Nanoparticle Delivery Systems in the Treatment of Diabetes Complications

Shellac and locust bean gum coacervated curcumin, epigallocatechin gallate nanoparticle ameliorates diabetic nephropathy in a streptozotocin-induced mouse model

Curcumin and epigallocatechin gallate have the disadvantage of low aqueous solubility and first-pass metabolism, resulting in limited bioavailability. This work aimed to enhance oral bioavailability by forming gastric pH-stable shellac nanoparticles containing curcumin and epigallocatechin gallate using locust bean gum by anti-solvent precipitation (CESL-NP). The nanoparticles were characterized by their particle size, morphology, zeta potential, gastric pH stability, release profile, drug loading, and entrapment efficiency. The findings showed that a network of hydrolyzed shellac, locust bean gum, curcumin, and epigallocatechin gallate successfully entrapped individual particles inside a complex system. The morphological investigation of the CESL-NP formulation using FESEM, TEM, and AFM revealed the presence of spherical particles. FTIR, DSC, and XRD analysis revealed that curcumin and epigallocatechin gallate were amorphous due to their bond interactions with the matrix. Streptozotocin-treated mice, upon treatment with CESL-NP, showed kidney and pancreatic improvements with normalized kidney hypertrophy index and histopathology, maintained biochemical parameters, increased beta cell count, and a 38.68-fold higher blood glucose level inhibition were observed when compared to free-(CUR + EGCG). This research affirms that the shellac-locust bean gum complex shows potential for the sustained oral delivery of curcumin and epigallocatechin gallate, specifically for treating diabetic nephropathy.

In vitro and in silico investigation of glycyrrhizic acid encapsulated zein nanoparticles: A synergistic targeted drug delivery approach for breast cancer

This study presents an innovative approach for targeted drug delivery through the development of Glycyrrhizic acid-loaded zein nanoparticles (GA-LNPs) as a proficient carrier system. The juxtaposition of zein, a hydrophobic biological macromolecule as a protein carrier, and Glycyrrhizic acid (GA), a hydrophilic therapeutic compound, exemplifies the adaptability of hydrocolloids within cutting-edge drug delivery systems. The characterization and functional traits of research encompass multifaceted analyses of natural macromolecules, which elucidate the homogeneous and spherical morphology of GA-LNPs with an average size of 170.49 nm. The controlled drug release profile of GA, orchestrated under simulated gastrointestinal conditions, adheres to diffusion-based Higuchi kinetics, reflecting the controlled release of the natural macromolecules. The intermolecular interactions among Zein, GA, and cross-linker EDC, facilitated through molecular dynamics simulations, fortify the structural integrity of the encapsulation matrix. In Vitro studies revealed enhanced cellular uptake of GA-LNPs in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. This cellular internalization was further confirmed through cytotoxicity assessments using MTT and apoptosis assays (fluorescence microscopy), which demonstrated the prominent anticancer effects of GA-LNPs on MCF-7 in time/dose-dependent manner. The successful formulation of GA-LNPs, coupled with their sustained release and potent anticancer properties, makes them a potential platform for advanced targeted therapeutic strategies in biomedical applications.

Oral peptide therapeutics for diabetes treatment: State-of-the-art and future perspectives

Diabetes, characterized by hyperglycemia, is a major cause of death and disability worldwide. Peptides, such as insulin and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) analogs, have shown promise as treatments for diabetes due to their ability to mimic or enhance insulin's actions in the body. Compared to subcutaneous injection, oral administration of anti-diabetic peptides is a preferred approach. However, biological barriers significantly reduce the efficacy of oral peptide therapeutics. Recent advancements in drug delivery systems and formulation techniques have greatly improved the oral delivery of peptide therapeutics and their efficacy in treating diabetes. This review will highlight (1) the benefits of oral anti-diabetic peptide therapeutics; (2) the biological barriers for oral peptide delivery, including pH and enzyme degradation, intestinal mucosa barrier, and biodistribution barrier; (3) the delivery platforms to overcome these biological barriers. Additionally, the review will discuss the prospects in this field. The information provided in this review will serve as a valuable guide for future developments in oral anti-diabetic peptide therapeutics.

Diabetes: a review of its pathophysiology, and advanced methods of mitigation

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a long-lasting metabolic non-communicable disease often characterized by an increase in the level of glucose in the blood or hyperglycemia. Approximately, 415 million people between the ages of 20 and 79 years had DM in 2015 and this figure will rise by 200 million by 2040. In a study conducted by CARRS, it's been found that in Delhi the prevalence of diabetes is around 27% and for prediabetic cases, it is more than 46%. The disease DM can be both short-term and long-term and is often associated with one or more diseases like cardiovascular disease, liver disorder, or kidney malfunction. Early identification of diabetes may help avoid catastrophic repercussions because untreated DM can result in serious complications. Diabetes' primary symptoms are persistently high blood glucose levels, frequent urination, increased thirst, and increased hunger. Therefore, DM is classified into four major categories, namely, Type 1, Type 2, Gestational diabetes, and secondary diabetes. There are various oral and injectable formulations available in the market like insulin, biguanides, sulphonylureas, etc. for the treatment of DM. Recent attention can be given to the various nano approaches undertaken for the treatment, diagnosis, and management of diabetes mellitus. Various nanoparticles like Gold Nanoparticles, carbon nanomaterials, and metallic nanoparticles are some of the approaches mentioned in this review. Besides nanotechnology, artificial intelligence (AI) has also found its application in diabetes care. AI can be used for screening the disease, helping in decision-making, predictive population-level risk stratification, and patient self-management tools. Early detection and diagnosis of diabetes also help the patient avoid expensive treatments later in their life with the help of IoT (internet of medical things) and machine learning models. These tools will help healthcare physicians to predict the disease early. Therefore, the Nano drug delivery system along with AI tools holds a very bright future in diabetes care.

Sublingual Administration of Teucrium Polium-Loaded Nanofibers with Ultra-Fast Release in the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus: In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation

In this study, Teucrium polium (TP) methanolic extract, which has antidiabetic activity and protects the β-cells of the pancreas, was loaded in polyethylene oxide/sodium alginate nanofibers by electrospinning and administered sublingually to evaluate their effectiveness in type-2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) by cell culture and in vivo studies. The gene expressions of insulin, glucokinase, GLUT-1, and GLUT-2 improved in TP-loaded nanofibers (TPF) on human beta cells 1.1B4 and rat beta cells BRIN-BD11. Fast-dissolving (<120 s) sublingual TPF exhibited better sustainable anti-diabetic activity than the suspension form, even in the twenty times lower dosage in streptozotocin/nicotinamide-induced T2DM rats. The levels of GLP-1, GLUT-2, SGLT-2, PPAR-γ, insulin, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha were improved. TP and TPF treatments ameliorated morphological changes in the liver, pancreas, and kidney. The fiber diameter increased, tensile strength decreased, and the working temperature range enlarged by loading TP in fibers. Thus, TPF has proven to be a novel supportive treatment approach for T2DM with the features of being non-toxic, easy to use, and effective.

