Chemistry and biological activities of terpenoids from copaiba (Copaifera spp.) oleoresins

Combined potential of copaifera officinalis oleoresin and chitosan against oral pathogens

Copaifera officinalis Oleoresin (COR) and Chitosan (CH) were combined to test the potential to inhibit oral bacteria. First, COR was analyzed by GC-MS to identify its main constituents and then Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) assays and Minimum Microbiocidal Concentration (MMC) of the compounds alone against 17 pathogens were performed. Sixteen primary compounds were identified in COR, but the major constituent was β-Caryophyllene (40.5%). COR showed MIC concentrations of 26.04 to 46.87 µg/mL and CH 0.1 mg/mL to 0.8 mg/mL. Second, the combination against oral bacteria strains was tested using a checkerboard test with the determination of Fractional Inhibitory Concentration (FIC) for synergistic effect, followed by the bacterial biofilm aggregation test using monospecies and mixed biofilm. The combination of COR and CH showed a synergistic effect for S. oralis (ATCC 10557) and an additive effect for the other strains tested, promoting bactericidal activity, as well as reducing the concentrations needed to cause bacterial inhibition. In addition, it showed good activity in inhibiting biofilm formation, with inhibition percentages close to Azithromycin. The results of this study highlight the synergistic potential of COR and CH combination as a promising strategy in the search for innovative antimicrobial therapies for infections related to oral bacterial biofilms.

Copaifera spp. oleoresins control Trypanosoma cruzi infection in human trophoblast cells (BeWo) and placental explants

Congenital Chagas disease (CCD) is a worldwide neglected problem with significant treatment limitations. This study aimed to evaluate the potential of Copaifera spp. oleoresins (ORs) against Trypanosoma cruzi infection in trophoblast cells (BeWo lineage) and human chorionic villous explants (HCVE). The cytotoxicity of ORs was investigated using LDH and MTT assays. T. cruzi (Y strain) proliferation, invasion and reversibility were assessed in OR-treated BeWo cells, and proliferation was evaluated in OR-treated HCVE. The ultrastructure of T. cruzi trypomastigotes and amastigotes treated with ORs were analyzed by scanning and transmission electronic microscopy. ROS production in infected and treated BeWo cells and cytokines in BeWo and HCVE were measured. The ORs irreversibly decreased T. cruzi invasion, proliferation and release in BeWo cells by up to 70 %, 82 % and 80 %, respectively, and reduced parasite load in HCVE by up to 80 %. Significant structural changes in treated parasites were observed. ORs showed antioxidant capacity in BeWo cells, reducing ROS production induced by T. cruzi infection. Also, T. cruzi infection modulated the cytokine profile in both BeWo cells and HCVE; however, treatment with ORs upregulated cytokines decreased by T. cruzi infection in BeWo cells, while downregulated cytokines increased by the T. cruzi infection in HCVE. In conclusion, non-cytotoxic concentrations of Copaifera ORs demonstrated promising potential for controlling T. cruzi infection in models of the human maternal-fetal interface.

Antibacterial, antibiofilm, and antivirulence potential of the main diterpenes from Copaifera spp. oleoresins against multidrug-resistant bacteria

To evaluate the antibacterial, antibiofilm and antivirulence potential of the main diterpenes from Copaifera spp. oleoresins against multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria. Antimicrobial assays included determination of the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC), Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC), Minimum Inhibitory Concentration of Biofilm (MICB50), as well as synergistic and antivirulence assays for eight diterpenes against MDR. The tests revealed that two diterpenes (named 1 and 5) showed the best results, with MIC and MBC between 12.5 and 50 μg/mL against most MDR bacteria. These diterpenes exhibited promising MICB50 in concentration between 3.12-25 μg/mL but showed no synergistic antimicrobial activity. In the assessment of antivirulence activity, diterpenes 1 and 5 inhibited only one of the virulence factors evaluated (Dnase) produced by some strains of S. aureus at subinhibitory concentration (6.25 μg/mL). Results obtained indicated that diterpenes isolated from Copaifera oleoresin plays an important part in the search of new antibacterial and antibiofilm agents that can act against MDR bacteria.

Insecticidal and Repellent Activity of Essential Oils from Copaifera reticulata, Citrus paradisi, Lavandula hybrida and Salvia sclarea Against Immature and Adult Stages of Ctenocephalides felis felis

PURPOSE

The flea Ctenocephalides felis (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae), parasitizes dogs and cats globally, acting as a vector for various pathogens affecting both animals and humans. Growing interest in environmentally friendly, plant-based products prompted this study. The aim of the study was to determine the chemical composition of essential oils (EOs) from Copaifera reticulata, Citrus paradisi, Lavandula hybrida and Salvia sclarea, assessing their insecticidal and repellent properties, determining lethal concentrations (LC50 and LC90), and evaluating residual efficacy in vitro against Ctenocephalides felis felis.

METHODS

Gas Chromatography with Flame Ionization Detector analyzed EO composition. In vitro tests involved preparing EO solutions at various concentrations. Ten specimens from each life stage (egg, larva, pupa, adult) were used for insecticidal activity assessment. Adulticidal activity was assessed using 10 cm2 filter paper strip, each treated with 0.200 mL of the test solution. Immature stages activities were evaluated using 23.76 cm2 discs of the same filter paper, each treated with 0.470 mL of the test solution. Mortality percentage was calculated using (number of dead insects × 100) / number of incubated insects. Probit analysis calculated LC50 values with a 95% confidence interval.

RESULTS

Major EO constituents were β-caryophyllene (EOCR), linalool (EOLH), linalyl acetate (EOSS), and limonene (EOCP). LC50 values were obtained for all stages except for the essential oil of C. paradisi. All oils showed repellent activity at 800 μg/cm2. OECR exhibited greater residual efficacy.

CONCLUSION

Each EO demonstrated superior insecticidal activity against specific C. felis felis stages.

Copaiba oil's bactericidal activity and its effects on health and zootechnical performance for Nile tilapia after oral supplementation

Tilapia is one of the most important farmed fish in the world and the most cultivated in Brazil. The increase of this farming favors the appearance of diseases, including bacterial diseases. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the bactericidal activity of copaiba oil, Copaifera duckei, against Streptococcus agalactiae and Flavobacterium columnare and the dietary effect of copaiba oil on zootechnical performance, hematological, biochemical, immunological, and histological analysis before and after an intraperitoneal infection (body cavity) with S. agalactiae in Nile tilapia. For this, fish were randomly distributed into 15 fiber tanks in five treatments (0, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, and 1.0%) and fed with a commercial diet supplemented with copaiba oil for 30 days. After this period, the fish were randomly redistributed for the experimental challenge with S. agalactiae into six treatments (T0, T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5), the fish were anesthetized, and blood samples were collected to assess hematological, biochemical, immunological, and histological parameters. Copaiba oil showed bactericidal activity against Streptococcus spp. and Flavobacterium spp. in vitro. In addition, concentrations of 0.75 and 1.0% of copaiba oil have an anti-inflammatory effect and improve hematological and immunological parameters, increasing leukocyte numbers, albumin, and serum lytic activity. Furthermore, there is an increase in the intestinal villus length and tissue damage in groups at concentrations of 0.75 and 1.0% of copaiba oil. In conclusion, copaiba oil presented bactericidal activity against Streptococcus spp. and Flavobacterium spp. in vitro, and oral supplementation at concentrations of 0.75 and 1.0% compared to the control group enhanced non-specific immune parameters and digestibility in Nile Tilapia.

