Triterpenes and Aromatic Meroterpenoids with Antioxidant Activity and Neuroprotective Effects from Ganoderma lucidum

Five undescribed meroterpenoids from Ganoderma lucidum and their inhibitory activities against renal fibrosis

Five undescribed meroterpenoids, baosglucidnes A - E (1-5), were isolated from the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma lucidum. Among them, baosglucidne B (2) as a racemic mixture was obtained. Chiral HPLC was employed to separate a pair of enantiomers (+)-2 and (-)-2. The structures and stereochemical features of these substances were characterized by utilizing spectroscopic data and ECD calculations. Finally, the results of anti-renal fibrosis activity evaluation showed that baosglucidne E (5) could inhibit the expression of collagen I in TGF-β1-induced rat kidney proximal tubular cells at 20 μM.

Integrated Metabolomics and Transcriptomics Analysis Reveals New Insights into Triterpene Biosynthesis in Rosa rugosa

Rosa rugosa is highly regarded for its aesthetic and therapeutic qualities. In particular, R. rugosa's flowers are known to produce essential oils containing a mixture of volatile terpenes, phenylpropanoids, and other compounds. Despite this, extensive research exists on volatile terpenes in flowers, while the knowledge of non-volatile terpenes in distinct tissues is still limited. Using UPLC-ESI-MS/MS, a comprehensive analysis of the terpene metabolites in five different tissues of R. rugosa was conducted. These metabolites accumulated in distinct tissues, and the majority of them were triterpenoids. Transcriptome data were collected from five tissues using RNA-seq. Transcriptomics and metabolomics were utilized to evaluate the triterpene biosynthesis pathway, resulting in new insights into its regulation and biosynthesis. The RrOSC10 was identified as a key enzyme in converting 2,3-oxidosqualene into α-amyrin, potentially contributing to the triterpene biosynthesis pathway. Furthermore, the expression of the RrOSC10 gene was upregulated by salinity for 0.5 h and 1 h, with subsequent downregulation at 2 h. This study lays a foundation for future research on the biosynthesis and accumulation of triterpenes in R. rugosa.

The Biological Activity of Ganoderma lucidum on Neurodegenerative Diseases: The Interplay between Different Active Compounds and the Pathological Hallmarks

Neurodegenerative diseases represent a cluster of conditions characterized by the progressive degeneration of the structure and function of the nervous system. Despite significant advancements in understanding these diseases, therapeutic options remain limited. The medicinal mushroom Ganoderma lucidum has been recognized for its comprehensive array of bioactive compounds with anti-inflammatory and antioxidative effects, which possess potential neuroprotective properties. This literature review collates and examines the existing research on the bioactivity of active compounds and extracts from Ganoderma lucidum in modulating the pathological hallmarks of neurodegenerative diseases. The structural information and preparation processes of specific components, such as individual ganoderic acids and unique fractions of polysaccharides, are presented in detail to facilitate structure-activity relationship research and scale up the investigation of in vivo pharmacology. The mechanisms of these components against neurodegenerative diseases are discussed on multiple levels and elaborately categorized in different patterns. It is clearly presented from the patterns that most polysaccharides of Ganoderma lucidum possess neurotrophic effects, while ganoderic acids preferentially target specific pathogenic proteins as well as regulating autophagy. Further clinical trials are necessary to assess the translational potential of these components in the development of novel multi-target drugs for neurodegenerative diseases.

Ganoderma tsuage promotes pain sensitivity in aging mice

Advances in modern medicine have extended human life expectancy, leading to a world with a gradually aging society. Aging refers to a natural decline in the physiological functions of a species over time, such as reduced pain sensitivity and reaction speed. Healthy-level physiological pain serves as a warning signal to the body, helping to avoid noxious stimuli. Physiological pain sensitivity gradually decreases in the elderly, increasing the risk of injury. Therefore, geriatric health care receives growing attention, potentially improving the health status and life quality of the elderly, further reducing medical burden. Health food is a geriatric healthcare choice for the elderly with Ganoderma tsuage (GT), a Reishi type, as the main product in the market. GT contains polysaccharides, triterpenoids, adenosine, immunoregulatory proteins, and other components, including anticancer, blood sugar regulating, antioxidation, antibacterial, antivirus, and liver and stomach damage protective agents. However, its pain perception-related effects remain elusive. This study thus aimed at addressing whether GT could prevent pain sensitivity reduction in the elderly. We used a galactose-induced animal model for aging to evaluate whether GT could maintain pain sensitivity in aging mice undergoing formalin pain test, hot water test, and tail flexes. Our results demonstrated that GT significantly improved the sensitivity and reaction speed to pain in the hot water, hot plate, and formalin tests compared with the control. Therefore, our animal study positions GT as a promising compound for pain sensitivity maintenance during aging.