Preparation of chitosan nanoparticles loaded with Balanites aegyptiaca extract for treatment of streptozotocin-induced diabetes in rats

Diabetes mellitus is characterized by elevated blood sugar level due to a deficiency in insulin production and/or action. Balanites aegyptiaca (BA) has been employed as a hypoglycemic medication. Nanoparticles (NPs) have many advantages like minimized drug dose, sustainable drug release, maximized bioavailability and delivery of drugs. The study aimed to synthesize novel chitosan (CS) NPs loaded with BA extract (BA Ex). The prepared NPs were examined in treatment of streptozotocin-induced diabetes in rats. The anti-diabetic efficiency was evaluated through measuring of levels of blood glucose, insulin, lipid profile, oxidative stress markers, pro-inflammatory cytokines. GC-MS, HPLC and ICP techniques showed the presence of numerous bioactive components that have an anti-diabetic effectiveness. BA Ex-CS NPs succeeded in treatment of diabetes; where, it increased insulin secretion, lowered both FBG and FTA levels and helped in neogenesis of pancreatic islets beta cells. The regenerative activity of BA Ex-CS NPs is attributed to its high antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. This antioxidant activity scavenged the generated free radicles that resulted from STZ administration. CS NPs raised the plant extract efficacy, prevented its degradation, and regulated the release of its components. The delivery of BA Ex bioactive components has been revolutionized by CS NPs.

Impacts of chitosan and its nanoformulations on the metabolic syndromes: a review

A significant public health issue worldwide is metabolic syndrome, a cluster of metabolic illnesses that comprises insulin resistance, obesity, dyslipidemia, hyperglycemia, and hypertension. The creation of natural treatments and preventions for metabolic syndrome is crucial. Chitosan, along with its nanoformulations, is an oligomer of chitin, the second-most prevalent polymer in nature, which is created via deacetylation. Due to its plentiful biological actions in recent years, chitosan and its nanoformulations have drawn much interest. Recently, the chitosan nanoparticle-based delivery of CRISPR-Cas9 has been applied in treating metabolic syndromes. The benefits of chitosan and its nanoformulations on insulin resistance, obesity, diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemia, hyperglycemia, and hypertension will be outlined in the present review, highlighting potential mechanisms for the avoidance and medication of the metabolic syndromes by chitosan and its nanoformulations.

Novel Approaches for the Management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: An Update

Diabetes mellitus is an irreversible, chronic metabolic disorder indicated by hyperglycemia. It is now considered a worldwide pandemic. T2DM, a spectrum of diseases initially caused by tissue insulin resistance and slowly developing to a state characterized by absolute loss of secretory action of the β cells of the pancreas, is thought to be caused by reduced insulin secretion, resistance to tissue activities of insulin, or a combination of both. Insulin secretagogues, biguanides, insulin sensitizers, alpha-glucosidase inhibitors, incretin mimetics, amylin antagonists, and sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors are the main medications used to treat T2DM. Several of these medication's traditional dosage forms have some disadvantages, including frequent dosing, a brief half-life, and limited absorption. Hence, attempts have been made to develop new drug delivery systems for oral antidiabetics to ameliorate the difficulties associated with conventional dosage forms. In comparison to traditional treatments, this review examines the utilization of various innovative therapies (such as microparticles, nanoparticles, liposomes, niosomes, phytosomes, and transdermal drug delivery systems) to improve the distribution of various oral hypoglycemic medications. In this review, we have also discussed some new promising candidates that have been approved recently by the US Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of T2DM, like semaglutide, tirzepatide, and ertugliflozin. They are used as a single therapy and also as combination therapy with drugs like metformin and sitagliptin.

A New Approach for Preparing Stable High-Concentration Peptide Nanoparticle Formulations

The subcutaneous administration of therapeutic peptides would provide significant benefits to patients. However, subcutaneous injections are limited in dosing volume, potentially resulting in high peptide concentrations that can incur significant challenges with solubility limitations, high viscosity, and stability liabilities. Herein, we report on the discovery that low-shear resonant acoustic mixing can be used as a general method to prepare stable nanoparticles of a number of peptides of diverse molecular weights and structures in water without the need for extensive amounts of organic solvents or lipid excipients. This approach avoids the stability issues observed with typical high-shear, high-intensity milling methods. The resultant peptide nanosuspensions exhibit low viscosity even at high concentrations of >100 mg/mL while remaining chemically and physically stable. An example nanosuspension of cyclosporine nanoparticles was dosed in rats via a subcutaneous injection and exhibited sustained release behavior. This suggests that peptide nanosuspension formulations can be one approach to overcome the challenges with high-concentration peptide formulations.

In Vitro Anti-diabetic Activity of Pomegranate Peel Extract-Mediated Strontium Nanoparticles

Introduction Type 2 diabetes mellitus and its associated health complications represent a significant public health issue due to its wide prevalence. The primary disadvantages of current oral anti-diabetic drugs are their limited bio-availability and their quick release, which necessitates more frequent dosing. Similar limitations are encountered when using natural products for the management of type 2 diabetes. Consequently, nanoparticles have been developed with the goal of enhancing the physicochemical stability of the drugs, thereby improving their bio-availability. In view of the given background, the present study aimed to explore the efficacy of strontium nanoparticles derived from pomegranate peel extract in managing type 2 diabetes mellitus. Materials and methods The aqueous extract of pomegranate peel was prepared using standard protocol and the strontium nanoparticles were prepared by green synthesis method using pomegranate peel extract. The prepared aqueous extract of pomegranate peel and the nanoparticles were assessed for their inhibitory potential against α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymes activity by 3,5-dinitrosalicylic acid (DNSA) and p-nitro-phenyl-ɑ-D glucopyranoside (p-NPG) assays, respectively. Results The pomegranate peel-mediated strontium nanoparticles (PP-Sr NPs) and standard acarbose were assessed for their inhibitory effect against diabetic enzymes, α-amylase, and α-glucosidase at different concentrations range of 5-160 μg/ml. The results showed that PP-Sr NPs exhibited a maximum inhibition of 79.28% and 76.17% against α-amylase and α-glucosidase respectively at the highest concentration of 160 μg/ml. Acarbose showed a maximum inhibition of 88.02% and 84.47% against α-amylase and α-glucosidase respectively at 160 μg/ml. The inhibitory effect of the PP-Sr NPs and standard acarbose was found to be concentration-dependent. Conclusion From the results, it is concluded that the PP-Sr NPs may be useful for decreasing postprandial glucose levels. Further studies using in vitro cell lines and in vivo diabetic models may substantiate the antidiabetic potential of PP-Sr NPs.

Silver Nanoparticles Decorated with Curcumin Enhance the Efficacy of Metformin in Diabetic Rats via Suppression of Hepatotoxicity

Hepatotoxicity is one of the significant side effects of chronic diabetes mellitus (DM) besides nephrotoxicity and pancreatitis. The management of this disease is much dependent on the restoration of the liver to its maximum functionality, as it is the central metabolic organ that gets severely affected during chronic diabetes. The present study investigates if the silver nanoparticles decorated with curcumin (AgNP-Cur) can enhance the efficacy of metformin (a conventional antidiabetic drug) by countering the drug-induced hepatoxicity. Swiss albino rats were categorized into six treatment groups (n = 6): control (group I without any treatment), the remaining five groups (group II, IV, V, VI) were DM-induced by streptozocin. Group II was untreated diabetic positive control, whereas groups III was administered with AgNP-cur (5 mg/kg). Diabetic group IV treated with metformin while V and VI were treated with metformin in a combination of the two doses of NPs (5 and 10 mg/kg) according to the treatment schedule. Biochemical and histological analysis of blood and liver samples were conducted after the treatment. The groups V and VI treated with the combination exhibited remarkable improvement in fasting glucose, lipid profile (HDL and cholesterol), liver function tests (AST, ALT), toxicity markers (GGT, GST and LDH), and redox markers (GSH, MDA and CAT) in comparison to group II in most of the parameters. Histological evaluation and comet assay further consolidate these biochemical results, pleading the restoration of the cellular structure of the target tissues and their nuclear DNA. Therefore, the present study shows that the NPs can enhance the anti-diabetic action by suppression of the drug-mediated hepatoxicity via relieving from oxidative stress, toxic burden and inflammation.