Copaiba oil minimizes inflammation and promotes parenchyma re-epithelization in acute allergic asthma model induced by ovalbumin in BALB/c mice

Introduction: Asthma is a condition of airflow limitation, common throughout the world, with high mortality rates, especially as it still faces some obstacles in its management. As it constitutes a public health challenge, this study aimed to investigate the effect of copaiba oil (e.g., Copaifera langsdorffii), as a treatment resource, at doses of 50 and 100 mg/kg on certain mediators of acute lung inflammation (IL-33, GATA3, FOXP3, STAT3, and TBET) and early mechanisms of lung remodeling (degradation of elastic fiber tissues, collagen deposition, and goblet cell hyperplasia). Methods: Using an ovalbumin-induced acute allergic asthma model in BALB/c mice, we analyzed the inflammatory mediators through immunohistochemistry and the mechanisms of lung remodeling through histopathology, employing orcein, Masson's trichrome, and periodic acid-Schiff staining. Results: Copaiba oil treatment (CO) reduced IL-33 and increased FOXP3 by stimulating the FOXP3/GATA3 and FOXP3/STAT3 pathways. Additionally, it upregulated TBET, suggesting an additional role in controlling GATA3 activity. In the respiratory epithelium, CO decreased the fragmentation of elastic fibers while increasing the deposition of collagen fibers, favoring epithelial restructuring. Simultaneously, CO reduced goblet cell hyperplasia. Discussion: Although additional research is warranted, the demonstrated anti-inflammatory and re-epithelializing action makes CO a viable option in exploring new treatments for acute allergic asthma.

Copaifera langsdorffii Desf. tree oleoresin-induced antinociception recruits µ1- and κ -opioid receptors in the ventrolateral columns of the periaqueductal gray matter

Popular medicine has been using oleoresin from several species of copaíba tree for the treatment of various diseases and its clinical administration potentially causes antinociception. Electrical stimulation of ventrolateral (vlPAG) and dorsolateral (dlPAG) columns of the periaqueductal gray matter also causes antinociception. The aim this study was to verify the antinociceptive effect of oleoresin extracted from Copaifera langsdorffii tree and to test the hypothesis that oleoresin-induced antinociception is mediated by µ1- and κ-opioid receptors in the vlPAG and dlPAG. Nociceptive thresholds were determined by the tail-flick test in Wistar rats. The copaíba tree oleoresin was administered at different doses (50, 100 and 200 mg/kg) through the gavage technique. After the specification of the most effective dose of copaíba tree oleoresin (200 mg/kg), rats were pretreated with either the µ1-opioid receptor selective antagonist naloxonazine (at 0.05, 0.5 and 5 µg/ 0.2 µl in vlPAG, and 5 µg/ 0.2 µl in dlPAG) or the κ-opioid receptor selective antagonist nor-binaltorphimine (at 1, 3 and 9 nmol/ 0.2 µl in vlPAG, and 9 nmol/ 0.2 µl in dlPAG). The blockade of µ1 and κ opioid receptors of vlPAG decreased the antinociception produced by copaíba tree oleoresin. However, the blockade of these receptors in dlPAG did not alter copaíba tree oleoresin-induced antinociception. These data suggest that vlPAG µ1 and κ opioid receptors are critically recruited in the antinociceptive effect produced by oleoresin extracted from Copaifera langsdorffii.

Chemodiversity and Bioactivity of the Essential Oils of Juniperus and Implication for Taxonomy

The essential oils of Juniperus are highly beneficial medicinally. The present study aimed to assess the chemodiversity and bioactivity of Juniperus formosana, Juniperus przewalskii, Juniperus convallium, Juniperus tibetica, Juniperus komarovii, and Juniperus sabina essential oils from the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The results revealed 92 components in six essential oils: α-pinene (2.71-17.31%), sabinene (4.91-19.83%), and sylvestrene (1.84-8.58%) were the main components. Twelve components were firstly reported in Juniperus oils, indicating that the geographical location and climatic conditions of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau produced the unique characteristics of Juniperus essential oils. The chemodiversity of Juniperus essential oils varied greatly, with J. sabina having the most recognized components (64) and the highest chemodiversity (Shannon-Wiener index of 3.07, Simpson's diversity index of 0.91, and Pielou evenness of 0.74). According to the chemodiversity of essential oils, the six plants were decided into the α-pinene chemotype (J. formosana), hedycaryol chemotype (J. przewalskii, J. komarovii, J. convallium, J. tibetica), and sabinene chemotype (J. sabina). PCA, HCA and OPLS-DA showed that J. formosana and J. sabina were distantly related to other plants, which provides a chemical basis for the classification of Juniperus plants. Furthermore, bioactivity tests exhibited certain antioxidant and antibacterial effects in six Juniperus oils. And the bioactivities of J. convallium, J. tibetica, and J. komarovvii were measured for the first time, broadening the range of applications of Juniperus. Correlation analysis of components and bioactivities showed that δ-amorphene, β-udesmol, α-muurolol, and 2-nonanone performed well in the determination of antioxidant activity, and α-pinene, camphene, β-myrcene, as well as (E)-thujone, had strong inhibitory effects on pathogenic bacteria, providing a theoretical basis for further research on these components.

Polyalthic Acid from Copaifera lucens Demonstrates Anticariogenic and Antiparasitic Properties for Safe Use

This study aimed at evaluating the potential of Copaifera lucens, specifically its oleoresin (CLO), extract (CECL), and the compound ent-polyalthic acid (PA), in combating caries and toxoplasmosis, while also assessing its toxicity. The study involved multiple assessments, including determining the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) against cariogenic bacteria. CLO and PA exhibited MIC and MBC values ranging from 25 to 50 μg/mL, whereas CECL showed values equal to or exceeding 400 μg/mL. PA also displayed antibiofilm activity with minimum inhibitory concentration of biofilm (MICB50) values spanning from 62.5 to 1000 μg/mL. Moreover, PA effectively hindered the intracellular proliferation of Toxoplasma gondii at 64 μg/mL, even after 24 h without treatment. Toxicological evaluations included in vitro tests on V79 cells, where concentrations ranged from 78.1 to 1250 μg/mL of PA reduced colony formation. Additionally, using the Caenorhabditis elegans model, the lethal concentration (LC50) of PA was determined as 1000 μg/mL after 48 h of incubation. Notably, no significant differences in micronucleus induction and the NDI were observed in cultures treated with 10, 20, or 40 μg/mL of CLO. These findings underscore the safety profile of CLO and PA, highlighting their potential as alternative treatments for caries and toxoplasmosis.

Synthesis and Antibacterial Activity of Polyalthic Acid Analogs

Polyalthic acid (PA) is a diterpene found in copaiba oil. As a continuation of our work with PA, we synthesized PA analogs and investigated their antibacterial effects on preformed biofilms of Staphylococcus epidermidis and determined the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the best analogs against planktonic bacterial cells. There was no difference in activity between the amides 2a and 2b and their corresponding amines 3a and 3b regarding their ability to eradicate biofilm. PA analogs 2a and 3a were able to significantly eradicate the preformed biofilm of S. epidermidis and were active against all the Gram-positive bacteria tested (Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus faecium, S. epidermidis, Staphylococcus aureus), with different MIC depending on the microorganism. Therefore, PA analogs 2a and 3a are of interest for further in vitro and in vivo testing to develop formulations for antibiotic drugs against Gram-positive bacteria.

Polyalthic acid and oleoresin from Copaifera trapezifolia Hayne reduce Toxoplasma gondii growth in human villous explants, even triggering an anti-inflammatory profile

Due to the lack of efficient antiparasitic therapy and vaccines, as well as emerging resistance strains, congenital toxoplasmosis is still a public health issue worldwide. The present study aimed to assess the effects of an oleoresin obtained from the species Copaifera trapezifolia Hayne (CTO), and an isolated molecule found in the CTO, ent-polyalthic acid (ent-15,16-epoxy-8(17),13(16),14-labdatrien-19-oic acid) (named as PA), against T. gondii infection. We used human villous explants as an experimental model of human maternal-fetal interface. Uninfected and infected villous explants were exposed to the treatments; the parasite intracellular proliferation and the cytokine levels were measured. Also, T. gondii tachyzoites were pre-treated and the parasite proliferation was determined. Our findings showed that CTO and PA reduced efficiently the parasite growth with an irreversible action, but without causing toxicity to the villi. Also, treatments reduced the levels of IL-6, IL-8, MIF and TNF by villi, what configures a valuable treatment option for the maintenance of a pregnancy in an infectious context. In addition to a possible direct effect on parasites, our data suggest an alternative mechanism by which CTO and PA alter the villous explants environment and then impair parasite growth, since the pre-treatment of villi resulted in lower parasitic infection. Here, we highlighted PA as an interesting tool for the design of new anti-T. gondii compounds.