Insights into Ganoderma fungi meroterpenoids opening a new era of racemic natural products in mushrooms

Ganoderma meroterpenoids (GMs) containing 688 structures to date were discovered to have multiple remarkable biological activities. 65.6% of meroterpenoids featuring stereogenic centers from Ganoderma species are racemates. Further, GMs from different Ganoderma species seem to have their own characteristics. In this review, a comprehensive summarization of GMs since 2000 is presented, including GM structures, structure corrections, biological activities, physicochemical properties, total synthesis, and proposed biosynthetic pathways. Additionally, we especially discuss the racemic nature, species-related structural distribution, and structure-activity relationship of GMs, which will provide a likely in-house database and shed light on future studies on GMs.

Ganoderma lucidum-Derived Meroterpenoids Show Anti-Inflammatory Activity In Vitro

Ganoderma lucidum, known as the "herb of spiritual potency", is used for the treatment and prevention of various diseases, but the responsible constituents for its therapeutic effects are largely unknown. For the purpose of obtaining insight into the chemical and biological profiling of meroterpenoids in G. lucidum, various chromatographic approaches were utilized for the title fungus. As a result, six undescribed meroterpenoids, chizhienes A-F (1-6), containing two pairs of enantiomers (4 and 5), were isolated. Their structures were identified using spectroscopic and computational methods. In addition, the anti-inflammatory activities of all the isolates were evaluated by Western blot analysis in LPS-induced macrophage cells (RAW264.7), showing that 1 and 3 could dose dependently inhibit iNOS but not COX-2 expression. Further, 1 and 3 were found to inhibit nitric oxide (NO) production using the Greiss reagent test. The current study will aid in enriching the structural and biological diversity of Ganoderma-derived meroterpenoids.

Therapeutic potential of the medicinal mushroom Ganoderma lucidum against Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a high-incidence neurodegenerative disorder, characterized by cognitive impairment, memory loss, and psychiatric abnormalities. Ganoderma lucidum is a famous medicinal fungus with a long history of dietary intake, containing various bioactive components, and have been documented to exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-aging, and immunomodulatory effects, among others. Recent studies have shown that G. lucidum and its components have promising therapeutic potential against AD from various aspects, which can delay the progression of AD, improve cognitive function and quality of life. The underlying mechanisms mainly include inhibiting tau hyperphosphorylation, inhibiting Aβ formation, affecting activated microglia, regulating NF-κB/MAPK signalling pathway, inhibiting neuronal apoptosis, modulating immune system, and inhibiting acetylcholinesterase, etc. This paper systematically reviewed the relevant studies on the therapeutic potential of G. lucidum and its active components for treatment of AD, key points related with the mechanism studies and clinical trials have been discussed, and further perspectives have been proposed. Totally, as a natural medicinal mushroom, G. lucidum has the potential to be developed as effective adjuvant for AD treatment owing to its therapeutic efficacy against multiple pathogenesis of AD. Further mechanical investigation and clinical trials can help unlock the complete potential of G. lucidum as a therapeutic option for AD.

Biological Activities of Secondary Metabolites from the Edible-Medicinal Macrofungi

Macrofungi are well-known as edible-medicinal mushrooms, which belong mostly to Basidiomycota, with a few from Ascomycota. In recent years, macrofungi have been recognized as a rich resource of structurally unique secondary metabolites, demonstrating a wide range of bioactivities, including anti-tumor, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antimalarial, neuro-protective, hypoglycemic, and hypolipidemic activities. This review highlights over 270 natural products produced by 17 families of macrofungi covering 2017 to 2023, including their structures, bioactivities, and related molecular mechanisms.

Neurotrophic Natural Products

Neurotrophins (NGF, BDNF, NT3, NT4) can decrease cell death, induce differentiation, as well as sustain the structure and function of neurons, which make them promising therapeutic agents for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. However, neurotrophins have not been very effective in clinical trials mostly because they cannot pass through the blood-brain barrier owing to being high-molecular-weight proteins. Thus, neurotrophin-mimic small molecules, which stimulate the synthesis of endogenous neurotrophins or enhance neurotrophic actions, may serve as promising alternatives to neurotrophins. Small-molecular-weight natural products, which have been used in dietary functional foods or in traditional medicines over the course of human history, have a great potential for the development of new therapeutic agents against neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease. In this contribution, a variety of natural products possessing neurotrophic properties such as neurogenesis, neurite outgrowth promotion (neuritogenesis), and neuroprotection are described, and a focus is made on the chemistry and biology of several neurotrophic natural products.

A Comprehensive Review on the Chemical Composition, Pharmacology and Clinical Applications of Ganoderma

Ganoderma is the dried fruiting bodiy of Ganoderma lucidum (Leyss.ex Fr.) Karst. or Ganoderma sinense Zhao, Xu et Zhang, belonging to the family Polyporaceae, which grows mainly in tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions. As a traditional Chinese medicine, Ganoderma has been used in China for more than 2000 years because of its medicinal properties, such as relieving cough and asthma, providing nourishment, and strengthening. Currently, more than 470 natural compounds have been obtained from the fungus, mainly including terpenoids, steroids, alkaloids, phenols, and other types of compounds. Modern pharmacological studies have shown that Ganoderma has antitumor, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, and immunomodulatory effects. It is mainly used in clinical practice for the treatment of Diabetic Nephropathy and malignant tumors, with few side effects and high safety. This paper reviews the progress of research on its chemical composition, pharmacological effects, and clinical applications, with the goal of providing a basis for the better development and utilization of Ganoderma.