A Closed Loop Stimuli-Responsive Concanavalin A-Loaded Chitosan-Pluronic Hydrogel for Glucose-Responsive Delivery of Short-Acting Insulin Prototyped in RIN-5F Pancreatic Cells

The optimal treatment of diabetes (in particular, type 1 diabetes-T1D) remains a challenge. Closed-loop systems (implants/inserts) provide significant advantages for glucose responsivity and providing real-time sustained release of rapid-acting insulin. Concanavalin A (ConA), a glucose affinity agent, has been used to design closed-loop insulin delivery systems but not without significant risk of leakage of ConA from the matrices and poor mechanical strength of the hydrogels impacting longevity and control of insulin release. Therefore, this work focused on employing a thermoresponsive co-forming matrix between Pluronic F-127 (PL) and structurally robust chitosan (CHT) via EDC/NHS coupling (i.e., covalent linkage of -NH2 from CHT and ConA to the -COOH of PL). The system was characterized for its chemical structure stability and integrity (FTIR, XRD and TGA), injectability, rheological parameters and hydrogel morphology (Texture Analysis, Elastosens TM Bio2 and SEM). The prepared hydrogels demonstrated shear-thinning for injectability with a maximum force of 4.9 ± 8.3 N in a 26G needle with sol-gel transitioning from 25 to 38 °C. The apparent yield stress value of the hydrogel was determined to be 67.47 Pa. The insulin loading efficiency within the hydrogel matrix was calculated to be 46.8%. Insulin release studies revealed glucose responsiveness in simulated glycemic media (4 and 10 mg/mL) over 7 days (97%) (305 nm via fluorescence spectrophotometry). The MTT studies were performed over 72 h on RIN-5F pancreatic cells with viability results >80%. Results revealed that the thermoresponsive hydrogel is a promising alternative to current closed-loop insulin delivery systems.

Preparation of Nanoemulsions with Low-Molecular-Weight Collagen Peptides from Sturgeon Fish Skin and Evaluation of Anti-Diabetic and Wound-Healing Effects in Mice

This study aims to isolate collagen peptides from waste sturgeon fish skin, and prepare nanoemulsions for studying their anti-diabetic and wound-healing effects in mice. Collagen peptides were extracted and purified by acetic acid with sonication, followed by two-stage hydrolysis with 0.1% pepsin and 5% flavourzyme, and ultrafiltration with 500 Da molecular weight (MW) cut-off dialysis membrane. Animal experiments were performed with collagen peptides obtained by pepsin hydrolysis (37 kDa) and pepsin plus flavourzyme hydrolysis (728 Da) as well as their nanoemulsions prepared at two different doses (100 and 300 mg/kg/day). The mean particle size of low-MW and low-dose nanoemulsion, low-MW and high-dose nanoemulsion, high-MW and low-dose nanoemulsion and high-MW and high-dose nanoemulsion was, respectively, 16.9, 15.3, 28.1 and 24.2 nm, the polydispersity index was 0.198, 0.215, 0.231 and 0.222 and zeta potential was -61.2, -63.0, -41.4 and -42.7 mV. These nanoemulsions were highly stable over a 90-day storage period (4 °C and 25 °C) and heating at 40-100 °C (0.5-2 h). Experiments in mice revealed that the low-MW and high-dose nanoemulsion was the most effective in decreasing fasting blood glucose (46.75%) and increasing wound-healing area (95.53%). Collectively, the sturgeon fish skin collagen peptide-based nanoemulsion is promising for development into a health food or wound-healing drug.

In vitro antidiabetic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic activity of Murraya koenigii leaf extract intercedes ZnO nanoparticles

Nanotechnology is an emerging field with tremendous potential and usage of medicinal plants and green preparation of nanoparticles (NPs) is one of the widely explored areas. These have been shown to be effective against different biological activities such as diabetes mellitus, cancer, antioxidant, antimicrobial, etc. The current studies focus on the green synthesis of zinc NPs (ZnO NPs) from aqueous leaf extract of Murraya koenigii (MK). The synthesized Murraya koeingii zinc oxide NPs (MK ZnO NPs) were characterized using UV-visible spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering (DLS), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), energy-dispersive spectrum (EDS) and cyclic voltammetry (CV). The synthesized MK ZnO NPs were evaluated for their in vitro antidiabetic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic activity. They demonstrated significant antidiabetic and cytotoxic activity, as well as moderate free-radical scavenging and antibacterial activity.

The combination of linagliptin and metformin rescues bone loss in type 2 diabetic osteoporosis

To develop an approach to reduce the type 2 diabetic osteoporosis, this study investigated the protective effects of the combination of linagliptin and metformin against osteoporosis. Micro-CT and dynamic biomechanical measurements were used to determine the bone microstructure in the type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) rats. MC3T3-E1 cells were cultured in high glucose environments. In addition, we used qRT-PCR and Western blotting to assess osteogenic markers and p38 and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) protein expression. The combination of linagliptin and metformin treatment significantly restored bone micro-architecture and femoral mechanical properties in the T2DM rats. In contrast, bone markers including osteocalcin, NH2-terminal propeptide of type I procollagen, COOH-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen and tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase were significantly reduced by the combination of linagliptin and metformin treatment. We used high glucose treated MC3T3-E1 cells to mimic the condition of T2DM. Linagliptin combined with metformin treatment significantly inhibited the phosphorylation of p38 and ERK induced by high glucose treatment. In conclusion, the linagliptin combined with metformin treatment improved the rats' bone mineral density, bone structure, and osteogenic markers. Both p38 and ERK phosphorylation were reduced in high glucose MC3T3-E1 cells. Our findings highlight the potential of linagliptin combined with metformin for the treatment of T2DM-related osteoporosis.

Nanotheranostics: application of nanosensors in diabetes management

Objectives

The objective of the present study is to discuss the use of nanomaterials like nanosensors for diagnosing Diabetes and highlight their applications in the treatment of Diabetes.

Methods

Diabetes mellitus (D.M.) is a group of metabolic diseases characterized by hyperglycemia. Orally administered antidiabetic drugs like glibenclamide, glipalamide, and metformin can partially lower blood sugar levels, but long-term use causes kidney and liver damage. Recent breakthroughs in nanotheranostics have emerged as a powerful tool for diabetes treatment and diagnosis.

Results

Nanotheranostics is a rapidly developing area that can revolutionize diabetes diagnosis and treatment by combining therapy and imaging in a single probe, allowing for pancreas-specific drug and insulin delivery. Nanotheranostic in Diabetes research has facilitated the development of improved glucose monitoring and insulin administration modalities, which promise to improve the quality of life for people with Diabetes drastically. Further, nanomaterials like nanocarriers and unique functional nanomaterials used as nano theranostics tools for treating Diabetes will also be highlighted.

Conclusion

The nanosensors discussed in this review article will encourage researchers to develop innovative nanomaterials with novel functionalities and properties for diabetes detection and treatment.