Chemical Characterization and Quality Assessment of Copaiba Oil-Resin Using GC/MS and SFC/MS

In recent years, the popularity of copaiba oil-resin has increased worldwide due to its medicinal value and wide applications in industry. Despite its popularity, the oil has not been standardized by industry or regulatory agencies. Product adulteration in order to maximize profits has become a problem. To address these issues, the current study describes the chemical and chemometric characterization of forty copaiba oil-resin samples by GC/MS. The results demonstrated, with the exception of commercial samples, that all sample groups contained six characteristic compounds (β-caryophyllene, α-copaene, trans-α-bergamotene, α-humulene, γ-muurolene, and β-bisabolene) in varying concentrations. Furthermore, compositional patterns were observed in individual groups which corresponded to sample origin. Within the commercial group, two samples did not contain or contained only one of the characteristic compounds. Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed distinct groups which largely corresponded to sample origin. Moreover, commercial samples were detected by PCA as outliers, and formed a group far removed from the other samples. These samples were further subjected to analysis using a SFC/MS method. Product adulteration with soybean oil was clearly detected, with each individual triglyceride in soybean oil being unambiguously identified. By combining these analytical techniques, the overall quality of copaiba oil-resin can be assessed.

Aloe vera and copaiba oleoresin-loaded chitosan films for wound dressings: microbial permeation, cytotoxicity, and in vivo proof of concept

Chitosan films are commonly used for wound dressing, provided that this polymer has healing, mucoadhesiveness and antimicrobial properties. These properties can be further reinforced by the combination of chitosan with polysaccharides and glycoproteins present in aloe vera, together with copaiba oleoresin's pharmacological activity attributed to sesquiterpenes. In this work, we developed chitosan films containing either aloe vera, copaiba oil or both, by casting technique, and evaluated their microbial permeation, antimicrobial activity, cytotoxicity, and in vivo healing potential in female adult rats. None of the developed chitosan films promoted microbial permeation, while the cytotoxicity in Balb/c 3 T3 clone A31 cell line revealed no toxicity of films produced with 2 % of chitosan and up to 1 % of aloe vera and copaiba oleoresin. Films obtained with either 0.5 % chitosan or 0.5 % copaiba oleoresin induced cell proliferation which anticipate their potential for closure of wound and for the healing process. The in vivo results confirmed that tested films (0.5 % copaiba-loaded chitosan film and 0.5 % aloe vera-loaded chitosan film) were superior to a commercial dressing film. For all tested groups, a fully formed epithelium was seen, while neoformation of vessels seemed to be greater in formulations-treated groups than those treated with the control. Our work confirms the added value of combining chitosan with aloe vera and copaiba oil in the healing process of wounds.

Toxicological Effects of Copaiba Oil (Copaifera spp.) and Its Active Components

Vegetable oils are among the most important traditional resources of Amazonia. Oleoresins are a type of oil that have interesting characteristics and highly bioactive properties with pharmacological potential. Oleoresins produced in the trunks of Copaifera (Fabaceae) spp. trees, known as copaiba oils, are made up of terpenes from the sesquiterpene (volatile) and diterpene (resinous) classes, but in amounts that vary between species and depending on several factors, such as soil type. Despite being used for medicinal purposes, via topical and oral application, the toxic effects of copaiba oils and their constituents are little known. The current paper reviews the toxicological studies, both in vitro and in vivo, described in the literature for copaiba oils, as well as the cytotoxic characteristics (against microorganisms and tumor cells) in in silico, in vitro and in vivo models for the sesquiterpenes and diterpenes that make up these oils.

Copaiba Oil-Loaded Polymeric Nanocapsules: Production and In Vitro Biosafety Evaluation on Lung Cells as a Pre-Formulation Step to Produce Phytotherapeutic Medicine

Copaiba oil has been largely used due to its therapeutic properties. Nanocapsules were revealed to be a great nanosystem to carry natural oils due to their ability to improve the bioaccessibility and the bioavailability of lipophilic compounds. The aim of this study was to produce and characterize copaiba oil nanocapsules (CopNc) and to evaluate their hemocompatibility, cytotoxicity, and genotoxicity. Copaiba oil was chemically characterized by GC-MS and FTIR. CopNc was produced using the nanoprecipitation method. The physicochemical stability, toxicity, and biocompatibility of the systems, in vitro, were then evaluated. Β-bisabolene, cis-α-bergamotene, caryophyllene, and caryophyllene oxide were identified as the major copaiba oil components. CopNc showed a particle size of 215 ± 10 nm, a polydispersity index of 0.15 ± 0.01, and a zeta potential of -18 ± 1. These parameters remained unchanged over 30 days at 25 ± 2 °C. The encapsulation efficiency of CopNc was 54 ± 2%. CopNc neither induced hemolysis in erythrocytes, nor cytotoxic and genotoxic in lung cells at the range of concentrations from 50 to 200 μg·mL^-1. In conclusion, CopNc showed suitable stability and physicochemical properties. Moreover, this formulation presented a remarkable safety profile on lung cells. These results may pave the way to further use CopNc for the development of phytotherapeutic medicine intended for pulmonary delivery of copaiba oil.

Design and Optimization of a Natural Medicine from Copaifera reticulata Ducke for Skin Wound Care

In this study, we developed a bioadhesive emulsion-filled gel containing a high amount of Copaifera reticulata Ducke oil-resin as a veterinary or human clinical proposal. The phytotherapeutic system had easy preparation, low cost, satisfactory healing ability, and fly repellency, making it a cost-effective clinical strategy for wound care and myiasis prevention. Mechanical, rheological, morphological, and physical stability assessments were performed. The results highlight the crosslinked nature of the gelling agent, with three-dimensional channel networks stabilizing the Copaifera reticulata Ducke oil-resin (CrD-Ore). The emulgel presented antimicrobial activity, satisfactory adhesion, hardness, cohesiveness, and viscosity profiles, ensuring the easy spreading of the formulation. Considering dermatological application, the oscillatory responses showed a viscoelastic performance that ensures emulgel retention at the action site, reducing the dosage frequencies. In Vivo evaluations were performed using a case report to treat ulcerative skin wounds aggravated by myiasis in calves and heifers, which demonstrated healing, anti-inflammatory, and repellent performance for the emulsion-filled gel. The emulgel preparation, which is low in cost, shows promise as a drug for wound therapy.

Natural therapeutics and nutraceuticals for lung diseases: Traditional significance, phytochemistry, and pharmacology

BACKGROUND

Lung diseases including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), infections like influenza, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), asthma and pneumonia lung cancer (LC) are common causes of sickness and death worldwide due to their remoteness, cold and harsh climatic conditions, and inaccessible health care facilities.

PURPOSE

Many drugs have already been proposed for the treatment of lung diseases. Few of them are in clinical trials and have the potential to cure infectious diseases. Plant extracts or herbal products have been extensively used as Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) and Indian Ayurveda. Moreover, it has been involved in the inhibition of certain genes/protiens effects to promote regulation of signaling pathways. Natural remedies have been scientifically proven with remarkable bioactivities and are considered a cheap and safe source for lung disease.

METHODS

This comprehensive review highlighted the literature about traditional plants and their metabolites with their applications for the treatment of lung diseases through experimental models in humans. Natural drugs information and mode of mechanism have been studied through the literature retrieved by Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, SciFinder, Scopus and Medline PubMed resources against lung diseases.

RESULTS

In vitro, in vivo and computational studies have been explained for natural metabolites derived from plants (like flavonoids, alkaloids, and terpenoids) against different types of lung diseases. Probiotics have also been biologically active therapeutics against cancer, anti-inflammation, antiplatelet, antiviral, and antioxidants associated with lung diseases.

CONCLUSION

The results of the mentioned natural metabolites repurposed for different lung diseases especially for SARS-CoV-2 should be evaluated more by advance computational applications, experimental models in the biological system, also need to be validated by clinical trials so that we may be able to retrieve potential drugs for most challenging lung diseases especially SARS-CoV-2.

