Heparin Binding Proteins as Therapeutic Target: An Historical Account and Current Trends

Iron Oxide Nanoparticle-Mediated mRNA Delivery to Hard-to-Transfect Cancer Cells

mRNA-based therapeutics have emerged as a promising strategy for cancer treatment. However, the effective delivery of mRNA into hard-to-transfect cancer cells remains a significant challenge. This study introduces a novel approach that utilizes iron oxide nanoparticles (NPs) synthesized through a layer-by-layer (LbL) method for safe and efficient mRNA delivery. The developed NPs consist of an iron oxide core modified with a thin charge-bearing layer, an mRNA middle layer, and an outer layer composed of perfluorinated polyethyleneimine with heparin (PPH), which facilitates efficient mRNA delivery. Through a comparative analysis of four nanoparticle delivery formulations, we investigated the effects of the iron oxide core's surface chemistry and surface charge on mRNA complexation, cellular uptake, and mRNA release. We identified an optimal and effective mRNA delivery platform, namely, (IOCCP)-mRNA-PPH, capable of transporting mRNA into various hard-to-transfect cancer cell lines in vitro. The (IOCCP)-mRNA-PPH formulation demonstrated significant enhancements in cellular internalization of mRNA, facilitated endosomal escape, enabled easy mRNA release, and exhibited minimal cytotoxicity. These findings suggest that (IOCCP)-mRNA-PPH holds great promise as a solution for mRNA therapy against hard-to-transfect cancers.

Discovery and Characteristics of a Novel Antitumor Cyclopeptide Derived from Shark

Peptides pose a challenge in drug development due to their short half-lives in vivo. In this study, we conducted in vitro degradation experiments on SAIF, which is a shark-derived peptide that we previously studied. The degradation fragments were sequenced and a truncated peptide sequence was identified. The truncated peptide was then cloned and expressed via the E. coli system with traceless cloning to form a novel cyclic peptide in vitro oxidation condition via the formation of a disulfide bond between the N- and C-termini, which was named ctSAIF. ctSAIF exhibited high anti-HCC activity and enhanced enzymatic stability in vitro, and retained antitumor activity and good biocompatibility in systemic circulation in a HCC xenograft model. Our study discovered and characterized a novel shark-derived cyclic peptide with antitumor activity, laying a foundation for its further development as an antitumor drug candidate. The study also provided a new solution for peptide drug development.

Pharmacology of Heparin and Related Drugs: An Update

Heparin has been used extensively as an antithrombotic and anticoagulant for close to 100 years. This anticoagulant activity is attributed mainly to the pentasaccharide sequence, which potentiates the inhibitory action of antithrombin, a major inhibitor of the coagulation cascade. More recently it has been elucidated that heparin exhibits anti-inflammatory effect via interference of the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps and this may also contribute to heparin's antithrombotic activity. This illustrates that heparin interacts with a broad range of biomolecules, exerting both anticoagulant and nonanticoagulant actions. Since our previous review, there has been an increased interest in these nonanticoagulant effects of heparin, with the beneficial role in patients infected with SARS2-coronavirus a highly topical example. This article provides an update on our previous review with more recent developments and observations made for these novel uses of heparin and an overview of the development status of heparin-based drugs. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This state-of-the-art review covers recent developments in the use of heparin and heparin-like materials as anticoagulant, now including immunothrombosis observations, and as nonanticoagulant including a role in the treatment of SARS-coronavirus and inflammatory conditions.

Enhanced Production of ECM Proteins for Pharmaceutical Applications Using Mammalian Cells and Sodium Heparin Supplementation

The yields of soluble ECM proteins recombinantly produced with mammalian cells can be significantly enhanced by exploiting the stabilizing properties of heparin. Here, we propose a simple and straightforward scalable protocol for the mammalian cell production of ECM proteins with affinity for heparin, using heparin as a supplement. As proof of concept, we have demonstrated the high-level expression of four biomedically relevant human enzymes such as carboxypeptidase Z (CPZ), carboxypeptidase A6 (CPA6), beta-galactoside alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase 2 (ST6GAL1) and thrombin-activable fibrinolysis inhibitor (TAFI). We found a strong linear correlation between the isoelectric point (pI) of a protein and the improvement in protein expression levels upon heparin addition, providing a reference for selecting novel protein targets that would benefit from heparin supplementation. Finally, we demonstrated the compatibility of this approach with a three-step purification strategy that includes an initial heparin affinity purification step. Using CPZ as a representative example, we performed a preparative purification of this enzyme. The purified protein is enzymatically active and can be used for pharmaceutical applications as well as for high-throughput functional and structural studies.

An extracellular matrix biosensing mimetic for evaluating cathepsin as a host target for COVID-19

To combat the new virus currently ravaging the whole world, every possible anti-virus strategy should be explored. As the main strategy of targeting the virus itself is being frustrated by the rapid mutation of the virus, people are seeking an alternative "host targeting" strategy: neutralizing proteins in the human body that cooperate with the virus. The cathepsin family is such a group of promising host targets, the main biological function of which is to digest the extracellular matrix (ECM) to clear a path for virus spreading. To evaluate the potential of cathepsin as a host target, we have constructed a biosensing interface mimicking the ECM, which can detect cathepsin from 3.3 pM to 33 nM with the limit of detection of 1 pM. Based on our quantitative analysis enabled by this biosensing interface, it is clear that patients with background diseases such as chronic inflammation and tumor, tend to have higher cathepsin activity, confirming the potential of cathepsin to serve as a host target for combating COVID-19 virus.