In-depth in-vitro and in-vivo anti-diabetic evaluations of Fagonia cretica mediated biosynthesized selenium nanoparticles

Therapeutic moieties derived from medicinal plants as well as plants-based ecofriendly processes for producing selenium nanoparticles have shown great promise in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The current study was aimed to assess the anti-diabetic potentials of Fagonia cretica mediated biogenic selenium nanoparticles (FcSeNPs) using in-vitro and in-vivo approaches. The bio-synthesized FcSeNPs were characterized using various techniques including UV-VIS spectrophotometry and FTIR analysis. The in-vitro efficacy of FcSeNPs were assessed against α-glucosidase, α-amylase enzymes as well as the anti-radical studies were performed using DPPH and ABTS free radicals scavenging assays. For in-vivo studies, 20 Male Balb/C albino-mice were randomly divided into 4 groups (n = 5) including normal group, disease group (Diabetic group with no treatment), control group and treatment group (Diabetic group treated with FcSeNPs). Further, biochemistry markers including pancreas, liver, kidney and lipid profile were assessed for all treatment groups. The FcSeNPs exhibited a dose-dependent inhibition against α-amylase and α-glucosidase at 62-1000 µg mL^-1 concentration with IC₅₀ values of 92 and 100 µg mL^-1 respectively. In antioxidant experiments, the FcSeNPs demonstrated significant radicals scavenging effect against DPPH and ABTS radicals. In STZ-induced diabetic mice, a considerable decline in blood glucose level was observed after treatment with FcSeNPs. Anti-hyperglycemic effect of FcSeNPs treated animals were high (105 ± 3.22**) as compared to standard drug (128.6 ± 2.73** mg dL^-1). Biochemical investigations revealed that all biochemical parameters for pancreas, liver function, renal function panel and lipid profile were significantly lowered in FcSeNPs treated animals. Our findings indicate a preliminary multi-target efficacy for FcSeNPs against type-2 diabetes and thus warrant further detailed studies.

Nanoformulations for the Delivery of Dietary Anthocyanins for the Prevention and Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus and Its Complications

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a metabolic disease characterized by abnormal blood glucose levels-hyperglycemia, caused by a lack of insulin secretion, impaired insulin action, or a combination of both. The incidence of DM is increasing, resulting in billions of dollars in annual healthcare costs worldwide. Current therapeutics aim to control hyperglycemia and reduce blood glucose levels to normal. However, most modern drugs have numerous side effects, some of which cause severe kidney and liver problems. On the other hand, natural compounds rich in anthocyanidins (cyanidin, delphinidin, malvidin, pelargonidin, peonidin, and petunidin) have also been used for the prevention and treatment of DM. However, lack of standardization, poor stability, unpleasant taste, and decreased absorption leading to low bioavailability have hindered the application of anthocyanins as therapeutics. Therefore, nanotechnology has been used for more successful delivery of these bioactive compounds. This review summarizes the potential of anthocyanins for the prevention and treatment of DM and its complications, as well as the strategies and advances in the delivery of anthocyanins using nanoformulations.

Hogweed Seed Oil: Physico-Chemical Characterization, LC-MS Profile, and Neuroprotective Activity of Heracleum dissectum Nanosuspension

The seeds of dissected hogweed (Heracleum dissectum Ledeb., Apiaceae) are the source of hogweed oil (HSO), which is still underexplored and requires careful chemical and biological studies. The performed physico-chemical analysis of HSO elucidated basic physical characteristics and revealed the presence of fatty acids, essential oil components, pigments, and coumarins. High-performance liquid chromatography with photodiode array detection and electrospray ionization triple quadrupole mass spectrometric detection (HPLC-PDA-ESI-tQ-MS/MS) identified 38 coumarins that were characterized and quantified. Various furanocoumarins were the major components of HSO polyphenolics, including imperatorin, phellopterin, and isoimperatorin, and the total coumarin content in HSO varied from 181.14 to 238.42 mg/mL. The analysis of storage stability of the selected compounds in HSO indicated their good preservation after 3-year storage at cold and freezing temperatures. The application of the CO₂-assisted effervescence method allowed the production of an HSO nanosuspension, which was used in a brain ischemia model of rats. The HSO nanosuspension enhanced cerebral hemodynamics and decreased the frequency of necrotic processes in the brain tissue. Thus, H. dissectum seeds are a good source of coumarins, and HSO nanosuspension promotes neuroprotection of the brain after lesions, which supports earlier ethnopharmacological data.

Preparation and optimization of tetraethyl orthosilicate cross-linked chitosan-guar gum-poly(vinyl alcohol) composites reinforced with montmorillonite for sustained release of sitagliptin

Development of efficient drug carriers has become an integral part of advanced drug delivery systems. This work aims at developing composites by adopting an economically viable method for sustained release of anti-diabetic drug sitagliptin - a potent and selective dipeptidyl peptidase-IV inhibitor. To combat the harsh environment of gastrointestinal tract, the composite (F13) was prepared using biodegradable polymers namely chitosan, guar gum and poly(vinyl alcohol) with montmorillonite clay as nano-filler and tetraethyl orthosilicate as the cross linker. The composites were characterized using FT-IR, XRD, DSC and SEM techniques. Physical properties such as thickness, swelling capacity, folding endurance and water solubility were studied. In vitro analysis of composites (F17, F19 and F20) in simulated gastric medium showed <14 % cumulative release in 2 h while a sustained release was observed in simulated intestinal medium. Drug release kinetics was investigated using five mathematical models namely zero order, first order, Higuchi, Hixon-Crowell and Korsemeyer-Peppas wherein the latter was the best fit model (R², 0.969). Antimicrobial studies of drug free composite (F13) revealed good activity against bacteria as well as fungi. The results implied that the composites were pH sensitive and could serve as a potential choice for sustained release of drugs.

Biogenic Selenium Nanoparticles in Biomedical Sciences: Properties, Current Trends, Novel Opportunities and Emerging Challenges in Theranostic Nanomedicine

Selenium is an important dietary supplement and an essential trace element incorporated into selenoproteins with growth-modulating properties and cytotoxic mechanisms of action. However, different compounds of selenium usually possess a narrow nutritional or therapeutic window with a low degree of absorption and delicate safety margins, depending on the dose and the chemical form in which they are provided to the organism. Hence, selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) are emerging as a novel therapeutic and diagnostic platform with decreased toxicity and the capacity to enhance the biological properties of Se-based compounds. Consistent with the exciting possibilities offered by nanotechnology in the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases, SeNPs are useful tools in current biomedical research with exceptional benefits as potential therapeutics, with enhanced bioavailability, improved targeting, and effectiveness against oxidative stress and inflammation-mediated disorders. In view of the need for developing eco-friendly, inexpensive, simple, and high-throughput biomedical agents that can also ally with theranostic purposes and exhibit negligible side effects, biogenic SeNPs are receiving special attention. The present manuscript aims to be a reference in its kind by providing the readership with a thorough and comprehensive review that emphasizes the current, yet expanding, possibilities offered by biogenic SeNPs in the biomedical field and the promise they hold among selenium-derived products to, eventually, elicit future developments. First, the present review recalls the physiological importance of selenium as an oligo-element and introduces the unique biological, physicochemical, optoelectronic, and catalytic properties of Se nanomaterials. Then, it addresses the significance of nanosizing on pharmacological activity (pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics) and cellular interactions of SeNPs. Importantly, it discusses in detail the role of biosynthesized SeNPs as innovative theranostic agents for personalized nanomedicine-based therapies. Finally, this review explores the role of biogenic SeNPs in the ongoing context of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and presents key prospects in translational nanomedicine.