Look into my onco-forest - review of plant natural products with anticancer activity

Cancer is a multistage process that can be treated by numerous modalities including systemic treatment. About half of the molecules that have been approved in the last few decades count for plant derivatives. This review presents the application of tree/shrub-derived biologically active compounds as anticancer agents. Different parts of trees/shrubs - wood, bark, branches, roots, leaves, needles, fruits, flowers etc. - contain a wide variety of primary and secondary metabolites, which demonstrate anticancer properties. Special attention was paid to phenolics (phenolic acids and polyphenols, including flavonoids and non-flavonoids (tannins, lignans, stilbenes)), essential oils and their main constituents such as terpenes/terpenoids, phytosterols, alkaloids and many others. Anticancer properties of these compounds are mainly attributed to their strong antioxidant properties. In vitro experiments on various cancer cell lines revealed a cytotoxic effect of tree-derived extracts. Mechanisms of anticancer action of the extracts are also listed. Examples of drugs that successfully underwent clinical trials with well-established position in the guidelines created by oncological societies are provided. The review also focuses on directions for the future in the development of anticancer agents derived from trees/shrubs. Applying biologically active compounds derived from trees and shrubs as anticancer agents continuously seems a promising strategy in cancer systemic treatment.

Anti-inflammatory and wound healing effect of Copaiba Oleoresin on the oral cavity: A systematic review

Copaiba oleoresin has been related to properties including healing and anti-inflammatory effects, making it a potential candidate to treat oral lesions. We aimed to define the benefits related to the anti-inflammatory and healing capacity of Copaiba-based formulations on the oral cavity. This is a systematic review, conducted in PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Embase, Scielo, Cochrane Library, BVS, and Google Scholar databases selecting full articles in English, Portuguese, or Spanish, until March 3^rd, 2021. Pre-clinical, clinical, or randomized clinical trials, cohort and case-control in vivo studies were included; studies with other designs, in vitro, and those that did not match the PICO question were excluded (PROSPERO: CRD42021244938). Data was collected and synthesized descriptively through a specific form. The risk of bias was evaluated by SYRCLE's RoB Tool. So, five studies were included. Two reported beneficial wound healing effects, such as early reduction in the wound area and greater immature bone formation in the rats' mandibles; and two related benefic anti-inflammatory effects, like reduced acute inflammatory reaction and more advanced tissue repair stage, early formation of collagen fibrils, with greater quantity, thickness and better organization, and more expressive anti-inflammatory activity, reduction of the edema intensity and the CD68 + macrophages concentration. Based on the articles, benefits related to the wound healing and anti-inflammatory effects in the oral cavity of rats treated with Copaiba oleoresin were suggested. However, due to the limited data, future studies are necessary, especially clinical ones.

Prospective, Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study on Efficacy of Copaiba Oil in Silicone-Based Gel to Reduce Scar Formation

Introduction

Scars are the end result of a biologic and natural process of wound repair after injury, surgery, acne, illness, burns, and infection. When skin is damaged, a fast and coordinated body response is triggered by four highly integrated and overlapping phases including homeostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and tissue remodeling. Healing of a skin wound may result in an abnormal scar if the balance among these four phases is lost during the healing process. Various topical treatments have been used for their ability to reduce unsightly scar formation. Recently, studies have shown improvement in scar appearance after treating with silicone gels containing natural herbal ingredients. The aim of this study is to evaluate the efficacy of a novel silicone-based gel containing copaiba oil (Copaderm) for prevention and/or appearance reduction of different types of abnormal scars.

Methods

This study was designed as a prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial involving 42 patients with abnormal scars, divided into two groups. Each group received either a topical scar formulation consisting of copaiba oil in silicone gel or a placebo gel twice a day for 84 days. Assessments of the scars were performed at 0, 28, and 84 days following the onset of topical application using three methods: a clinical assessment using the Manchester Scar Scale, a photographic assessment to establish before and after treatment improvements, and at the end of the study period, patients completed a final satisfaction questionnaire.

Results

Of the original 42 patients, 32 completed the evaluation. There was a significant difference with respect to the overall score of the Manchester Scar Scale between the two groups from baseline to 84 days (P < 0.05). All patients with copaiba oil in silicone gel achieved improvement of their scars, based on overall score at 84 days. A visible scar reduction was observed with photographic assessment. Eighty-nine percent of subjects (n = 16) with copaiba oil in silicone gel rated as being satisfied or very satisfied after 84 days of treatment.

Conclusion

Our findings support the hypothesis that copaiba oil in silicone-derivative gel was able obtain significant improvement in color, contour, distortion, and texture for different types of scar through the Manchester Scar Scale analysis. These findings contribute to reducing abnormal scar formation during the healing process.

Change in susceptibility response of Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) to organophosphate insecticide and Copaifera oleoresin

The growth of resistance in vector mosquitoes to insecticides, especially the organophosphate Temephos can facilitate the transmission of various disease agents worldwide. Consequently, it arises a challenge to public health agencies, which is the urgency use of other possibilities as botanical insecticides. Such insecticides have specific properties against insects due to the plant's ability to synthesize products derived from its secondary metabolism. The diversity and complexity of active compounds of botanical insecticides can help reduce the selection of resistant individuals and consequently not change susceptibility. To corroborate this hypothesis, the aim of this study was to compare two populations of Aedes aegypti treated with Temephos and Copaifera oleoresin. Thus, Ae. aegypti larvae were exposed from (F₁) up to tenth generation (F₁₀) with sublethal doses (±LC₂₅) of these products (Copaifera oleoresin: 40 mg/L and Temephos: 0.0030 mg/L). The triplicates and control groups were monitored every 48 hours and the surviving larvae were separated until the emergence of the adults. Each new population were then subjected to a series of concentrations (LC₅₀ and LC₉₅) of Temephos and Copaifera oleoresin to calculate the Resistance Ratio (RR) of each exposed generation. The population of Ae. aegypti exposed to Temephos had an increase in RR from 05 (considered low) to 13 (considered high). Those population exposed to Copaifera oleoresin, had no increasing in RR and continued susceptible to the oil in all generations. There was a significant difference in mortality between the generations exposed to the two products. The results presented here show that the change in the susceptibility status of Ae. aegypti population to Temephos was already expected. So, we believe that this work will be of great contribution to research related to mosquito control with plant products, and resistance to chemical insecticides.

Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities of Copaifera pubiflora Benth oleoresin and its major metabolite ent-hardwickiic acid

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Copaifera species folkloric names are "copaíbas, copaibeiras, copaívas or oil stick", which are widely used in Brazilian folk medicine. Among all ethnopharmacological applications described for Copaifera spp oleoresins, their anti-inflammatory effect stands out. However, the knowledge of anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive properties of Copaifera pubiflora Benth is scarce.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, and antinociceptive activities of C. pubiflora oleoresin (CPO), and its major compound ent-hardwickiic acid (HA).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The phosphatase assay was used to evaluate the cytotoxicity of CPO and HA in three different cell lines. CPO and HA doses of 1, 3, and 10 mg/kg were employed in the biological assays. The assessment of motor activity was performed using open-field and rotarod tests. Anti-inflammatory activity of CPO and HA was assessed through luciferase assay, measurement of INF-γ, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α in a multi-spot system with the immortalized cell line THP-1, zymosan-induced arthritis, and carrageenan-induced paw edema. Acetic acid-induced abdominal writhing and formalin tests were undertaken to evaluate the antinociceptive potential of CPO and HA. In addition, the evaluation using carrageenan was performed to investigate the effect of CPO in pain intensity to a mechanical stimulus (mechanical hyperalgesia), using the von Frey filaments. A tail-flick test was used to evaluate possible central CPO and HA actions.