Neuroprotective, neurogenic, and anticholinergic evidence of Ganoderma lucidum cognitive effects: Crucial knowledge is still lacking

Ganoderma lucidum is a mushroom that has been widely used for centuries in Asian countries for its antiaging properties. It is popularly known as "Ling Zhi," "Reishi," and "Youngzhi," and because of its benefits, it is known as the "immortality mushroom." Pharmacological assays have revealed that G. lucidum ameliorates cognitive impairments through inhibition of β-amyloid and neurofibrillary tangle formation, antioxidant effect, reduction of inflammatory cytokine release and apoptosis, genic expression modulation, among other activities. Chemical investigations on G. lucidum have revealed the presence of metabolites such as triterpenes, which are the most explored in this field, as well as flavonoids, steroids, benzofurans, and alkaloids; in the literature, these have also been reported to have mnemonic activity. These properties of the mushroom make it a potential source of new drugs to prevent or reverse memory disorders, as actual medications are able to only alleviate some symptoms but are unable to stop the progress of cognitive impairments, with no impact on social, familiar, and personal relevance. In this review, we discuss the cognitive findings of G. lucidum reported in the literature, converging the proposed mechanisms through the several pathways that underlie memory and cognition processes. In addition, we highlight the gaps that deserve particular attention to support future studies.

The potential role of plant secondary metabolites on antifungal and immunomodulatory effect

With the widespread use of antibiotic drugs worldwide and the global increase in the number of immunodeficient patients, fungal infections have become a serious threat to global public health security. Moreover, the evolution of fungal resistance to existing antifungal drugs is on the rise. To address these issues, the development of new antifungal drugs or fungal inhibitors needs to be targeted urgently. Plant secondary metabolites are characterized by a wide variety of chemical structures, low price, high availability, high antimicrobial activity, and few side effects. Therefore, plant secondary metabolites may be important resources for the identification and development of novel antifungal drugs. However, there are few studies to summarize those contents. In this review, the antifungal modes of action of plant secondary metabolites toward different types of fungi and fungal infections are covered, as well as highlighting immunomodulatory effects on the human body. This review of the literature should lay the foundation for research into new antifungal drugs and the discovery of new targets. KEY POINTS: • Immunocompromised patients who are infected the drug-resistant fungi are increasing. • Plant secondary metabolites toward various fungal targets are covered. • Plant secondary metabolites with immunomodulatory effect are verified in vivo.

Diverse meroterpenoids with α-glucosidase inhibitory activity from Ganoderma cochlear

Three new meroterpenoids, cochlearins J-L (1-3) and three known meroterpenoids (4-6) were isolated from the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma cochlear. NMR (¹H and ¹³C NMR, ¹H - ¹H COSY, HSQC, HMBC and ROESY), and HRESIMS were employed for the structure elucidation of new compounds. The stereostructures of 1-3 were confirmed by calculated ECD and optical rotation methods. Furthermore, compounds (+)-1, (-)-1, (+)-2, (-)-2, (+)-3, (-)-3, and 4-6 were evaluated for their α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. The results showed that compounds (+)-1, (-)-1 and (+)-2 exhibited stronger inhibition against α-glucosidase with IC₅₀ values of 24.18 ± 1.98, 26.49 ± 3.20 and 29.68 ± 2.73 μM, respectively, compared to the positive control ursolic acid (49.65 ± 2.21 μM). The molecular docking experiments reveal that (+)-2 and (-)-2 had different binding mode with α-glucosidase, leading to their different inhibition.

Triterpenoid and Steroid Content of Lipophilic Extracts of Selected Medicinal Plants of the Mediterranean Region

The available phytochemical characteristics of the medicinal plants and derived herbal material often lack data concerning the content of steroids (including phytosterols) and triterpenoids, that can be responsible for various beneficial properties and therapeutic effects, either directly, or as a result of synergistic action with other bioactive constituents. The aim of the present work was the analysis of the content of these compounds in herbal material (leaves, aerial parts) derived from selected medicinal plants (Cistus ladanifer, Cistus monspeliensis, Erica arborea, Globularia alypum, Pistacia lentiscus, Rhamnus alaternus), widely used in folk medicine in the Mediterranean region. Results obtained by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS)-targeted profiling revealed the diversity in the profiles and contents of steroids and triterpenoids in the analyzed plant material, ranging from 5.7% d.w. in E. arborea to 0.1% in G. alypum. The obtained results supplement the existing phytochemical data of the investigated medicinal plants, pointing to the E. arborea aerial parts and P. lentiscus leaves as valuable resources of phytosterols and bioactive triterpenoids.