The therapeutic prospect of zinc oxide nanoparticles in experimentally induced diabetic nephropathy

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is the most frequent cause of end-stage renal failure. Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) are promising antidiabetic agents. Our aim was to evaluate the prospective efficacy of ZnO-NPs in treating DN in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Rats were randomly dispersed into three sets: control group, DN group and DN + ZnO-NPs group. ZnO-NPs were given at a dose of 10 mg/kg/day by oral gavage for 4 weeks. Urine and blood samples were processed for biochemical analyses. Kidney samples were managed for light and electron microscopy studies. Immune histochemical staining of P53, aquaporin11 (AQP11) and mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) were performed. Gene analyses of nephrin, podocin, beclin-1, LC3 and p62 were done. Administration of ZnO-NPs ameliorated the functional and histopathological alterations of the kidney in a rat model of diabetic nephropathy. ZnO-NPs retained the constancy of the glomerular filtration barrier and restored almost normal renal structure. This was confirmed by upregulation of mRNA expression of podocyte markers (nephrin and podocin) and AQP11 immune histochemical expression in the renal tubules. The beneficial outcomes of ZnO-NPs might be attributed to activation of autophagy through inhibiting mTOR signaling pathway. ZnO-NPs enhanced beclin-1 and LC3 mRNA expressions and reduced p62 mRNA expression. ZnO-NPs also exerted anti-apoptotic potential (evidenced by the decrease in p53 immune expression), anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant effect [endorsed by suppression of serum cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) enzyme activity, tissue nuclear factor kappa beta (NF-κB) level and blood hypoxia-inducible factors (HIF-1α) level]. These results may point the way to an effective therapy of DN.Abbreviations: AQP11 Aquaporin11; BUN: Blood urea nitrogen; COX-2: Cyclooxygenase-2; DAB: 3, 3'-diaminobenzidine; DM: Diabetes mellitus; DN: Diabetic nephropathy; ELISA: Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; H&E: Hematoxylin & eosin; HIF-1α: Hypoxia-inducible factors; iNOS: inducible nitric oxide synthase; LC3: Microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3; mTOR: Mechanistic target of rapamycin; NF-κB: Nuclear factor kappa beta; NPs: Nanoparticles; PAS: Periodic acid Schiff; PCR: Polymerase chain reaction; PGE2: Prostaglandin E2; ROS: Reactive oxygen species; STZ: Streptozotocin; X ± SEM: Mean ± standard error of means; Zn: Zinc; ZnO-NPs: Zinc oxide nanoparticles.

The Trend of Organic Based Nanoparticles in the Treatment of Diabetes and Its Perspectives

Diabetes is an untreatable metabolic disorder characterized by alteration in blood sugar homeostasis, with submucosal insulin therapy being the primary treatment option. This route of drug administration is attributed to low patient comfort due to the risk of pain, distress, and local inflammation/infections. Nanoparticles have indeed been suggested as insulin carriers to allow the drug to be administered via less invasive routes other than injection, such as orally or nasally. The organic-based nanoparticles can be derived from various organic materials (for instance, polysaccharides, lipids, and so on) and thus are prevalently used to enhance the physical and chemical consistency of loaded bioactive compounds (drug) and thus their bioavailability. This review presents various forms of organic nanoparticles (for example, chitosan, dextron, gums, nanoemulsion, alginate, and so on) for enhanced hypoglycemic drug delivery relative to traditional therapies.

Silica-Based Nanomaterials for Diabetes Mellitus Treatment

Diabetes mellitus, a chronic metabolic disease with an alarming global prevalence, is associated with several serious health threats, including cardiovascular diseases. Current diabetes treatments have several limitations and disadvantages, creating the need for new effective formulations to combat this disease and its associated complications. This motivated the development of therapeutic strategies to overcome some of these limitations, such as low therapeutic drug bioavailability or poor compliance of patients with current therapeutic methodologies. Taking advantage of silica nanoparticle characteristics such as tuneable particle and pore size, surface chemistry and biocompatibility, silica-based nanocarriers have been developed with the potential to treat diabetes and regulate blood glucose concentration. This review discusses the main topics in the field, such as oral administration of insulin, glucose-responsive devices and innovative administration routes.

Hydrophobically Modified Abelmoschus esculentus Polysaccharide Based Nanoparticles and Applications: A Review

Nanomaterials are indeed a nanoscale technology that deals with the creation, evaluation, fabrication, and utilization of systems at the nanometre scale by manipulating their size and shape. We consider natural polysaccharides such as promising polysaccharides, which are biodegradable, nontoxic, abundant, and inexpensive bio-polymeric precursors for preparing the materials of choice in various industries. The aim is to review different methods to produce hydrophobically modified Abelmoschus esculentus nanoparticles and study the evaluation processes of these nanoparticles as given in the literature. It proved the benefits of derivatives of gum by introducing different chemical groups. The chemical functionalization of gum mainly includes the esterification, etherification, and crosslinking reactions of the hydroxyl groups and contains a special fibre which takes sugar levels in the blood under control, providing a sugar quantity suitable for the bowels. Okra contains mucilage that helps remove poisonous chemicals and bad cholesterol, often overloads the liver. Recovering from psychological conditions, like depression, general weakness, and joint healthiness can be done with Okra. Someone additionally applied it for pulmonary inflammation, bowel irritation, and sore throat. Purgative properties okra possesses are beneficial for bowel purification. It is used to counteract the acids. Fibre okra contains a valuable nutrient for intestinal microorganisms and ensures proper intestine functionality. It also protects the mucosa of the digestive tract by covering them with an extra layer because of its alkaline nature. Nanotechnology has emerged as a critical component of pharmaceutics, with many applications in drug carriers of interest aimed at improving drug clinical outcomes such as cancer, diabetes mellitus, wound care management, atopic dermatitis, cosmeceutical, etc. Beneficial outcomes of this review are discussed briefly.

An Overview of Herbal-Based Antidiabetic Drug Delivery Systems: Focus on Lipid- and Inorganic-Based Nanoformulations

Diabetes is a metabolic pathology with chronic high blood glucose levels that occurs when the pancreas does not produce enough insulin or the body does not properly use the insulin it produces. Diabetes management is a puzzle and focuses on a healthy lifestyle, physical exercise, and medication. Thus far, the condition remains incurable; management just helps to control it. Its medical treatment is expensive and is to be followed for the long term, which is why people, especially from low-income countries, resort to herbal medicines. However, many active compounds isolated from plants (phytocompounds) are poorly bioavailable due to their low solubility, low permeability, or rapid elimination. To overcome these impediments and to alleviate the cost burden on disadvantaged populations, plant nanomedicines are being studied. Nanoparticulate formulations containing antidiabetic plant extracts or phytocompounds have shown promising results. We herein aimed to provide an overview of the use of lipid- and inorganic-based nanoparticulate delivery systems with plant extracts or phytocompounds for the treatment of diabetes while highlighting their advantages and limitations for clinical application. The findings from the reviewed works showed that these nanoparticulate formulations resulted in high antidiabetic activity at low doses compared to the corresponding plant extracts or phytocompounds alone. Moreover, it was shown that nanoparticulate systems address the poor bioavailability of herbal medicines, but the lack of enough preclinical and clinical pharmacokinetic and/or pharmacodynamic trials still delays their use in diabetic patients.

Preparation and in-vitro, in-vivo characterisation of pioglitazone loaded chitosan/PEG blended PLGA biocompatible nanoparticles

The purpose of this research was to formulate Polymeric (Chitosan/PEG blended PLGA) nanoparticles containing Pioglitazone as a model drug using the solvent evaporation method. The resultant nanoparticles were characterized by dynamic laser spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, and X-ray diffraction. The nanoparticles had a spherical shape with a mean particle diameter of 323 ± 1.15 nm. Furthermore, data from differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) research revealed no drug-polymer interaction. The efficiency of drug encapsulation was determined to be 61.7 ± 2.91%. The formulated nanoparticles also showed improved drug bioavailability in an in vivo system. When compared to the native drug-treated group, blood glucose levels in Pioglitazone-loaded nanoparticle treated streptozotocin caused diabetic rats were reduced dramatically (up to 7 days) to normal levels (up to 6 h). In albino rats, the nanoparticles' in vivo toxicity investigation revealed no significant changes in behavioral, biochemical, or hematological exams. As a result, the developed system may be useful in achieving a controlled release of the drug, which may help decrease dose frequency and increase patient compliance with pioglitazone for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Glycation-induced age-related illnesses, antiglycation and drug delivery strategies

OBJECTIVES

Ageing is a major cause of multiple age-related diseases. Several mechanisms have been reported to contribute to these abnormalities including glycation, oxidative stress, the polyol pathway and osmotic stress. Glycation, unlike glycosylation, is an irregular biochemical reaction to the formation of active advanced glycation end-products (AGEs), which are considered to be one of the causes of these chronic diseases. This study provides a recent and comprehensive review on the possible causes, mechanisms, types, analytical techniques, diseases and treatments of the toxic glycation end products.