RESULTS

In the cytotoxicity evaluation, CPO and HA were not cytotoxic to the cell lines tested. CPO and HA (10 mg/kg) did not affect animals' locomotor capacity in both open-field and rotarod tests. In the luciferase assay, CPO and HA significantly reduced luciferase activity (p < 0.05). This reduction indicates a decrease in NF-κB activity. HA and CPO decreased INF-γ, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α at 24 and 72 h in the multi-spot system. In zymosan-induced arthritis, CPO and HA decreased the number of neutrophils in the joint of arthritic mice and the number of total leukocytes (p < 0.05). In experimental arthritis HA significantly decreased joint swelling (p < 0.05). CPO and HA also increased the mechanical threshold during experimental arthritis. HA and CPO significantly inhibited the carrageenan-induced paw edema, being the doses of 10 mg/kg the most effective, registering maximum inhibitions of 58 ± 8% and 76 ± 6% respectively, p < 0.05. CPO and HA reduced the nociceptive behavior in both phases of formalin at all tested doses. The highest doses tested displayed inhibitions of 87 ± 1% and 72 ± 4%, respectively, p < 0.001, in the first phase, and 87 ± 1% and 81 ± 2%, respectively, p < 0.001, in the second phase. Oral treatment of CPO and HA (1, 3, 10 mg/kg) significantly reduced the nociceptive response in acetic acid-induced abdominal writhings, and the 10 mg/kg dose was the most effective with maximum inhibitions of 86 ± 2% and 82 ± 1%, respectively, p < 0.001. Both HA and CPO significantly decreased the intensity of mechanical inflammatory hyper-nociception on carrageenan-induced hyperalgesia at all tested doses, and 10 mg/kg was the most effective dose with maximum inhibitions of 73 ± 5% and 74 ± 7%, respectively, p < 0.05.CPO increased the tail-flick latencies in mice, and concomitant administration of naloxone partially reduced its effect.

CONCLUSIONS

CPO and HA may inhibit the production of inflammatory cytokines by suppressing the NF-κB signaling pathway, resulting in anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities.

Sesamol-based terpenoids as promising bio-sourced crop protection compounds against the wheat pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici

BACKGROUND

Research into environmentally friendly alternatives to conventional plant protection products, to promote sustainable agriculture and healthy food, is strongly encouraged.

RESULTS

In this context, 20 naturally occurring terpenoids and phenolic compounds were selected and evaluated in vitro as crop protection compounds against Zymoseptoria tritici, the causal agent of Septoria tritici blotch of wheat. After selection of the most active compounds, some hemisynthetic modifications were conducted to modify their lipophilicity. These modifications led to the discovery of sesamol esters as promising antifungal agents, with IC₅₀ around 10 μg/mL and a total absence of cytotoxicity against human cells.

CONCLUSION

These sesamol-based derivatives should be selected for further evaluations in planta to validate their use as wheat crop protection agents. Moreover, the importance of a balanced hydrophily/lipophilicity ratio should be further studied. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Induced oral mucositis in Wistar rats treated with different drugs: Preventive potential in cytokine production

The aim of the present study was to investigate the preventive potential of pentoxifylline, atorvastatin and trans-caryophyllene in oral mucositis through histopathological analysis of wounds in the oral mucosa of Wistar rats treated with 5-FU, and to evaluate the immunomodulatory effect of these drugs on serum nitrite production, in situ IFN-γ, TNF-α and TGF-β, and TNF-α in tissues. A total of 32 male Wistar rats with an average age of 9 weeks and an average body weight of 250 g were divided into four treatment groups: Saline, trans-caryophyllene, pentoxifylline and atorvastatin. Oral mucositis was then induced. On days 3 and 4, the mucosa of the mouth of eight pre-treated animals in each group was bilaterally scarified twice with the tip of a sterile needle, with an anesthetic solution. Mucosal samples from animals treated with trans-caryophyllene preserved a thin epithelial lining associated with focal perivascular inflammatory infiltrates. Pentoxifylline-treated animals exhibited total epithelial loss in oral wounds with severe inflammatory infiltrates and mild re-epithelialization associated with mild and diffuse inflammatory infiltrates. Samples from atorvastatin-treated animals exhibited no epithelial dissolution, with preserved thin lining and mild diffuse inflammatory infiltrates. The analysis of TNF-α expression revealed improved results in trans-caryophyllene animals. The analysis of TGF-β expression revealed positive mononuclear cells. Preventive treatment with atorvastatin was demonstrated to modulate the serum expression levels of TNF-α during all stages of the experiment. Treatment with trans-caryophyllene modulated serum IFN-γ levels negatively, whereas treatment with atorvastatin and trans-caryophyllene maintained lower levels of IFN-γ compared with the control group.

Oleoresins and naturally occurring compounds of Copaifera genus as antibacterial and antivirulence agents against periodontal pathogens

Invasion of periodontal tissues by Porphyromonas gingivalis and Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans can be associated with aggressive forms of periodontitis. Oleoresins from different copaifera species and their compounds display various pharmacological properties. The present study evaluates the antibacterial and antivirulence activity of oleoresins obtained from different copaifera species and of ten isolated compounds against two causative agents of periodontitis. The following assays were performed: determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), determination of the minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), and determination of the antibiofilm activity by inhibition of biofilm formation and biofilm eradication tests. The antivirulence activity was assessed by hemagglutination, P. gingivalis Arg-X and Lis-X cysteine protease inhibition assay, and A. actinomycetemcomitans leukotoxin inhibition assay. The MIC and MBC of the oleoresins and isolated compounds 1, 2, and 3 ranged from 1.59 to 50 μg/mL against P. gingivalis (ATCC 33277) and clinical isolates and from 6.25 to 400 μg/mL against A. actinomycetemcomitans (ATCC 43717) and clinical isolates. About the antibiofilm activity, the oleoresins and isolated compounds 1, 2, and 3 inhibited biofilm formation by at least 50% and eradicated pre-formed P. gingivalis and A. actinomycetemcomitans biofilms in the monospecies and multispecies modes. A promising activity concerning cysteine protease and leucotoxin inhibition was also evident. In addition, molecular docking analysis was performed. The investigated oleoresins and their compounds may play an important role in the search for novel sources of agents that can act against periodontal pathogens.

Synthesis, characterization and evaluation of antidengue activity of enantiomeric Schiff bases derived from S-substituted dithiocarbazate

A series of Schiff bases have been successfully synthesized through the acid-catalyzed condensation of S-substituted dithiocarbazates and three enantiomerically pure monoterpenes, (1 R )-(+)-camphor, (1 S )-(-)-camphor, (1 R )-(-)-camphorquinone, (1 S )-(+)-camphorquinone, ( R )-(-)-carvone and ( S )-(+)-carvone. Spectroscopic results revealed that the Schiff bases containing camphor or carvone likely adopted an E -configuration along the characteristic imine bond while those containing camphorquinone assumed a Z -configuration. The antidengue potential of these compounds was evaluated based on DENV 2 caused cytopathic effect (CPE) reduction-based in vitro evaluation. The compounds were validated through secondary foci forming unit reduction assay (FFURA). Compounds were also tested for their cytotoxicity against Vero cells. The compounds showed variable degrees of antiviral activity with the camphor compounds displaying the highest antidengue potential. The enantiomers of the compounds behaved almost similarly during the antiviral evaluation.

Topical formulations containing Copaifera duckei Dwyer oleoresin improve cutaneous wound healing

OBJECTIVE

Evaluation of the healing and toxicological effects of Copaifera duckei Dwyer oleoresin (CDO).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Rodents with skin lesions were divided into nine groups, including daily treatments with 1, 3 and 10% CDO, collagenase, antibiotic ointment and control groups, for 14 days.

RESULTS

Treatment with 10% CDO reduced skin edema and hyperplasia, demonstrating anti-inflammatory effect of the oil. Reduction in the wound area was observed, indicating the healing effect of CDO. Histopathological analysis showed increases in angiogenesis and re-epithelialization in animals treated with the highest concentration. On the other hand, no alterations in ulcerations, inflammatory infiltrate, hemorrhage, congestion, degeneration, percentage of collagen fibers, number of cells stained with anti-macrophage migration inhibitory factor, or density of area stained with anti-collagen I and III were found. Toxicogenetic analysis revealed no differences in micronucleus frequencies or in the ratio of polychromatic erythrocytes to total erythrocytes between treated and negative control, demonstrating the absence of genotoxicity and cytotoxicity, respectively. There was no difference in levels of liver enzymes among groups, indicating the absence of hepatotoxicity.

CONCLUSION

Formulations of CDO exerted beneficial effects on the stages of cutaneous wound healing and are promising options for the treatment of wounds.