Sterols Content of Fruiting Bodies of Medicinal Artist's Bracket Mushroom Ganoderma applanatum (Agaricomycetes) Collected in Armenia

The qualitative analysis of hexane extracts obtained from different trama layers (WT, T1-T4) of dried fruiting bodies of medicinal bracket fungus Ganoderma applanatum collected in the Tavoush region of North-East Armenia was performed by GC-MS analysis. Three sterols [(7.22-ergostadienon, ergosterol and ergosta-14.22-diene-3-ol (3β, 5α, 22E)] have been identified. The results have shown that the content and ratio of sterols differ in analyzed trama samples. The highest amount of sterols was detected in middle parts of T2 and T3 layers, while content of sterols gradually decreased to the upper cortical (T4) and lower hymenial (T1) layers. The chromatographic profiles of identified compounds indicate that different sterols dominated in each layer: 7.22-ergostadienon in T4, ergosterol in T3, T2, and T1. The average weight loss of analyzed trama samples during six days of drying was about 40 wt.% (37.0-43.49 wt.%) of the total weight of basidiome, which decreased up to 5 wt.% in the next two days. The complete extraction of sterols lasted six days. Its further prolongation leads to stationary phase without an increase in the amount of extracted sterols.

Antioxidant Potential of Several Polypores Mushrooms from the South of France

We selected polypore mushrooms growing in the Mediterranean area of France to screen their antioxidant activity: Ganoderma applanatum, G. lucidum, Inonotus cuticularis, I. hispidus, Trametes hirsuta, and T. versicolor. Our work also evaluated antioxidant capacity from wild and cultivated G. lucidum fruiting bodies to optimize this biological property on human health. Dried fungal materials were sequentially extracted using cyclohexane, dichloromethane, ethanol, and water. Folin-Ciocalteu assay, oxygen radical absorbance capacity using DPPH and ORAC tests of the polypore extracts were assessed and compared. Among the 28 mushroom extracts tested, four exhibited significant antioxidant activity as ethanol extracts of I. cuticularis, T. hirsuta and wild and cultivated G. lucidum. The ethanol extracts of I. cuticularis and T. hirsuta revealed the highest values for the ORAC test, while the highest values for the Folin-Ciocalteu and DPPH tests were found for the ethanol extracts of cultivated G. lucidum and I. cuticularis. Further studies are needed to identify potential bioactive compounds, especially from I. cuticularis and G. lucidum grown under selected conditions and explore their benefits in the pharmaceutical and food industries.

Lupane Triterpene Derivatives Improve Antiproliferative Effect on Leukemia Cells through Apoptosis Induction

Leukemia is one of the most frequent types of cancer. No effective treatment currently exists, driving a search for new compounds. Simple structural modifications were made to novel triterpenes isolated from Phoradendron wattii. Of the three resulting derivatives, 3α-methoxy-24-hydroxylup-20(29)-en-28-oic acid (T1m) caused a decrease in the median inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) on the K562 cell line. Its mode of action was apparently apoptosis, ROS generation, and loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP). Molecular docking analysis showed T1m to produce lower binding energies than its precursor for the Bcl-2 and EGFR proteins. Small, simple, and viable modifications to triterpenes can improve their activity against leukemia cell lines. T1m is a potentially promising element for future research. Clarifying the targets in its mode of action will improve its applicability.

Lanostane triterpenoids from Ganoderma lucidum and their inhibitory effects against FAAH

Ganoderma lucidum is a famous edible and medicinal fungus. Through a bioactive phytochemical investigation of the ethanolic extracts of the fruiting bodies of G. lucidum, twenty-nine triterpenoids, including eleven previously undescribed triterpenoids, were isolated and characterized based on spectroscopic data. The inhibitory effects of all the triterpenes against fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) were found to be in the range of 30-60% at 100 μM. Methyl ganoderate A displayed the strongest inhibitory activity (61%) against FAAH. Furthermore, all compounds displayed no cytotoxicity against LOVO and MCF-7 human cancer cells. Hence, our present study provides information about G. lucidum as a functional food or pharmaceutical supplement for the treatment of neuroinflammation.

Ganoderma Lucidum Triterpenoids Improve Maternal Separation-Induced Anxiety- and Depression-like Behaviors in Mice by Mitigating Inflammation in the Periphery and Brain

Although early life stress (ELS) can increase susceptibility to adulthood psychiatric disorders and produce a greater inflammatory response in a stressful event, targeted preventive and therapeutic drugs still remain scarce. Ganoderma lucidum triterpenoids (GLTs) can exert anti-inflammatory effects in the periphery and central nervous systems. This study employed a combined model of “childhood maternal separation + adulthood sub-stress” to explore whether GLTs may alleviate anxiety- and depression-like behaviors in male and female mice by mitigating inflammation. Male and female pups were separated from their mothers for four hours per day from postnatal day 1 (PND 1) to PND 21; starting from PND 56, GLTs were administered intraperitoneally once daily for three weeks and followed by three days of sub-stress. Results showed that maternal separation increased the anxiety- and depression-like behaviors in both male and female mice, which disappeared after the preemptive GLTs treatment (40 mg/kg) before adulthood sub-stress. Maternal separation up-regulated the pro-inflammatory markers in the periphery and brain, and activated microglia in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. All the abnormalities were reversed by GLTs administration, with no adverse effects on immune organ indices, liver, and renal function. Our findings suggest that GLTs can be a promising candidate in treating ELS-induced psychiatric disorders.