KEY FINDINGS

Several mechanisms have been found to play a role in generating hyperglycaemia-induced oxidative stress including an increase in the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), increase in the levels of AGEs, binding of AGEs and their receptors (RAGE) and the polyol pathway and thus have been investigated as promising novel targets.

SUMMARY

This review focuses on the key mechanisms attributed to cumulative increases of glycation and pathological RAGE expression as a significant cause of multiple age-related diseases, and reporting on different aspects of antiglycation therapy as a novel approach to managing/treating age-related diseases. Additionally, historical, current and possible future antiglycation approaches will be presented focussing on novel drug delivery methods.

Natural Polysaccharide-Based Nanodrug Delivery Systems for Treatment of Diabetes

In recent years, natural polysaccharides have been considered as the ideal candidates for novel drug delivery systems because of their good biocompatibility, biodegradation, low immunogenicity, renewable source and easy modification. These natural polymers are widely used in the designing of nanocarriers, which possess wide applications in therapeutics, diagnostics, delivery and protection of bioactive compounds or drugs. A great deal of studies could be focused on developing polysaccharide nanoparticles and promoting their application in various fields, especially in biomedicine. In this review, a variety of polysaccharide-based nanocarriers were introduced, including nanoliposomes, nanoparticles, nanomicelles, nanoemulsions and nanohydrogels, focusing on the latest research progress of these nanocarriers in the treatment of diabetes and the possible strategies for further study of polysaccharide nanocarriers.

Development and Optimization of Nigella sativa Nanoemulsion Loaded with Pioglitazone for Hypoglycemic Effect

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a metabolic disorder associated with an increased blood glucose level. The world health burden of DM has increased as a result of numerous causes that necessitates suitable treatment. Pioglitazone (PGZ) is a generally prescribed medication for managing type II diabetes. However, its low solubility creates complications for its formulation. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to incorporate PGZ into a nanoemulsion (NE) formulation prepared with Nigella sativa oil (NSO) to boost the action of PGZ. To our knowledge, no previous study has addressed the combination and synergistic effect of PGZ and NSO as a hypoglycemic NE formulation intended for oral administration. An experiment was designed to test several PGZ-loaded NE formulations, varying factors such as NSO, surfactant and co-surfactant concentrations. These factors were investigated for their influence on responses including particle size and in vitro release. An optimized PGZ-loaded NE was selected and examined for its morphology, kinetic activity and stability. Further, the anti-diabetic effect of the optimized formulation was evaluated using diabetically induced rats. The optimized formula exhibited a good particle size of 167.1 nm and in vitro release of 89.5%. A kinetic study revealed that the drug release followed the Korsmeyer–Peppas mechanism. Additionally, the PGZ-loaded NE formulation was found to be stable, showing non-significant variation in the evaluated parameters when stored at 4 and 25 °C for a period of 3 months. In vivo investigation of the PGZ-loaded NE formulation showed a significant reduction in blood glucose level, which appeared to be enhanced by the presence of NSO. In conclusion, NS-NE could be a promising nanocarrier for enhancing the hypoglycemic effect of PGZ.

Diabetes mellitus and diabetic foot ulcer: Etiology, biochemical and molecular based treatment strategies via gene and nanotherapy

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a collection of metabolic and pathophysiological disorders manifested with high glucose levels in the blood due to the inability of β-pancreatic cells to secrete an adequate amount of insulin or insensitivity of insulin towards receptor to oxidize blood glucose. Nevertheless, the preceding definition is only applicable to people who do not have inherited or metabolic disorders. Suppose a person who has been diagnosed with Type 1 or Type 2DM sustains an injury and the treatment of the damage is complicated and prolonged. In that case, the injury is referred to as a diabetic foot ulcer (DFU). In the presence of many proliferating macrophages in the injury site for an extended period causes the damage to worsen and become a diabetic wound. In this review, the scientific information and therapeutic management of DM/DFU with nanomedicine, and other related data were collected (Web of Science and PubMed) from January 2000 to January 2022. Most of the articles revealed that standard drugs are usually prescribed along with hypoglycaemic medications. Conversely, such drugs stabilize the glucose transporters and homeostasis for a limited period, resulting in side effects such as kidney damage/failure, absorption/gastrointestinal problems, and hypoglycemic issues. In this paper, we review the current basic and clinical evidence about the potential of medicinal plants, gene therapy, chemical/green synthesized nanoparticles to improving the metabolic profile, and facilitating the DM and DFU associated complications. Preclinical studies also reported lower plasma glucose with molecular targets in DM and DFU. Research is underway to explore chemical/green synthesized nanoparticle-based medications to avoid such side effects. Hence, the present review is intended to address the current challenges, recently recognized factors responsible for DM and DFU, their pathophysiology, insulin receptors associated with DM, medications in trend, and related complications.

Construction and Evaluation of Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles for Oral Administration of Exenatide in Type 2 Diabetic Rats

Oral delivery of therapeutic peptides has been a daunting challenge due to poor transport across the tight junctions and susceptibility to enzymatic degradation in the gastrointestinal tract. Numerous advancement in nanomedicine has been made for the effective delivery of protein and peptide. Owing to the superior performance of chitosan in opening intercellular tight junctions of epithelium and excellent mucoadhesive properties, chitosan-based nanocarriers have recently garnered considerable attention, which was formulated in this paper to orally deliver the GLP-1 drug (Exenatide). Against this backdrop, we used chitosan (CS) polymers to encapsulate the exenatide, sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP) as the cross-linking agent and coated the exterior with sodium alginate (ALG) to impart the stability in an acidic environment. The chitosan/alginate nanoparticles (CS-TPP-ALG) functioned as a protective exenatide carrier, realized efficient cellular uptake and controlled release, leading to a steady hypoglycemic effect and a good oral bioavailability in vivo. Trimethyl chitosan (TMC), a chitosan derivative with stronger positive electrical properties was additionally selected as a substitute for chitosan to construct the TMC-TPP-ALG nanoparticle, and its oral peptide delivery capacity was explored in terms of both characterization and pharmacodynamics studies. Overall, our study demonstrated that functional chitosan/alginate nanoparticles can protect proteins from enzymatic degradation and enhance oral absorption, which presents important research value and application prospects.

Exploration of Lipid-Based Nanocarriers as Drug Delivery Systems in Diabetic Foot Ulcer

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic manifestation characterized by high levels of glucose in the blood resulting in several complications including diabetic wounds and ulcers, which predominantly require a longer duration of treatment and adversely affect the quality of life of the patients. Nanotechnology-based therapeutics (both intrinsic and extrinsic types) have emerged as a promising treatment in diabetic foot ulcer/chronic wounds owing to their unique characteristics and specific functional properties. In this review, we have focused on the significance of the use of lipids in the healing of diabetic ulcers, their interaction with the injured skin, and recent trends in lipid-based nanocarriers for the healing of diabetic wounds. Lipid nanocarriers are also being investigated for gene therapy in diabetic wound healing to encapsulate nucleic acids such as siRNA and miRNA, which could silence the expression of inflammatory cytokines overexpressed in chronic wounds. Additionally, these are also being explored for encapsulating proteins, peptides, growth factors, and other biological genetic material as therapeutic agents. Lipid-based nanocarriers encompassing a wide variety of carriers such as liposomes, niosomes, ethosomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, and lipidoid nanoparticles that are explored for the treatment of foot ulcers supplemented with relevant research studies have been discussed in the present review. Lipid-based nanodrug delivery systems have demonstrated promising wound healing potential, particularly in diabetic conditions due to the enhanced efficacy of the entrapped active molecules.