The Role of Excessive Anticoagulation and Missing Hyperinflammation in ECMO-Associated Bleeding

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) is increasingly used in carefully selected patients with cardiac or respiratory failure. However, complications are common and can be associated with worse outcomes, while data on risk factors and outcomes are inconsistent and sparse. Therefore, we sought to investigate potential risk factors and predictors of haemorrhage and adverse events during ECMO and its influence on mortality. We retrospectively reviewed all patients on ECMO support admitted to intensive care units of a tertiary university centre in Austria. In a period of ten years, ECMO support was used in 613 patients, with 321 patients meeting the inclusion criteria of this study. Haemorrhage, occurring in more than one third of the included patients (123, 38%), represented the most common and serious ECMO complication, being associated with an increased one year mortality (51% vs. 35%, p = 0.005). The main risk factors for haemorrhage were severity of the disease (hazard ratio (HR) = 1.01, p = 0.047), a prolonged activated partial thromboplastin time (HR = 1.01, p = 0.007), and lower values of C-reactive protein (HR = 0.96, p = 0.005) and procalcitonin (HR = 0.99, p = 0.029). In summary, haemorrhage remained the main ECMO complication with increased mortality. Moreover, we reported a possible association of lower inflammation and bleeding during ECMO support for the first time. This generated a new hypothesis that warrants further research. Finally, we recommend stricter monitoring of anticoagulation especially in patients without hyperinflammation.

Glycosoaminoglycans in cancer therapy

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are an important component of the tumor microenvironment (TME). GAGs can interact with a variety of binding partners and thereby influence cancer progression on multiple levels. GAGs can modulate growth factor and chemokine signaling, invasion and metastasis formation. Moreover, GAGs are able to change the physical property of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Abnormalities in GAG abundance and structure (e.g., sulfation patterns and molecular weight) are found across various cancer types and show biomarker potential. Targeting GAGs, as well as the usage of GAGs and their mimetics, are promising approaches to interfere with cancer progression. In addition, GAGs can be used as drug and cytokine carriers to induce an anti-tumor response. In this review, we summarize the role of GAGs in cancer and the potential use of GAGs and GAG derivatives to target cancer.

Complexation of CXCL12, FGF-2 and VEGF with Heparin Modulates the Protein Release from Alginate Microbeads

Long-term delivery of growth factors and immunomodulatory agents is highly required to support the integrity of tissue in engineering constructs, e.g., formation of vasculature, and to minimize immune response in a recipient. However, for proteins with a net positive charge at the physiological pH, controlled delivery from negatively charged alginate (Alg) platforms is challenging due to electrostatic interactions that can hamper the protein release. In order to regulate such interactions between proteins and the Alg matrix, we propose to complex proteins of interest in this study - CXCL12, FGF-2, VEGF - with polyanionic heparin prior to their encapsulation into Alg microbeads of high content of α-L-guluronic acid units (high-G). This strategy effectively reduced protein interactions with Alg (as shown by model ITC and SPR experiments) and, depending on the protein type, afforded control over the protein release for at least one month. The released proteins retained their in vitro bioactivity: CXCL12 stimulated the migration of Jurkat cells, and FGF-2 and VEGF induced proliferation and maturation of HUVECs. The presence of heparin also intensified protein biological efficiency. The proposed approach for encapsulation of proteins with a positive net charge into high-G Alg hydrogels is promising for controlled long-term protein delivery under in vivo conditions.

Osteogenic and Angiogenic Properties of Heparin as a System for Delivery of Biomolecules for Bone Bioengineering: a Brief Critical Review

The review considers complex, controversial, and individual effects of heparin and its derivatives on the bone and circulatory systems in dependence of the dose, the state of the cells and tissues of the recipient. General data on the anticoagulant activity of heparin and its derivatives are presented; special attention is paid to the effect of heparin on mesenchymal cells and tissues and its role in angiogenesis. We also discuss the ability of heparin to bind osteogenic and angiogenic biomolecules in the context of the development of systems for their delivery and sustained controlled release and propose a schematic representation of the positive and side effects of heparin as a delivery system for biomolecules in tissue engineering.

Glycosaminoglycans: Carriers and Targets for Tailored Anti-Cancer Therapy

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is composed of cancerous, non-cancerous, stromal, and immune cells that are surrounded by the components of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), natural biomacromolecules, essential ECM, and cell membrane components are extensively altered in cancer tissues. During disease progression, the GAG fine structure changes in a manner associated with disease evolution. Thus, changes in the GAG sulfation pattern are immediately correlated to malignant transformation. Their molecular weight, distribution, composition, and fine modifications, including sulfation, exhibit distinct alterations during cancer development. GAGs and GAG-based molecules, due to their unique properties, are suggested as promising effectors for anticancer therapy. Considering their participation in tumorigenesis, their utilization in drug development has been the focus of both industry and academic research efforts. These efforts have been developing in two main directions; (i) utilizing GAGs as targets of therapeutic strategies and (ii) employing GAGs specificity and excellent physicochemical properties for targeted delivery of cancer therapeutics. This review will comprehensively discuss recent developments and the broad potential of GAG utilization for cancer therapy.