Effects of High Starch and Supplementation of an Olive Extract on the Growth Performance, Hepatic Antioxidant Capacity and Lipid Metabolism of Largemouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides)

An 8-week feeding trial was conducted to investigate the effects of high-starch diets and the supplementation of an olive extract (OE) on the growth performance, liver health and lipid metabolism of largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides). Four isonitrogenous and isolipidic diets were prepared: two basal diets containing low (9.0%) and high (14.4%) levels of starch (named as LS and HS), and 0.125% OE was supplemented to each basal diet (named LSOE and HSOE). The results show that high-starch diets had significant negative effects on growth performance, with lower FR, SGR and higher FCR, whereas OE significantly lowered FCR, determined by two-way ANOVA analysis. High-starch diets induced oxidative stress, inflammatory response and liver function injury, with significant increases in the content of plasmatic AKP, AST, ALT, hepatic SOD and MDA, and up-regulation of hepatic TNFα, IL1β, and TGFβ1 gene expression. In addition, a high-starch diet decreased the phosphorylation of AMPK and upregulated the expression of SREBP, together with higher hepatic liver lipid and HSI. The oxidative stress and lipid metabolism disorders indicate metabolic liver disease (MLD) of largemouth bass fed high-starch diets. Feeding on OE-supplemented diets increased the hepatic antioxidant capacity by decreasing the content of MDA and SOD. Fish fed the HSOE diet had an activated phosphorylation of JNK and decreased expression of pro-inflammatory IL1β compared with those fed the HS diet, which strongly indicated that the degree of inflammatory responses was reduced after OE supplementation. Interestingly, this study demonstrated that OE regulates hepatic lipid metabolism in fish by inhibiting the expression of hepatic lipogenesis genes (ACC1 and FASN) and promoting lipolysis (ATGL) and β-oxidation (CPT1α) to prevent TG accumulation. In conclusion, high-starch feed induced oxidative stress and lipid metabolic disorder of largemouth bass, while supplementation with OE improved its antioxidant capacity, anti-inflammatory responses and lipid metabolism. However, hepatic histopathological results suggested that OE supplementation could not completely repair the MLD caused by the high level of starch in largemouth bass.

Triterpenoids from the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma lucidum and their inhibitory activity against FAAH

Seventeen triterpenoids including four new lanostane triterpenoids (1-3 and 5) were isolated from the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma lucidum by various chromatographic techniques. Their chemical structures were determined by extensive spectroscopic data, including 1D-NMR, 2D-NMR, and HRESIMS. In addition, the spectral data of compound 4 was reported for the first time. In an in vitro bioassay, most isolated triterpenoids could inhibit the hydrolysis activity of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH). Furthermore, there is no cytotoxicity observed for these isolated triterpenoids. Therefore, G. lucidum showed the potential application for anti-neuroinflammation and more FAAH inhibitors may be explored from G. lucidum.

Biosynthesis and regulation of terpenoids from basidiomycetes: exploration of new research

Basidiomycetes, also known as club fungi, consist of a specific group of fungi. Basidiomycetes produce a large number of secondary metabolites, of which sesquiterpenoids, diterpenoids and triterpenoids are the primary components. However, these terpenoids tend to be present in low amounts, which makes it difficult to meet application requirements. Terpenoid biosynthesis improves the quantity of these secondary metabolites. However, current understanding of the biosynthetic mechanism of terpenoids in basidiomycetes is insufficient. Therefore, this article reviews the latest research on the biosynthesis of terpenoids in basidiomycetes and summarizes the CYP450 involved in the biosynthesis of terpenoids in basidiomycetes. We also propose opportunities and challenges for chassis microbial heterologous production of terpenoids in basidiomycetes and provide a reference basis for the better development of basidiomycete engineering.

Ganoderterpene A, a New Triterpenoid from Ganoderma lucidum, Attenuates LPS-Induced Inflammation and Apoptosis via Suppressing MAPK and TLR-4/NF-κB Pathways in BV-2 Cells

An investigation of the fruiting bodies of edible mushroom Ganoderma lucidum produced 13 steroids, containing one new lanostane-type triterpene compound, named ganoderterpene A (1). Nuclear magnetic resonance and high-resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry data were used to deduce these structures. All the isolates were evaluated for their ability to suppress NO generation in BV-2 microglial cells treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and exhibited moderate to strong inhibition effects, with IC₅₀ values in the range 7.15-36.88 μM. Among the tested compounds, compound 1 exhibited the most marked activity with an IC₅₀ value of 7.15 μM, and the structure-activity relationships were studied. This study showed that compound 1 significantly suppressed the activation of MAPK and TLR-4/NF-κB signaling pathways, as evidenced by an immunofluorescence assay and a molecular docking experiment. Furthermore, compound 1 effectively improved the LPS-induced mitochondrial membrane potential and apoptosis. These findings suggest that ganoderterpene A could exert protective effects in microglial cells from apoptosis by restraining the inflammatory response. Hence, G. lucidum could be used as a novel preventative agent for neurodegenerative disorders.