Microemulsions and Nanoemulsions in Skin Drug Delivery

Microemulsions and nanoemulsions are lipid-based pharmaceutical systems with a high potential to increase the permeation of drugs through the skin. Although being isotropic dispersions of two nonmiscible liquids (oil and water), significant differences are encountered between microemulsions and nanoemulsions. Microemulsions are thermodynamically stable o/w emulsions of mean droplet size approximately 100–400 nm, whereas nanoemulsions are thermodynamically unstable o/w emulsions of mean droplet size approximately 1 to 100 nm. Their inner oil phase allows the solubilization of lipophilic drugs, achieving high encapsulation rates, which are instrumental for drug delivery. In this review, the importance of these systems, the key differences regarding their composition and production processes are discussed. While most of the micro/nanoemulsions on the market are held by the cosmetic industry to enhance the activity of drugs used in skincare products, the development of novel pharmaceutical formulations designed for the topical, dermal and transdermal administration of therapeutic drugs is being considered. The delivery of poorly water-soluble molecules through the skin has shown some advantages over the oral route, since drugs escape from first-pass metabolism; particularly for the treatment of cutaneous diseases, topical delivery should be the preferential route in order to reduce the number of drugs used and potential side-effects, while directing the drugs to the site of action. Thus, nanoemulsions and microemulsions represent versatile options for the delivery of drugs through lipophilic barriers, and many synthetic and natural compounds have been formulated using these delivery systems, aiming to improve stability, delivery and bioactivity. Detailed information is provided concerning the most relevant recent scientific publications reporting the potential of these delivery systems to increase the skin permeability of drugs with anti-inflammatory, sun-protection, anticarcinogenic and/or wound-healing activities. The main marketed skincare products using emulsion-based systems are also presented and discussed.

Multi-functional self-assembly nanoparticles originating from small molecule natural product for oral insulin delivery through modulating tight junctions

Background

Oral administration of insulin (INS) could be absorbed into systemic circulation only if the carrier protected it from the hostile gastrointestinal conditions. However, traditional macromolecular carriers have not totally overcome challenges in addressing these biological barriers.

Result

In this study, inspired by small molecule natural products (SMNPs), we demonstrate the multi-functional self-assembly nanoparticles (BA-Al NPs) originating from baicalin (BA) and AlCl₃ through coordination bonds and hydrogen bonds. As a novel carrier for oral insulin delivery (INS@BA-Al NPs), it displayed effective capacity in pH stimuli-responsive insulin release, intestinal mucoadhesion and transepithelial absorption enhance. Meanwhile, BA improved the paracellular permeability for insulin absorption, because of its downregulation at both mRNA and protein level on internal tight junction proteins. In vivo experiments exhibited remarkable bioavailability of INS and an ideal glucose homeostasis in the type I diabetic rat model.

Conclusion

This study offers a novel frontier of multi-functional carriers based on SMNPs with self-assembly character and bioactivity, which could be a promising strategy for diabetes therapy.

Graphical Abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12951-022-01260-9.

Novel Nanotechnological Approaches for Targeting Dorsal Root Ganglion (DRG) in Mitigating Diabetic Neuropathic Pain (DNP)

Diabetic neuropathy is the most entrenched complication of diabetes. Usually, it affects the distal foot and toes, which then gradually approaches the lower part of the legs. Diabetic foot ulcer (DFU) could be one of the worst complications of diabetes mellitus. Long-term diabetes leads to hyperglycemia, which is the utmost contributor to neuropathic pain. Hyperglycemia causing an upregulation of voltage-gated sodium channels in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) was often observed in models of neuropathic pain. DRG opening frequency increases intracellular sodium ion levels, which further causes increased calcium channel opening and stimulates other pathways leading to diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN). Currently, pain due to diabetic neuropathy is managed via antidepressants, opioids, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) analogs, and topical agents such as capsaicin. Despite the availability of various treatment strategies, the percentage of patients achieving adequate pain relief remains low. Many factors contribute to this condition, such as lack of specificity and adverse effects such as light-headedness, languidness, and multiple daily doses. Therefore, nanotechnology outperforms in every aspect, providing several benefits compared to traditional therapy such as site-specific and targeted drug delivery. Nanotechnology is the branch of science that deals with the development of nanoscale materials and products, even smaller than 100 nm. Carriers can improve their efficacy with reduced side effects by incorporating drugs into the novel delivery systems. Thus, the utilization of nanotechnological approaches such as nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, inorganic nanoparticles, lipid nanoparticles, gene therapy (siRNA and miRNA), and extracellular vesicles can extensively contribute to relieving neuropathic pain.

Development of optical chemosensors based on photochromic polymer nanocarriers

Spiropyran-containing photochromic polymer nanoparticles with hydroxyl or amine functional groups and particle size of below 100 nm were used to design chemosensors for sensing pH of aqueous media.

Neonatal Fc receptor-targeted lignin-encapsulated porous silicon nanoparticles for enhanced cellular interactions and insulin permeation across the intestinal epithelium

Oral insulin delivery could change the life of millions of diabetic patients as an effective, safe, easy-to-use, and affordable alternative to insulin injections, known by an inherently thwarted patient compliance. Here, we designed a multistage nanoparticle (NP) system capable of circumventing the biological barriers that lead to poor drug absorption and bioavailability after oral administration. The nanosystem consists of an insulin-loaded porous silicon NP encapsulated into a pH-responsive lignin matrix, and surface-functionalized with the Fc fragment of immunoglobulin G, which acts as a targeting ligand for the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn). The developed NPs presented small size (211 ± 1 nm) and narrow size distribution. The NPs remained intact in stomach and intestinal pH conditions, releasing the drug exclusively at pH 7.4, which mimics blood circulation. This formulation showed to be highly cytocompatible, and surface plasmon resonance studies demonstrated that FcRn-targeted NPs present higher capacity to interact and being internalized by the Caco-2 cells, which express FcRn, as demonstrated by Western blot. Ultimately, in vitro permeability studies showed that Fc-functionalized NPs induced an increase in the amount of insulin that permeated across a Caco-2/HT29-MTX co-culture model, showing apparent permeability coefficients (P_app) of 2.37 × 10⁻⁶ cm/s, over the 1.66 × 10⁻⁶ cm/s observed for their non-functionalized counterparts. Overall, these results demonstrate the potential of these NPs for oral delivery of anti-diabetic drugs.

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Multistage nanoparticle (NP) system targeted for the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) aimed at oral insulin delivery.

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NPs released insulin under precisely controlled pH conditions.

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FcRn expression in the cell culture model used was demonstrated by Western blot.

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FcRn-targeted NPs presented higher capacity to interact with the intestinal cells.

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Increased insulin permeation was obtained when using Fc-functionalized NPs.

Nanofiber-based systems intended for diabetes

Diabetic mellitus (DM) is the most communal metabolic disease resulting from a defect in insulin secretion, causing hyperglycemia by promoting the progressive destruction of pancreatic β cells. This autoimmune disease causes many severe disorders leading to organ failure, lower extremity amputations, and ultimately death. Modern delivery systems e.g., nanofiber (NF)-based systems fabricated by natural and synthetic or both materials to deliver therapeutics agents and cells, could be the harbinger of a new era to obviate DM complications. Such delivery systems can effectively deliver macromolecules (insulin) and small molecules. Besides, NF scaffolds can provide an ideal microenvironment to cell therapy for pancreatic β cell transplantation and pancreatic tissue engineering. Numerous studies indicated the potential usage of therapeutics/cells-incorporated NF mats to proliferate/regenerate/remodeling the structural and functional properties of diabetic skin ulcers. Thus, we intended to discuss the aforementioned features of the NF system for DM complications in detail.