Psychobiological evidence of the stress resilience fostering properties of a cosmetic routine

Everyday life psychosocial stressors contribute to poor health and disease vulnerabilty. Means alternative to pharmacotherapy that are able to foster stress resilience are more and more under the magnifying glass of biomedical research. The aim of this study was to test stress resilience fostering properties of the self-administration of a cosmetic product enriched with essential oils. On day 0, fourty women, 25-50 years old, self-administered both the enriched cosmetic product (ECP) and a placebo one (PCP). Then, women were randomized for daily self-administration (from day 1 to 28) of either ECP (n = 20) or PCP (n = 20). On day 29, subjects underwent a psychosocial stress test (PST). Autonomic (heart rate and its variability) and neuroendocrine (salivary cortisol) parameters were assessed both on day 0 and 29. All subjects filled a number of psychological questionnaires in order to quantify anxiety, perceived stress, and mood profile, and were videorecorded during PST for non-verbal behavior evaluation. A single application of ECP produced an acute potentiation of cardiac parasympathetic modulation, which was not observed when placebo was used. Prolonged self-administration of ECP induced: (i) a dampening of the cortisol rise produced by PST, (ii) a reduction of state anxiety, (iii) a favorable change in mood profile, and (iv) a reduction of non-verbal behavior patterns that signal anxiety, motivational conflict and avoidance. In conclusion, this study suggests that the self-administration of a cosmetic cream enriched with essential oils should be considered as a stress resilience fostering strategy due to its favorable physiological, neuroendocrine and psychological effects.

Evaluation of essential oils as an ecological alternative in the search for control Rhipicephalus microplus (Acari: Ixodidae)

The cattle tick Rhipicephalus microplus is a significant problem for livestock, causing losses of billions of dollars per year. This work aimed to determine the chemical composition of essential oils obtained from Laurus nobilis and Copaifera officinalis and evaluate activity against engorged R. microplus females. Chemical composition analyzed by GC-MS revealed the presence of 39 components accounting for 95.38% of the oil in L. nobilis, the most abundant being 1,8-cineol (25.7%), trans-sabinene-hydrate (20.8%), and α-terpinil acetate (15.0%). Chemical analysis of C. officinalis oil identified 25 components corresponding to 80.5% of the total constituents, where the major compounds were β-caryophyllene (21.1%), caryophyllene oxide (10.7%), and α-trans-bergamotene (9.3%). Adult immersion test (AIT) showed that L. nobilis essential oil at 5% or 10% caused 80.5% mortality of engorged females after 24 h and reached 96.9% and 100% mortality on the third day after treatment, respectively. While the essential oil from C. officinalis caused 84.7% mortality after six days at 10% and at 5%, achieved approximately 100% mortality rate at the end of the experiment (day 15). Both essential oils and the combination significantly inhibited egg-laying; however, the combination treatment showed higher effectiveness than the isolated oils at 2.5%. A possible synergic action of L. nobilis and C. officinalis against the cattle tick R. microplus is therefore suggested. The present work introduces a potential alternative for the development of a formulation environment-friendly (green pesticide) used to control cattle tick infestations.

Antimicrobial potential of Copaiba Oil (Copaifera multijuga Hayne-Leguminosae) against bubaline mastitis multiresistant isolates

Copaiba oil is a natural product used by Amazonian populations and recognized for its medicinal properties because it has significant antimicrobial activity for several pathogenic microorganisms. The present work aimed to evaluate and characterize the effect of natural oil produced by copaiba - Copaifera multijuga against multiresistant isolates of bubaline mastitis. The nitrocefin test was performed with isolates of Staphylococcus aureus from bubaline mastitis, which were 100% positive for beta-lactamase enzyme detection. Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) of 25% to 3.12% was obtained for Enterococcus faecalis and Escherichia coli and 50% and 25% for S. aureus, but Klebsiella pneumoniae and Bacillus subtilis were resistant. MBC with 12.5% and 6.25% oil were obtained for most multiresistant bubaline mastitis isolates from the states of Pernambuco, Ceará, Bahia and Alagoas. The results demonstrated the great potential of using copaiba natural oil in the treatment of buffalo mastitis.

Antimicrobial Activity and GC-MS Profile of Copaiba Oil for Incorporation into Xanthosoma mafaffa Schott Starch-Based Films

The present study evaluated the effect of the incorporation of copaiba oil, in direct and in microencapsulated form, into films based on Xanthosoma mafaffa Schott starch. Initially, the characterization of copaiba oil by gas chromatograph coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and its antimicrobial activity against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria was performed. The films were produced by the casting technique and characterized in relation to physical, chemical, structural, and antimicrobial activity. Sesquiterpenes, mainly β-caryophyllene, were the predominant compounds in copaiba oil, showing antimicrobial activity against B. subtilis and S. aureus. The films showed forming capacity, however, was observed a decrease in solubility and revealed an increase in hydrophobic characteristics. However, the oil reduced the tensile strength and elongation, while the microcapsules did not influence the mechanical properties in comparison to the control film. From microstructure analysis, changes in the films roughness and surface were observed after the addition of oil both directly and in microencapsulated form. Films incorporated with microparticles were able to inhibit the gram-positive bacteria tested, forming inhibition zones, indicating that the encapsulation of copaiba oil was more efficient for protecting bioactive compounds from the oil, suggesting the possible application of mangarito starch-based films incorporated with copaiba oil as biodegradable packaging.

Functional Hybrid Nanoemulsions for Sumatriptan Intranasal Delivery

In recent years, advanced nanohybrid materials processed as pharmaceuticals have proved to be very advantageous. Triptans, such as the commercially available intranasal sumatriptan (SMT), are drugs employed in the treatment of painful migraine symptoms. However, SMT effectiveness by the intranasal route is limited by its high hydrophilicity and poor mucoadhesion. Therefore, we designed hybrid nanoemulsions (NE) composed of copaiba oil as the organic component plus biopolymers (xanthan, pectin, alginate) solubilized in the continuous aqueous phase, aiming at the intranasal release of SMT (2% w/v). Firstly, drug-biopolymer complexes were optimized in order to decrease the hydrophilicity of SMT. The resultant complexes were further encapsulated in copaiba oil-based nanoparticles, forming NE formulations. Characterization by FTIR-ATR, DSC, and TEM techniques exposed details of the molecular arrangement of the hybrid systems. Long-term stability of the hybrid NE at 25°C was confirmed over a year, regarding size (~ 120 nm), polydispersity (~ 0.2), zeta potential (~ −25 mV), and nanoparticle concentration (~ 2.10¹⁴ particles/mL). SMT encapsulation efficiency in the formulations ranged between 41–69%, extending the in vitro release time of SMT from 5 h (free drug) to more than 24 h. The alginate-based NE was selected as the most desirable system and its in vivo nanotoxicity was evaluated in a zebrafish model. Hybrid NE treatment did not affect spontaneous movement or induce morphological changes in zebrafish larvae, and there was no evidence of mortality or cardiotoxicity after 48 h of treatment. With these results, we propose alginate-based nanoemulsions as a potential treatment for migraine pain.

Assessment of the antibacterial, antivirulence, and action mechanism of Copaifera pubiflora oleoresin and isolated compounds against oral bacteria

The microorganisms that constitute the oral microbiome can cause oral diseases, including dental caries and endodontic infections. The use of natural products could help to overcome bacterial resistance to the antimicrobials that are currently employed in clinical therapy. This study assessed the antimicrobial activity of the Copaifera pubiflora oleoresin and of the compounds isolated from this resin against oral bacteria. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) assays provided values ranging from 6.25 to > 400 μg/mL for the C. pubiflora oleoresin and its isolated compounds. The fractional inhibitory concentration index (FICI) assay showed that the oleoresin and chlorhexidine did not act synergistically. All the tested bacterial strains formed biofilms. MICB₅₀ determination revealed inhibitory action: values varied from 3.12-25 μg/mL for the oleoresin, and from 0.78 to 25 μg/mL for the ent-hardwickiic acid. Concerning biofilm eradication, the C. pubiflora oleoresin and hardwickiic acid eradicated 99.9 % of some bacterial biofilms. Acid resistance determination showed that S. mutans was resistant to acid in the presence of the oleoresin and ent-hardwickiic acid at pH 4.0, 4.5, and 5.0 at all the tested concentrations. Analysis of DNA/RNA and protein release by the cell membrane demonstrated that the oleoresin and hardwiickic acid damaged the bacterial membrane irreversibly, which affected membrane integrity. Therefore, the C. pubiflora oleoresin and ent-hardwickiic acid have potential antibacterial effect and can be used as new therapeutic alternatives to treat oral diseases such as dental caries and endodontic infections.