[Osteogenic and angiogenic properties of heparin as a system of biomolecule delivery for bone bioengineering: a brief critical review]

The review discusses the complex, ambiguous and individual effects of heparin and its derivatives on the bone and circulatory systems, in dependence of the dosage, the state of the cells and tissues of recipients. General data on the anticoagulant activity of heparin and its derivatives are presented; aspects of the effect of heparin on mesenchymal cells and tissues and its role in angiogenesis are considered in details. Particular attention is paid to the ability of heparin to bind osteogenic and angiogenic biomolecules: thus us especially important for the development of systems for their delivery and sustained controlled release. A schematic representation of the positive and side effects of heparin as a delivery system for biomolecules in tissue engineering is proposed.

Lessons from dermatology about inflammatory responses in Covid-19

The SARS-Cov-2 is a single-stranded RNA virus composed of 16 non-structural proteins (NSP 1-16) with specific roles in the replication of coronaviruses. NSP3 has the property to block host innate immune response and to promote cytokine expression. NSP5 can inhibit interferon (IFN) signalling and NSP16 prevents MAD5 recognition, depressing the innate immunity. Dendritic cells, monocytes, and macrophages are the first cell lineage against viruses' infections. The IFN type I is the danger signal for the human body during this clinical setting. Protective immune responses to viral infection are initiated by innate immune sensors that survey extracellular and intracellular space for foreign nucleic acids. In Covid-19 the pathogenesis is not yet fully understood, but viral and host factors seem to play a key role. Important points in severe Covid-19 are characterized by an upregulated innate immune response, hypercoagulopathy state, pulmonary tissue damage, neurological and/or gastrointestinal tract involvement, and fatal outcome in severe cases of macrophage activation syndrome, which produce a 'cytokine storm'. These systemic conditions share polymorphous cutaneous lesions where innate immune system is involved in the histopathological findings with acute respiratory distress syndrome, hypercoagulability, hyperferritinemia, increased serum levels of D-dimer, lactic dehydrogenase, reactive-C-protein and serum A amyloid. It is described that several polymorphous cutaneous lesions similar to erythema pernio, urticarial rashes, diffuse or disseminated erythema, livedo racemosa, blue toe syndrome, retiform purpura, vesicles lesions, and purpuric exanthema or exanthema with clinical aspects of symmetrical drug-related intertriginous and flexural exanthema. This review describes the complexity of Covid-19, its pathophysiological and clinical aspects.

Blood Targets of Adjuvant Drugs Against COVID19

While waiting for the vaccine and/or the best treatment for COVID19, several drugs have been identified as potential adjuvant drugs to counteract the viral action. Several drugs, in fact, have been suggested for their ancillary antiviral role. Viral proteases and peptidases, may interact with well-known drugs such as anticoagulants, antihypertensives, antiserotoninergics and immunomodulants. We here report a basic list of these drugs that include bioflavonoids, heparinoids, ACE inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers, antiserotoninergics, and monoclonal antibodies against cytokines that may interact with the viral cycle.

Identification of Protein Recognition Elements within Heparin Chains Using Enzymatic Foot-Printing in Solution and Online SEC/MS

Understanding molecular mechanisms governing interactions of glycosaminoglycans (such as heparin) with proteins remains challenging due to their enormous structural heterogeneity. Commonly accepted approaches seek to reduce the structural complexity by searching for "binding epitopes" within the limited subsets of short heparin oligomers produced either enzymatically or synthetically. A top-down approach presented in this work seeks to preserve the chemical diversity displayed by heparin by allowing the longer and structurally diverse chains to interact with the client protein. Enzymatic lysis of the protein-bound heparin chains followed by the product analysis using size exclusion chromatography with online mass spectrometry detection (SEC/MS) reveals the oligomers that are protected from lysis due to their tight association with the protein, and enables their characterization (both the oligomer length, and the number of incorporated sulfate and acetyl groups). When applied to a paradigmatic heparin/antithrombin system, the new method generates a series of oligomers with surprisingly distinct sulfation levels. The extent of sulfation of the minimal-length binder (hexamer) is relatively modest yet persistent, consistent with the notion of six sulfate groups being both essential and sufficient for antithrombin binding. However, the masses of longer surviving chains indicate complete sulfation of disaccharides beyond the hexasaccharide core. Molecular dynamics simulations confirm the existence of favorable electrostatic interactions between the high charge-density saccharide residues flanking the "canonical" antithrombin-binding hexasaccharide and the positive patch on the surface of the overall negatively charged protein. Furthermore, electrostatics may rescue the heparin/protein interaction in the absence of the canonical binding element.