constituents, although in this case, the use of ¹H-NMR and LC-MS techniques allowed some useful considerations in semi-quantitative terms. Antimycotic effects were studied against Tricophyton, Candida, and Arthroderma species, resulting in weak activity. The toxicological impact was partly evaluated in vitro by means of allelopathy and brine shrimp lethality. Cytotoxicity was investigated in human colon cancer cells (HCT116) and in hypothalamic cells (Hypo-E22) challenged with hydrogen peroxide. Sage and rosemary hydrosols were the most effective antimycotics, whereas all hydrosols displayed antiradical effects. Cytotoxic effects against HCT116 cells (at 500 µL/mL) were related in silico to the endovanilloid TRPM8 and TRPV1 receptors. At lower concentrations (5-50 µL/mL), the hydrosols protected hypothalamic neurons Hypo-E22 cells from hydrogen peroxide-induced toxicity. The overall experience indicates that hydrolates are an important source of relevant phytochemicals with significant pharmacological potential.

Exploring Pharmacological Mechanisms of Essential Oils on the Central Nervous System

Essential oils (EOs) have been traditionally used as ancient remedies to treat many health disorders due to their enormous biological activities. As mainstream allopathic medication currently used for CNS disorders is associated with adverse effects, the search to obtain safer alternatives as compared to the currently marketed therapies is of tremendous significance. Research conducted suggests that concurrent utilization of allopathic medicines and EOs is synergistically beneficial. Due to their inability to show untoward effects, various scientists have tried to elucidate the pharmacological mechanisms by which these oils exert beneficial effects on the CNS. In this regard, our review aims to improve the understanding of EOs' biological activity on the CNS and to highlight the significance of the utilization of EOs in neuronal disorders, thereby improving patient acceptability of EOs as therapeutic agents. Through data compilation from library searches and electronic databases such as PubMed, Google Scholar, etc., recent preclinical and clinical data, routes of administration, and the required or maximal dosage for the observation of beneficial effects are addressed. We have also highlighted the challenges that require attention for further improving patient compliance, research gaps, and the development of EO-based nanomedicine for targeted therapy and pharmacotherapy.

Sage, Salvia officinalis L., Constituents, Hepatoprotective Activity, and Cytotoxicity Evaluations of the Essential Oils Obtained from Fresh and Differently Timed Dried Herbs: A Comparative Analysis

Sage, Salvia officinalis L., is used worldwide as an aromatic herb for culinary purposes as well as a traditional medicinal agent for various ailments. Current investigations exhibited the effects of extended dryings of the herb on the yields, composition, oil quality, and hepatoprotective as well as anti-cancer biological activities of the hydrodistillation-obtained essential oils from the aerial parts of the plant. The essential oils’ yields, compositions, and biological activities levels of the fresh and differently timed and room-temperature dried herbs differed significantly. The lowest yields of the essential oil were obtained from the fresh herbs (FH, 631 mg, 0.16%), while the highest yield was obtained from the two-week dried herbs (2WDH, 1102 mg, 0.28%). A notable decrease in monoterpenes, with increment in the sesquiterpene constituents, was observed for the FH-based essential oil as compared to all the other batches of the essential oils obtained from the different-timed dried herbs. Additionally, characteristic chemotypic constituents of sage, i.e., α-pinene, camphene, β-pinene, myrcene, 1, 8-cineole, α-thujone, and camphor, were present in significantly higher proportions in all the dried herbs’ essential oils as compared to the FH-based essential oil. The in vivo hepatoprotective activity demonstrated significant reductions in the levels of AST, ALT, and ALP, as well as a significant increase in the total protein (p < 0.05) contents level, as compared to the acetaminophen (AAP) administered experimental group of rats. A significant reduction (p < 0.05) in the ALT level was demonstrated by the 4WDH-based essential oil in comparison to the FH-based essential oil. The levels of creatinine, cholesterol, and triglycerides were reduced (p < 0.05) in the pre-treated rats by the essential oil batches, with non-significant differences found among them as a result of the herbs dryings based oils. A notable increase in the viability of the cells, and total antioxidant capacity (TAOxC) levels, together with the reduction in malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were observed by the essential oils obtained from all the batches as compared with the AAP-treated cell-lines, HepG-2, HeLa, and MCF-7, that indicated the in vitro hepatoprotective effects of the sage essential oils. However, significant improvements in the in vivo and in vitro hepatoprotective activities with the 4WDH-based oil, as compared to all other essential oil-batches and silymarin standard demonstrated the beneficial effects of the drying protocol for the herb for its medicinal purposes.