Investigation of Copaifera genus as a new source of antimycobaterial agents

AIM

This paper reports on the antimycobacterial activity of the oleoresins and extracts obtained from Copaifera spp.

MATERIALS & METHODS

The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and fractional inhibitory concentration index techniques helped to evaluate the effect of these oleoresins and extracts against six strains of mycobacteria that cause tuberculosis.

RESULTS & CONCLUSION

Among the assayed oleoresins and plant extracts, the Copaifera langsdorffii, Copaifera duckei, Copaifera reticulata and Copaifera trapezifolia oleoresins provided the lowest MIC values against some of the tested strains. The combination of Copaifera spp. samples with isoniazid did not evidence any synergistic action. Some Copaifera spp. oleoresins may represent a future source for the discovery of new antimycobacterial drugs due to their low MIC values.

Biological Activities of Two Major Copaiba Diterpenoids and Their Semi-synthetic Derivatives

The oleoresin of Copaifera reticulata Ducke, Fabaceae, is a traditional Brazilian remedy used for a wide range of applications. Commonly named copaiba, the oleoresin has been found to exhibit strong antimicrobial effects in our previous study, which could be attributed to some of its diterpenoid constituents. In order to find new biological activities and to eventually enhance the before observed effects, (−)-polyalthic acid (1) and kaurenoic acid (2), together with eight prepared semi-synthetic derivatives (1a–1c and 2a–2e) were evaluated for their cytotoxic, antibacterial and antifungal properties. Regarding the gram-positive bacteria Enterococcus faecium and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, we found that both the exocylic methylene group and the carboxyl group were crucial for the activity against these two clinically relevant bacterial strains. Investigation of the antifungal activity, in contrast, showed that the carboxyl group is unnecessary for the effect against the dermatophytes Trichophyton rubrum and Cryptococcus neoformans, indicated by low micromolar IC₅₀ values for both (−)-polyalthic acid diethylamide (1a) as well as (−)-polyalthic acid methyl ester (1b). Apart from studying the biological activity, the structure of one semi-synthetic derivative, compound 1c, is being reported for the first time. During the course of the structure elucidation of the new compound, we discovered inconsistencies regarding the stereochemistry of polyalthic acid and its stereoisomers, which we clarified in the present work.

Graphical Abstract

Copaiba oleoresin has topical antinociceptive activity in a UVB radiation-induced skin-burn model in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Copaiba oleoresin, extracted from Copaifera L., is used as a wound healing, analgesic, antimicrobial and, mainly, anti-inflammatory agent. Thus, in this study we investigated the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of a topical formulation containing Copaiba oleoresin (3%) in a UVB radiation-induced skin burn model (0.75 J/cm²) in mice and performed a cream-formulation stability study.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The chemical composition of Copaiba oleoresin was analyzed using gas chromatography (GC-MS). The topical antinociceptive (evaluated through mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia) and the anti-inflammatory (dermal thickness and inflammatory cell infiltration) effects of treatments were assessed. The cream-formulation stability study was performed after two months, and organoleptic characteristics, pH, spreadability and rheological characteristics were analyzed.

RESULTS

Copaiba oleoresin cream was able to prevent UVB radiation-induced mechanical allodynia on the 2nd, 3rd and 4th day after UVB radiation exposure with a maximum inhibition (I_max) of 64.6 ± 7% observed on the 2nd day; it also reduced the thermal hyperalgesia on the 1st and 2nd days post UVB radiation, with a I_max of 100% observed on the 2nd day. Moreover, topical treatment with Copaiba oleoresin cream inhibited the inflammatory cell infiltration, but did not reduce the dermal thickness. Such effects can be attributed, at least in part, to the presence of biological components, such as β-caryophyllene and other sesquiterpenes identified by GC-MS.

CONCLUSION

Our results demonstrate that the topical formulation containing Copaiba oleoresin presented antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects in mice subjected to a UVB radiation and that the cream-formulation was stable for two months. Thus, use of Copaiba oleoresin is a promising strategy for the treatment of inflammatory pain associated with sunburn.

Healing activity of hydrogel containing nanoemulsified β-caryophyllene

β-caryophyllene is a sesquiterpene present in the oil of many plant species, such as Copaifera sp., which has been shown to possesses potent anti-inflammatory action; however, its healing activity remains under study. The objectives of the present study were to produce a nanoemulsion containing β-caryophyllene followed by a hydrogel containing nanoemulsified β-caryophyllene, to evaluate the permeation profile in vitro, and to assess the in vivo healing activity, which is so far unexplored in the literature for pure β-caryophyllene and in pharmaceutical formulation. The nanoemulsion was obtained through high-pressure homogenization and the hydrogel by direct dispersion with hydroxyethylcellulose. Both formulations were characterized according to droplet size, polydispersity index, volume-weighted mean diameters, particle distribution, droplets diameters tracking, zeta potential, viscosity and bioadhesion behavior. β-caryophyllene content was determined by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Both formulations presented a nanometric droplet size, negative zeta potential, high β-caryophyllene content, and were stable for 60 days. In agreement with the viscosity results, the hydrogel containing the β-caryophyllene nanoemulsion showed superior bioadhesiveness than the nanoemulsion. The skin permeation study in Franz cells demonstrated that isolated β-caryophyllene was unable to cross the stratum corneum and that its nanoemulsification promoted its permeation. On the other hand, in the simulated deeply wounded skin (dermis), no significant differences were observed between the formulations and isolated β-caryophyllene with respect to the amount of marker retention in the dermis, suggesting saturation of this skin layer. For the study of healing activity, the dorsal wound model was performed with an evaluation of the lesion size, anti-inflammatory markers, and antioxidant activity. The initial closure of the wound was achieved sooner in the group treated with the hydrogel containing the β-caryophyllene nanoemulsion, indicating its anti-inflammatory effect. The histological analysis indicated that on day 12 day of the lesion, the hydrogel presented similar results to those of the positive control group (Dersani® oil), proving effectiveness in cutaneous tissue repair.

Use of Natural Products in Asthma Treatment

Asthma, a disease classified as a chronic inflammatory disorder induced by airway inflammation, is triggered by a genetic predisposition or antigen sensitization. Drugs currently used as therapies present disadvantages such as high cost and side effects, which compromise the treatment compliance. Alternatively, traditional medicine has reported the use of natural products as alternative or complementary treatment. The aim of this review was to summarize the knowledge reported in the literature about the use of natural products for asthma treatment. The search strategy included scientific studies published between January 2006 and December 2017, using the keywords "asthma," "treatment," and "natural products." The inclusion criteria were as follows: (i) studies that aimed at elucidating the antiasthmatic activity of natural-based compounds or extracts using laboratory experiments (in vitro and/or in vivo); and (ii) studies that suggested the use of natural products in asthma treatment by elucidation of its chemical composition. Studies that (i) did not report experimental data and (ii) manuscripts in languages other than English were excluded. Based on the findings from the literature search, aspects related to asthma physiopathology, epidemiology, and conventional treatment were discussed. Then, several studies reporting the effectiveness of natural products in the asthma treatment were presented, highlighting plants as the main source. Moreover, natural products from animals and microorganisms were also discussed and their high potential in the antiasthmatic therapy was emphasized. This review highlighted the importance of natural products as an alternative and/or complementary treatment source for asthma treatment, since they present reduced side effects and comparable effectiveness as the drugs currently used on treatment protocols.

Copaiba oil suppresses inflammation in asthmatic lungs of BALB/c mice induced with ovalbumin

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease that represents high hospitalizations and deaths in world. Copaiba oil (CO) is popularly used for relieving asthma symptoms and has already been shown to be effective in many inflammation models. This study aimed to investigate the immunomodulatory relationship of CO in ovalbumin (OVA)-induced allergic asthma. The composition of CO sample analyzed by GC and GC-MS and the toxicity test was performed in mice at doses of 50 or 100 mg/kg (by gavage). After, the experimental model of allergic asthma was induced with OVA and mice were orally treated with CO in two pre-established doses. The inflammatory infiltrate was evaluated in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), while cytokines (IL-4, IL-5, IL-17, IFN-γ, TNF-α), IgE antibody and nitric oxide (NO) production was evaluated in BALF and lung homogenate (LH) of mice, together with the histology and histomorphometry of the lung tissue. CO significantly attenuated the number of inflammatory cells in BALF, suppressing NO production and reducing the response mediated by TH2 and TH17 (T helper) cells in both BALF and LH. Histopathological and histomorphometric analysis confirmed that CO significantly reduced the numbers of inflammatory infiltrate in the lung tissue, including in the parenchyma area. Our results indicate that CO has an effective in vivo antiasthmatic effect.