The association between testicular toxicity induced by Li2Co3 and protective effect of Ganoderma lucidum: Alteration of Bax & c-Kit genes expression

Ganoderma lucidum has received a lot of attention recently due to its medicinal potential activities. The aim of this designed experiment was to evaluate the beneficial effects of Ganoderma lucidum extract against lithium carbonate induced testicular toxicity and related lesions in mice testis. For this purpose, lithium carbonate at a dose of 30 mg/kg, followed by 75, 150 mg/kg Ganoderma lucidum extract orally were administered for 35 days. The results were obtained from Ganoderma lucidum extract analysis prove contained a large amount of polysaccharides, triterpenoids and poly phenols based on spectrophotometric assay. Also, DPPH assay for Ganoderma lucidum extract showed high level of radical scavenging activity. The hematoxylin & eosin cross section from lithium carbonate treated group exhibited significant alterations in seminiferous tubules. Moreover, lithium carbonate induced oxidative stress via lipid peroxidation and generate MDA (P < 0.001). In addition, lithium carbonate initiated germ cells apoptosis via increase Bax expression (p < 0.001) and reduce germ cells differentiation through down-regulation of c-Kit expression (p < 0.05). Results from CASA showed that sperm parameters like count, motility and viability significantly decreased in lithium treated group (p < 0.001). It is clear that lithium carbonate induce severe damage on male reproductive system and histopathological damages via generation oxidative stress but supplementation with Ganoderma lucidum extract exhibited prevention effects and repaired induced damages.

Chemical Profiling and Dose-Dependent Assessment of Fear Reducing and Memory-Enhancing Effects of Solanum virginianum in Rats

The current study was planned to investigate the pharmacological basis of Solanum virginianum extract (SV.CR) pertaining to anxiolytic, antidepressant and memory-enhancing effects in rats. The SV.CR was analyzed in-vitro for phytoconstituents, antioxidant potential and anticholinesterase activity. The rats treated in a dose-dependent manner (25, 50 and 100 mg/kg of SV.CR) were subjected to behavioral tests for anxiety, depression and memory judgment followed by biochemical studies. A notable dose-dependent anxiolytic potential of SV.CR was observed in elevated plus maze and open field tests (P < 0.05). The decreased immobility time of the treated rats in the forced swim test (P < 0.01) unveiled the plant’s potential to reduce depression. Moreover, SV.CR treatment also reversed scopolamine-impaired cognition (P < 0.05) in various deployed memory and learning tasks. Biochemical studies of brain homogenates of SV.CR treated animals demonstrated decreased anticholinesterase activity and lipid peroxidation levels whereas increased levels of superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase (P < 0.05 vs scopolamine group) were noted. The scientific validation of the study supported the use of Solanum virginianum in reducing anxiety, depression and amnesia in experimental models. Phytoconstituents in SV.CR such as oleanolic acid and caffeic acid might have played a significant neuroprotective role via modulation of oxidative stress and neurochemical aspects.

Gancochlearols E - I, meroterpenoids from Ganoderma cochlear against COX-2 and triple negative breast cancer cells and the absolute configuration assignment of ganomycin K

Five new meroterpenoids, gancochlearols E - I (1, 3-6), and one compound ganomycin K (2) were isolated from the fruiting bodies of G. cochlear. Their structures were assigned by 1D and 2D NMR, MS, and CD analysis. Rh₂(OCOCF₃)₄-induced ECD method was used to clarify the absolute configuration of secondary alcohol in 1 and 2. Biochemical evaluation showed that all the isolates significantly inhibit COX-2 enzyme in vitro with the IC₅₀ values range from 1.03 μM to 2.71 μM. Further cellular assay revealed that (+)-3 and (-)-6 could suppress metastatic phenotype of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells via impeding the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT).

Polyphenolics and triterpenes presence in chloroform extract of Dicranopteris linearis leaves attenuated paracetamol-induced liver intoxication in rat

Introduction

Water-soluble, but not lipid-soluble, extract of Dicranopteris linearis leaves has been proven to possess hepatoprotective activity. The present study aimed to validate the hepatoprotective and antioxidant activities, and phytoconstituents of lipid-soluble (chloroform) extract of D. linearis leaves.