Laurus nobilis, Salvia sclarea and Salvia officinalis Essential Oils and Hydrolates: Evaluation of Liquid and Vapor Phase Chemical Composition and Biological Activities

Laurus nobilis, Salvia officinalis and Salvia sclarea essential oils (EOs) and hydrolates (HYs) were investigated to define their chemical compositions and biological properties. Gas-chromatography/Mass-spectrometry (GC/MS) and Headspace-GC/MS (HS-GC/MS) techniques were used to characterize the liquid and vapor phase chemical composition of EOs and HYs. 1,8-Cineole (42.2%, 33.5%) and α-pinene (16.7%, 39.0%) were the main compounds of L. nobilis EO; 1,8-cineole (30.3%, 48.4%) and camphor (17.1%, 8.7%) were for S. officinalis EO; linalyl acetate (62.6%, 30.1%) and linalool (11.1%, 28.9%) were for S. sclarea EO for the liquid and vapor phase, respectively. Chemical profile of HYs was characterized by 1,8-cineole (65.1%, 61.4%) as a main constituent of L. nobilis and S. officinalis HYs, while linalool (89.5%) was the main constituent of S. sclarea HY. The antioxidant activity of EOs and HYs was carried out by DPPH and ABTS assays and antimicrobial properties were also investigated by microdilution and the disc diffusion method for liquid and vapor phase against five different bacterial strains such as Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Pseudomonas fluorescens ATCC 13525 and Acinetobacter bohemicus DSM 102855 among Gram-negative and Bacillus cereus ATCC 10876 and Kocuria marina DSM 16420 among Gram-positive. L. nobilis and S. officinalis EOs demonstrated considerable antibacterial activity, while S. sclarea EO proved to be less effective. Agar diffusion method and vapor phase test showed the EOs activity with the biggest halo inhibition diameters against A. bohemicus and B. cereus. A remarkably high antioxidant activity was determined for L. nobilis showing low EC₅₀ values and also for S. sclarea; good EO results were obtained in both of the used assays. S. officinalis EC₅₀ values were slightly higher to which corresponds to a lower antioxidant activity. Concerning the HYs, the EC₅₀ values for L. nobilis, S. officinalis and S. sclarea were remarkably high corresponding to an extremely low antioxidant activity, as also obtained by expressing the values in Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC).

Potential Application of Some Lamiaceae Species in the Management of Diabetes

Diabetes is one of the most dangerous metabolic disorders, with high rates of mortality worldwide. Since ancient times, medicinal plants have been used in traditional medicine to treat many diseases, including diabetes and its related complications. Plants are widely accepted, affordable, and perceived to have minimal adverse side effects. The Lamiaceae family is a potential source of therapeutic agents for the management of metabolic disorders, including diabetes. Hence, this review paper summarizes the antidiabetic use of Lamiaceae species in folk medicine globally. Furthermore, we present the antidiabetic activities and phytochemical constituents of twenty-three (23) Lamiaceae species and the antidiabetic activity of some notable chemical constituents isolated from some of these Lamiaceae species.

Sage Species Case Study on a Spontaneous Mediterranean Plant to Control Phytopathogenic Fungi and Bacteria

Sage species belong to the family of Labiatae/Lamiaceae and are diffused worldwide. More than 900 species of sage have been identified, and many of them are used for different purposes, i.e., culinary uses, traditional medicines and natural remedies and cosmetic applications. Another use of sage is the application of non-distilled sage extracts and essential oils to control phytopathogenic bacteria and fungi, for a sustainable, environmentally friendly agriculture. Biocidal propriety of non-distilled extracts and essential oils of sage are w documented. Antimicrobial effects of these sage extracts/essential oils depend on both sage species and bacteria and fungi species to control. In general, it is possible to choose some specific extracts/essential oils to control specific phytopathogenic bacteria or fungi. In this context, the use of nanotechnology techniques applied to essential oil from salvia could represent a future direction for improving the performance of eco-compatible and sustainable plant defence and represents a great challenge for the future.

Anti-virulence potential of basil and sage essential oils: Inhibition of biofilm formation, motility and pyocyanin production of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates

The effects of basil (Ocimum basilicum) and sage (Salvia officinalis) essential oils on selected virulence factors (biofilm formation, mature biofilm resistance, motility, and pyocyanin production) of Pseudomonas aeruginosa clinical isolates were evaluated in the present study for the first time. The two essential oils were chemically characterized by GC and GC-MS analyses. Linalool and (E)-anethole were found to be the main components of the investigated basil oil, while α-thujone and camphor were the major constituents of the studied sage essential oil. The oils inhibited biofilm formation up to 99.9% vs control, and significant reductions (74.7-99.9%) were also noted when the oils were applied to mature biofilms. Likewise, swimming, swarming, and twitching motility patterns were highly affected by both oils. The basil and sage oils reduced pyocyanin production by 13.32-55.6% and 5.0-58.7%, respectively. Thus, basil and sage essential oils are potentially highly efficient antipseudomonal agents that could be used against both acute and chronic infections.