Hydrogel Containing Oleoresin From Copaifera officinalis Presents Antibacterial Activity Against Streptococcus agalactiae

Streptococcus agalactiae or Group B Streptococcus (GBS) remains a leading cause of neonatal infections worldwide; and the maternal vaginal-rectal colonization increases the risk of vertical transmission of GBS to neonates and development of infections. This study reports the in vitro antibacterial effect of the oleoresin from Copaifera officinalis Jacq. L. in natura (copaiba oil) and loaded into carbomer-hydrogel against planktonic and sessile cells of GBS. First, the naturally extracted copaiba oil was tested for the ability to inhibit the growth and metabolic activity of planktonic and sessile GBS cells. The time-kill kinetics showed that copaiba oil exhibited a dose-dependent bactericidal activity against planktonic GBS strains, including those resistant to erythromycin and/or clindamycin [minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) ranged from 0.06 mg/mL to 0.12 mg/mL]. Copaiba oil did not inhibit the growth of different Lactobacillus species, the indigenous members of the human microbiota. The mass spectral analyses of copaiba oil showed the presence of diterpenes, and the kaurenoic acid appears to be one of the active components of oleoresin from C. officinalis related to antibacterial activity against GBS. Microscopy analyses of planktonic GBS cells treated with copaiba oil revealed morphological and ultrastructural alterations, displaying disruption of the cell wall, damaged cell membrane, decreased electron density of the cytoplasm, presence of intracellular condensed material, and asymmetric septa. Copaiba oil also exhibited antibacterial activity against established biofilms of GBS strains, inhibiting the viability of sessile cells. Low-cost and eco-friendly carbomer-based hydrogels containing copaiba oil (0.5% – CARB-CO 0.5; 1.0% – CARB-CO 1.0) were then developed. However, only CARB-CO 1.0 preserved the antibacterial activity of copaiba oil against GBS strains. This formulation was homogeneous, soft, exhibited a viscoelastic behavior, and showed good biocompatibility with murine vaginal mucosa. Moreover, CARB-CO 1.0 showed a slow and sustained release of the copaiba oil, killing the planktonic and sessile (established biofilm) cells and inhibiting the biofilm formation of GBS on pre-coated abiotic surface. These results indicate that carbomer-based hydrogels may be useful as topical systems for delivery of copaiba oil directly into de vaginal mucosa and controlling S. agalactiae colonization and infection.

Copaiba Oil Attenuates Right Ventricular Remodeling by Decreasing Myocardial Apoptotic Signaling in Monocrotaline-Induced Rats

There is an increase in oxidative stress and apoptosis signaling during the transition from hypertrophy to right ventricular (RV) failure caused by pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) induced by monocrotaline (MCT). In this study, it was evaluated the action of copaiba oil on the modulation of proteins involved in RV apoptosis signaling in rats with PAH. Male Wistar rats (±170 g, n = 7/group) were divided into 4 groups: control, MCT, copaiba oil, and MCT + copaiba oil. PAH was induced by MCT (60 mg/kg intraperitoneally) and, 7 days later, treatment with copaiba oil (400 mg/kg by gavage) was given for 14 days. Echocardiographic and hemodynamic measurements were performed, and the RV was collected for morphometric evaluations, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and cell survival signaling, and eNOS protein expression. Copaiba oil reduced RV hypertrophy (24%), improved RV systolic function, and reduced RV end-diastolic pressure, increased total sulfhydryl levels and eNOS protein expression, reduced lipid and protein oxidation, and the expression of proteins involved in apoptosis signaling in the RV of MCT + copaiba oil as compared to MCT group. In conclusion, copaiba oil reduced oxidative stress, and apoptosis signaling in RV of rats with PAH, which may be associated with an improvement in cardiac function caused by this compound.

Effects of copaiba oil on dermonecrosis induced by Loxosceles intermedia venom

Background:

Accidents caused by spiders of the genus Loxosceles constitute an important public health problem in Brazil. The venom of Loxosceles sp induces dermonecrosis at the bite site and systemic disease in severe cases. Traditional medicine based on plant-derived products has been proven to reduce the local effects of envenomation. The present study verified the healing effects of copaiba oil on lesions induced by the venom of L. intermedia.

Methods:

Cutaneous lesions were induced on the backs of rabbits by intradermal injection of L. intermedia venom. Copaiba oil was applied topically 6 hours after injection; the treatment was repeated for 30 days, after which animal skins were removed and processed for histopathological analysis. Blood samples were also collected before and 24 hours after venom inoculation to measure the hematological parameters.

Results:

Compared to the control group, the platelet count was reduced significantly in all groups inoculated with venom, accompanied by a decreased number of heterophils in the blood. The minimum necrotic dose (MND) was defined as 2.4 μg/kg. Topical treatment with copaiba oil demonstrated a differentiated healing profile: large skin lesions were observed 10 days after venom inoculation, whereas formation of a thick crust, without scarring was observed 30 days after venom inoculation. Histopathological analysis showed no significant difference after treatment. Nevertheless, the copaiba oil treatment induced a collagen distribution similar to control skin, in marked contrast to the group that received only the spider venom injection.

Conclusions:

We conclude that copaiba oil may interfere in the healing process and thus propose it as a possible topical treatment for cutaneous lesions induced by L. intermedia venom.

Antimicrobial and cytotoxic effects of the Copaifera reticulata oleoresin and its main diterpene acids

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The oleoresin of Brazilian Copaifera reticulata is a traditional remedy used for the treatment of skin and urinary tract infections, respiratory diseases, rheumatism, ulcer and tumours; thus, playing an important role in the primary health care of the indigenous population.

AIM

As most previous pharmacological tests used the crude oleoresin and only a few studies so far dealt with enriched fractions or pure chemically defined compounds, the aim of this study was to systematically evaluate the antimicrobial and cytotoxic properties of the Copaifera reticulata oleoresin and to assign traditional uses to specific secondary metabolites.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The oleoresin, as well as its neutral and acidic fractions were tested for their activity against six cancer cell lines, two clinically relevant bacterial strains, and two dermatophytes. Both fractions were analysed by GC-MS and UHPLC-ELSD, respectively. The antibacterial acidic phase was further fractionated by preparative chromatography to purify and characterize the compounds responsible for the observed pharmacological effect.

RESULTS

Whereas no cytotoxic activity was detected, the crude oleoresin and its acidic fraction showed antibacterial activity against gram-positive bacteria Enterococcus faecium (IC₅₀ values 4.2 and 4.8 µg/mL, respectively) and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA, IC₅₀ values 5.3 and 7.2 µg/mL, respectively). Purification of the acidic fraction of the C. reticulata oleoresin yielded two dicarboxylic diterpene acids and the four main diterpene acids, comprising three different diterpene scaffolds. Interestingly, the activity was not restricted to a particular diterpene-type but rather depended on the compounds' lipophilicity, with the most active constituent showing IC₅₀ values of 1.6 (E. faecium) and 2.5 µg/mL (MRSA), respectively. Furthermore, ent-polyalthic acid, the major diterpenoid, was significantly active against dermatophytes with IC₅₀ values of 6.8 µg/mL (Trichophyton rubrum) and 4.3 µg/mL against (T. mentagrophytes).

CONCLUSION

The present study proved the antimicrobial effects of the C. reticulata oleoresin and its diterpenoid constituents, confirming its wide use in folk medicine for the treatment of skin and urinary tract infections. The inhibitory activity of copaiba diterpenoids against dermatophytic fungi as well as the gram-positive bacteria E. faecium and MRSA is being reported for the first time, providing potential lead structures for the treatment of these clinically relevant bacterial strains.