Methods

The extract of D. linearis leaves (CEDL; 50, 250 and 500 mg/kg) was orally administered to rats for 7 consecutive days followed by the oral administration of 3 g/kg PCM to induce liver injury. Blood was collected for liver function analysis while the liver was obtained for histopathological examination and endogenous antioxidant activity determination. The extract was also subjected to antioxidant evaluation and phytochemicals determination via phytochemical screening, HPLC and UPLC-HRMS analyses.

Results

CEDL exerted significant (p < 0.05) hepatoprotective activity at 250 and 500 mg/kg and significantly (p < 0.05) reversed the PCM-induced decrease in rat’s liver endogenous antioxidant (catalase and superoxide dismutase) level. CEDL possessed a high antioxidant capacity when measured using the ORAC assay, but a low total phenolic content value and radical scavenging activity as confirmed via several radical scavenging assays, which might be attributed particularly to the presence of triterpenes. Phytochemicals screening demonstrated the presence of triterpenes and flavonoids, while UPLC-HRMS analysis showed the presence of polyphenols belonging to the hydroxybenzoic acids, hydroxycinammates and flavonoid groups.

Discussion and conclusion

Lipid-soluble bioactive compounds of CEDL demonstrated hepatoprotective effect against PCM intoxication partly via the modulation of the endogenous antioxidant defense system, and exerted high antioxidant capacity. Further investigation is warranted to identify the potential hepatoprotective leads from CEDL for future drug development.

Ganoderic acid A protects lens epithelial cells from UVB irradiation and delays lens opacity

A contributory role of oxidative stress and protection by antioxidant nutrients have been suspected in cataract formation. Ganoderic acid A (GAA), an effective lanostane triterpene, is widely reported as an antioxidant. The aim of this study is to investigate the potential effects of GAA on cataract formation. After lens epithelial cells (LECs) were exposed to UVB radiation for different periods, cell viability, apoptosis-related protein levels, malondialdehyde (MDA) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities were monitored. We found that cell viability, the Bcl-2/Bax ratio and SOD activity were increased, while Cleaved caspase-3 levels and MDA activity were decreased compared with those in UVB-impaired LECs after GAA treated. Furthermore, GAA activated PI3K/AKT in UVB-impaired LECs and effectively delayed the occurrence of lens opacity in vitro. In conclusion, these findings demonstrated that GAA exhibited protective functions in SRA01/04 cells and rat lenses against UVB-evoked impairment through elevating cell viability and antioxidant activity, inhibiting cell apoptosis, activating the PI3K/AKT pathway and delaying lens opacity.

Comprehensive Comparison of Two Color Varieties of Perillae Folium Using Rapid Resolution Liquid Chromatography Coupled with Quadruple-Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (RRLC-Q/TOF-MS)-Based Metabolic Profile and in Vivo/in Vitro Anti-Oxidative Activity

Perillae Folium (PF), which is extensively used as a dietary vegetable and medicinal herb, contains two varietal forms corresponding to purple perilla leaf (Perilla frutescens var. crispa) and green perilla leaf (Perilla frutescens var. frutescens). However, the components and efficacy of different PF varieties remain underexplored so far. In the present work, a nontargeted rapid resolution liquid chromatography coupled with quadruple-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (RRLC-Q/TOF-MS)-based metabolomics approach was developed to investigate the difference in the chemical compositions between green PF and purple PF. A total of 71 compounds were identified or tentatively identified, among which 7 phenolic acids, 10 flavonoids, and 9 anthocyanins were characterized as differential metabolites. In addition, heatmap visualization and ultraperformance liquid chromatography coupled with triple-quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-TQ-MS/MS)-based quantitative analysis revealed that flavonoids and anthocyanins especially had higher contents in purple PF. Furthermore, the anti-oxidative activities of two varietal PFs were evaluated in vivo zebrafish and in vitro human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). The results showed that the purple PF had more pronounced anti-oxidative activities than did the green PF, which may be due to the presence of anthocyanins and a higher concentration of flavonoids in its phytochemical profile. The outcome of the present study is expected to provide useful insight on the comprehensive utilization of a PF resource.

A Mechanistic Review on Medicinal Mushrooms-Derived Bioactive Compounds: Potential Mycotherapy Candidates for Alleviating Neurological Disorders

According to the World Health Organization, neurological and neurodegenerative diseases are highly debilitating and pose the greatest threats to public health. Diseases of the nervous system are caused by a particular pathological process that negatively affects the central and peripheral nervous systems. These diseases also lead to the loss of neuronal cell function, which causes alterations in the nervous system structure, resulting in the degeneration or death of nerve cells throughout the body. This causes problems with movement (ataxia) and mental dysfunction (dementia), both of which are commonly observed symptoms in Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and multiple sclerosis. Medicinal mushrooms are higher fungi with nutraceutical properties and are low in calories and fat. They are also a rich source of nutrients and bioactive compounds such as carbohydrates, proteins, fibers, and vitamins that have been used in the treatment of many ailments. Medicinal mushrooms such as Pleurotus giganteus, Ganoderma lucidium, and Hericium erinaceus are commonly produced worldwide for use as health supplements and medicine. Medicinal mushrooms and their extracts have a large number of bioactive compounds, such as polysaccharide β-glucan, or polysaccharide-protein complexes, like lectins, lactones, terpenoids, alkaloids, antibiotics, and metal-chelating agents. This review will focus on the role of the medicinal properties of different medicinal mushrooms that contain bioactive compounds with a protective effect against neuronal dysfunction. This information will facilitate the development of drugs against neurodegenerative diseases.