Variability of composition of essential oil and coumarin compounds of Angelica archangelica L

The medicinal and culinary properties of Angelica archangelica L. have been known and valued since the Middle Ages. Ingredients of essential oil and coumarins found in this plant are to a large degree responsible for its pharmacological activity. This study is a review of the literature of the most important biologically active compounds present in herbal raw materials: root (rhizome with roots) and angelica fruits. Research shows that the content of individual compounds of the essential oil and coumarin fraction is variable, which may point to a large intraspecific variation. Therefore, these compounds may be good markers for identifying taxa or chemotypes in chemotaxonomic research valuable for the herbal medicine and pharmaceutical industry.

Current Advances on the Extraction and Identification of Bioactive Components of Sage (Salvia spp.)

Common sage (Salvia spp., with the most common species Salvia officinalis L., Lamiaceae) is an important medicinal and aromatic plant, with antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and anticancer properties. The polyphenolic compounds are mainly responsible for its diverse biological activity. Many different methods for extraction and identification of sage bioactive compounds, using various solvents, have been developed in recent years. The total phenolic content is usually measured and identified by various technical methodologies with different sensitivity and specificity. In this aspect, the present review is aimed to critically summarize and discuss various technical approaches for the extraction and identification of sage bioactive components in order to point out the more appropriate approaches of them.

Essential Oils as Antimicrobial Agents-Myth or Real Alternative?

Herbs and the essential oils derived from them have been used from the beginning of human history for different purposes. Their beneficial properties have been applied to mask unpleasant odors, attract the attention of other people, add flavor and aroma properties to prepared dishes, perfumes, and cosmetics, etc. Herbs and essential oils (EOs) have also been used in medicine because of their biological properties, such as larvicidal action, analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties, antioxidant, fungicide, and antitumor activities, and many more. Many EOs exhibit antimicrobial properties, which is extremely important in fields of science and industry, such as medicine, agriculture, or cosmetology. Among the 250 EOs which are commercially available, about a dozen possess high antimicrobial potential. According to available papers and patents, EOs seem to be a potential alternative to synthetic compounds, especially because of the resistance that has been increasingly developed by pathogenic microorganisms. In this review we summarize the latest research studies about the most-active EOs that are known and used because of their antimicrobial properties. Finally, it is noteworthy that the antimicrobial activities of EOs are not preeminent for all strains. Further investigations should, thus, focus on targeting EOs and microorganisms.

Bioactive Profile of Various Salvia officinalis L. Preparations

Salvia officinalis L., also known as the “Salvation Plant”, has been long used and well-documented in traditional medicine around the globe. Its bioactive compounds, and especially its polyphenol profile, have been extensively researched and reviewed. However, sage’s beneficial effects reach much further, and nowadays, with a range of new extraction techniques, we are discovering new components with new therapeutic effects, especially in the context of neurodegenerative diseases and various carcinomas. This review describes the bioactive profile of various sage preparations depending on the extraction techniques and extraction parameters, and this review lists the newest research findings on its health effects.

Hundred Fifty Years of Herbarium Collections Provide a Reliable Resource of Volatile Terpenoid Profiles Showing Strong Species Effect in Four Medicinal Species of Salvia Across the Mediterranean

Herbarium samples are increasingly being recognized for their potential in answering a wide range of research questions. However, the suitability of herbarium samples for chemical analysis is largely unexplored as they are thought to be too degraded. The aim of this study was to explore terpenoid profiles across time and geographic space for four medicinal species of Salvia across the Mediterranean to assess the suitability of using herbarium specimens in chemical analyses. Herbarium samples of Salvia aethiopis, S. multicaulis, S. officinalis, and S. sclarea collected over 150 years across the Mediterranean were compared to modern samples using both targeted and untargeted gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of terpene profiles. There was no effect of collection year on chemical composition, although the total concentration of the 20 assessed standards and two individual standards significantly decreased over time. Instead, chemical profiles were defined by species, with strong species effects identified on both the targeted and untargeted chemical composition. Geographic variation was a factor in regulating the untargeted chemical compositions, suggesting some underlying environmental effects. However, there was no effect of sample altitude on either the targeted or untargeted chemical compositions. Chemical composition of four Salvia species are predominantly defined by species, and there was a substantially smaller effect of year of sampling. Given these results herbarium collections may well represent a considerably underused resource for chemical analyses that can benefit biodiversity and other studies.