Emerging Treatment Strategies for Diabetes Mellitus and Associated Complications: An Update

The occurrence of diabetes mellitus (DM) is increasing rapidly at an accelerating rate worldwide. The status of diabetes has changed over the last three generations; whereas before it was deemed a minor disease of older people but currently it is now one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality among middle-aged and young people. High blood glucose-mediated functional loss, insulin sensitivity, and insulin deficiency lead to chronic disorders such as Type 1 and Type 2 DM. Traditional treatments of DM, such as insulin sensitization and insulin secretion cause undesirable side effects, leading to patient incompliance and lack of treatment. Nanotechnology in diabetes studies has encouraged the development of new modalities for measuring glucose and supplying insulin that hold the potential to improve the quality of life of diabetics. Other therapies, such as β-cells regeneration and gene therapy, in addition to insulin and oral hypoglycemic drugs, are currently used to control diabetes. The present review highlights the nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems and emerging treatment strategies of DM.

Anti-aging properties of phytoconstituents and phyto-nanoemulsions and their application in managing aging-related diseases

Aging is spontaneous and inevitable process in all living beings. It is a complex natural phenomenon that manifests as a gradual decline of physiological functions and homeostasis. Aging inevitably leads to age-associated injuries, diseases, and eventually death. The research on aging-associated diseases aimed at delaying, preventing or even reversing the aging process are of great significance for healthy aging and also for scientific progress. Numerous plant-derived compounds have anti-aging effects, but their therapeutic potential is limited due to their short shelf-life and low bioavailability. As the novel delivery system, nanoemulsion can effectively improve this defect. Nanoemulsions enhance the delivery of drugs to the target site, maintain the plasma concentration for a longer period, and minimize adverse reaction and side effects. This review describes the importance of nanoemulsions for the delivery of phyto-derived compounds and highlights the importance of nanoemulsions in the treatment of aging-related diseases. It also covers the methods of preparation, fate and safety of nanoemulsions, which will provide valuable information for the development of new strategies in treatment of aging-related diseases.

Polysaccharide-Based Nanoparticles for Colon-Targeted Drug Delivery Systems

Polysaccharide biomaterials have gained significant importance in the manufacture of nanoparticles used in colon-targeted drug delivery systems. These systems are a form of non-invasive oral therapy used in the treatment of various diseases. To achieve successful colonic delivery, the chemical, enzymatic and mucoadhesive barriers within the gastrointestinal (GI) tract must be analyzed. This will allow for the nanomaterials to cross these barriers and reach the colon. This review provides information on the development of nanoparticles made from various polysaccharides, which can overcome multiple barriers along the GI tract and affect encapsulation efficiency, drug protection, and release mechanisms upon arrival in the colon. Also, there is information disclosed about the size of the nanoparticles that are usually involved in the mechanisms of diffusion through the barriers in the GI tract, which may influence early drug degradation and release in the digestive tract.

Lipid based nanocarriers for effective drug delivery and treatment of diabetes associated liver fibrosis

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a cluster of several liver diseases like hepatic steatosis, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), non-alcoholic fatty liver (NAFL), liver fibrosis, and cirrhosis which may eventually progress to liver carcinoma. One of the primary key factors associated with the development and pathogenesis of NAFLD is diabetes mellitus. The present review emphasizes on diabetes-associated development of liver fibrosis and its treatment using different lipid nanoparticles such as stable nucleic acid lipid nanoparticles, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems, and conjugates including phospholipid, fatty acid and steroid-based. We have comprehensively described the various pathological and molecular events linking effects of elevated free fatty acid levels, insulin resistance, and diabetes with the pathogenesis of liver fibrosis. Various passive and active targeting strategies explored for targeting hepatic stellate cells, a key target in liver fibrosis, have also been discussed in detail in this review.

Challenge of diabetes mellitus and researchers’ contributions to its control

The aim of this review study was to assess the past significant events on diabetes mellitus, transformations that took place over the years in the medical records of treatment, countries involved, and the researchers who brought about the revolutions. This study used the content analysis to report the existence of diabetes mellitus and the treatments provided by researchers to control it. The focus was mainly on three main types of diabetes (type 1, type 2, and type 3 diabetes). Ethical consideration has also helped to boost diabetic studies globally. The research has a history path from pharmaceuticals of organic-based drugs to metal-based drugs with their nanoparticles in addition to the impacts of nanomedicine, biosensors, and telemedicine. Ongoing and future studies in alternative medicine such as vanadium nanoparticles (metal nanoparticles) are promising.

Intelligent Nanoparticle-Based Dressings for Bacterial Wound Infections

Conventional wound dressing materials containing free antibiotics for bacterial wound infections are presented with several limitations, that is, lack of controlled and triggered release capabilities, and may often not be adequate to address the complex bacteria microenvironment of such infections. Additionally, the improper usage of antibiotics may also result in the emergence of drug resistant strains. While delivery systems (i.e., nanoparticles) that encapsulate antibiotics may potentially overcome some of these limitations, their therapeutic outcomes are still less than desirable. For example, premature drug release or unintended drug activation may occur, which would greatly reduce treatment efficacy. To address this, responsive nanoparticle-based antimicrobial therapies could be a promising strategy. Such nanoparticles can be functionalized to react to a single stimulus or multi stimulus within the bacteria microenvironment and subsequently elicit a therapeutic response. Such "intelligent" nanoparticles can be designed to respond to the microenvironment, that is, an acidic pH, the presence of specific enzymes, bacterial toxins, etc. or to an external stimulus, for example, light, thermal, etc. These responsive nanoparticles can be further incorporated into wound dressings to better promote wound healing. This review summarizes and highlights the recent progress on such intelligent nanoparticle-based dressings as potential wound dressings for bacteria-infected wounds, along with the current challenges and prospects for these technologies to be successfully translated into the clinic.

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) as a nutraceutical: Focus on the metabolic, analgesic, and antiinflammatory effects

Ginger (from the rizhome of Zingiber officinale Roscoe) has been widely used in ethnomedicine for the cure of several ailments. Main active ingredients include phenolic compounds named gingerols. In modern phytotherapy, ginger preparations are predominantly used to counteract nausea and vomiting in pregnant women. However, a number of other pharmacological actions of potential therapeutic interest, which might broaden the spectrum of its clinical use, have been reported. This focused review aims at giving a shot on the antinflammatory, analgesic, and metabolic actions of Zingiber officinale preparations, with a discussion on the clinical applications in knee osteoarthritis, dysmenorrhea, type‐2 diabetes, hyperlipidemia, overweight, and obesity.

Cancer Nanopharmaceuticals: Physicochemical Characterization and In Vitro/In Vivo Applications

Physicochemical, pharmacokinetic, and biopharmaceutical characterization tools play a key role in the assessment of nanopharmaceuticals' potential imaging analysis and for site-specific delivery of anti-cancers to neoplastic cells/tissues. If diagnostic tools and therapeutic approaches are combined in one single nanoparticle, a new platform called nanotheragnostics is generated. Several analytical technologies allow us to characterize nanopharmaceuticals and nanoparticles and their properties so that they can be properly used in cancer therapy. This paper describes the role of multifunctional nanoparticles in cancer diagnosis and treatment, describing how nanotheragnostics can be useful in modern chemotherapy, and finally, the challenges associated with the commercialization of nanoparticles for cancer therapy.