Water-Extracted Ganoderma lucidum Induces Apoptosis and S-Phase Arrest via Cyclin-CDK2 Pathway in Glioblastoma Cells

Glioblastoma is one of the most common and most aggressive brain cancers. The current treatment is mainly surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy, but the results are not satisfactory. Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum), also called “Lingzhi”, is a medicinal mushroom that has been used as a therapeutic agent for the treatment of numerous diseases, including cancer. However, whether it is effective for treating cancer is still unclear. In the present study, the anti-tumor effect of a water extract of G. lucidum was investigated using brain tumor cells. We used an analysis of cell viability, flow cytometry, the IncuCyte live-cell analysis system, and Western blotting to study its effects. The water extract from G. lucidum inhibited cell proliferation in a dose- and time-dependent manner, and it induced mitochondria-mediated apoptosis and cell cycle arrest at S phase via the cyclin-CDK2 pathway in human brain tumor cells. In addition, the G. lucidum extract significantly inhibited cell migration and mesenchymal marker expression based on the IncuCyte live-cell assay and qRT-PCR analysis. In summary, these anti-tumor effects in brain tumor cells suggest that G. lucidum may be useful for treating brain tumors.

Cultivated Fruit Body of Phellinus baumii: A Potentially Sustainable Antidiabetic Resource

Previous studies have been reported that the fruit body of wild Phellinus baumii alleviates diabetes, and antioxidants are beneficial to diabetes by protecting the β-cell from damage due to oxidative stress. Large-scale cultivation of P. baumii fruit body has been successful in the past decade. This paper aimed to investigate whether the fruit body of the cultivated P. baumii has the same analogical effects as the wild. The cultivated P. baumii fruit body was extracted by 80% of ethanol extracts, and different fractions were obtained with the successive use of petroleum ether, ethyl acetate (EtOAc), n-butanol (n-BuOH), and water, which yielded 15.98 ± 1.56, 1.74 ± 0.34, 3.31 ± 0.41, 4.12 ± 0.37, and 1.38 ± 0.26% extract recovery, respectively. Results show that the EtOAc fraction exhibits the highest inhibitory effect on α-glucosidase activity (IC50 = 49.05 ± 3.14 μg mL-1), which is an order of magnitude higher than the positive control (acarbose, IC50 = 645.73 ± 7.86 μg mL-1). It was mainly composed of phenolic compounds with a purity of 79.45% and characterized by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry as osmudacetone, hispidin, davallialactone, 2,5-bis(4,7-dihydroxy-8-methyl-2-oxo-2H-chromen-3-yl)cyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione, hypholomin B, and inoscavin A. Furthermore, the EtOAc fraction increased the glucose consumption of insulin-resistant HepG2 cells at a concentration range of 25-100 μg mL-1. The EtOAc fraction also demonstrated antioxidant activities by scavenging 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl, 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)diammonium salt, and hydroxyl radicals. In conclusion, the EtOAc fraction of the cultivated P. baumii fruit body exerted effective antidiabetic effects, possibly due to the high content of selective phenolic compounds. Hence, the cultivated fruit body of P. baumii can be a sustainable resource for treating diabetes, and our work also shed some light on its future utilization.

Characterization and Antioxidant Activity Determination of Neutral and Acidic Polysaccharides from Panax Ginseng C. A. Meyer

Panax ginseng (P. ginseng) is the most widely consumed herbal plant in Asia and is well-known for its various pharmacological properties. Many studies have been devoted to this natural product. However, polysaccharide’s components of ginseng and their biological effects have not been widely studied. In this study, white ginseng neutral polysaccharide (WGNP) and white ginseng acidic polysaccharide (WGAP) fractions were purified from P. ginseng roots. The chemical properties of WGNP and WGAP were investigated using various chromatography and spectroscopy techniques, including high-performance gel permeation chromatography, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and high-performance liquid chromatography with an ultra-violet detector. The antioxidant, anti-radical, and hydrogen peroxide scavenging activities were evaluated in vitro and in vivo using Caenorhabditis elegans as the model organism. Our in vitro data by ABTS (2,2′-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid), reducing power, ferrous ion chelating, and hydroxyl radical scavenging activity suggested that the WGAP with significantly higher uronic acid content and higher molecular weight exhibits a much stronger antioxidant effect as compared to that of WGNP. Similar antioxidant activity of WGAP was also confirmed in vivo by evaluating internal reactive oxygen species (ROS) concentration and lipid peroxidation. In conclusion, WGAP may be used as a natural antioxidant with potent scavenging and metal chelation properties.