Anti-Angiogenic Properties of Ginsenoside Rg3

Ginsenoside Rg3 induces mesangial cells proliferation and attenuates apoptosis by miR-216a-5p/MAPK pathway in diabetic kidney disease

BACKGROUND

Ginsenoside Rg3 is an active saponin isolated from ginseng, which can reduce renal inflammation. However, the role and mechanism of Rg3 in diabetic kidney disease (DKD) are far from being studied.

METHODS

The effects of Rg3 and miR-216a-5p on the proliferation, apoptosis, and MAPK pathway in high glucose (HG)-induced SV40 MES 13 were monitored by CCK-8, TUNEL staining, and western blot.

RESULTS

Rg3 treatment could accelerate proliferation and suppress apoptosis in HG-induced SV40 MES. Moreover, miR-216a-5p inhibition also could alleviate renal injury, prevent apoptosis, and activate the MAPK pathway in kidney tissues of diabetic model mice.

CONCLUSION

Rg3 could attenuate DKD progression by downregulating miR-216a-5p, suggesting Rg3 and miR-216a-5p might be the potential drug and molecular targets for DKD therapy.

Biosynthesis and functions of triterpenoids in cereals

BACKGROUND

Triterpenoids are versatile secondary metabolites with a diverse array of physiological activities, possessing valuable pharmacological effects and influencing the growth and development of plants. As more triterpenoids in cereals are unearthed and characterized, their biological roles in plant growth and development are gaining recognition.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This review provides an overview of the structures, biosynthetic pathways, and diverse biological functions of triterpenoids identified in cereals. Our goal is to establish a basis for further exploration of triterpenoids with novel structures and functional activities in cereals, and to facilitate the potential application of triterpenoids in grain breeding, thus accelerating the development of superior grain varieties.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF THE REVIEW

This review consolidates information on various triterpenoid skeletons and derivatives found in cereals, and summarizes the pivotal enzyme genes involved, including oxidosqualene cyclase (OSC) and other triterpenoid modifying enzymes like cytochrome P450, glycosyltransferase, and acyltransferase. Triterpenoid-modifying enzymes exhibit specificity towards catalytic sites within triterpenoid skeletons, generating a diverse array of functional triterpenoid derivatives. Furthermore, triterpenoids have been shown to significantly impact the nutritional value, yield, disease resistance, and stress response of cereals.

Expression, purification, characterization and crystallization of Panax quinquefolius ginsenoside glycosyltransferase Pq3-O-UGT2

Pq3-O-UGT2, derived from Panax quinquefolius, functions as a ginsenoside glucosyltransferase, utilizing UDP-glucose (UDPG) as the sugar donor to catalyze the glycosylation of Rh2 and F2. An essential step in comprehending its catalytic mechanism involves structural analysis. In preparation for structural analysis, we expressed Pq3-O-UGT2 in the Escherichia coli (E. coli) strain Rosetta (DE3). The recombinant Pq3-O-UGT2 was purified through Ni-NTA affinity purification, a two-step ion exchange chromatography, and subsequently size-exclusion chromatography (SEC). Notably, the purified Pq3-O-UGT2 showed substantial activity toward Rh2 and F2, catalyzing the formation of Rg3 and Rd, respectively. This activity was discernible within a pH range of 4.0-9.0 and temperature range of 30-55 °C, with optimal conditions observed at pH 7.0-8.0 and 37 °C. The catalytic efficiency of Pq3-O-UGT2 toward Rh2 and F2 was 31.43 s-1 mΜ-1 and 169.31 s-1 mΜ-1, respectively. We further crystalized Pq3-O-UGT2 in both its apo form and co-crystalized forms with UDPG, Rh2 and F2, respectively. High-quality crystals were obtained and X-ray diffraction data was collected for all co-crystalized samples. Analysis of the diffraction data revealed that the crystal of Pq3-O-UGT2 co-crystalized with UDP-Glc belonged to space group P1, while the other two crystals belonged to space group P212121. Together, this study has laid a robust foundation for subsequent structural analysis of Pq3-O-UGT2.

Unveiling the experimental proof of the anticancer potential of ginsenoside Rg3 (Review)

Ginsenoside Rg3 (GS-Rg3), a sterol molecule isolated from ginseng, has demonstrated various immunological properties, including inhibition of cancer cell proliferation and metastasis, reversal of drug resistance and enhancement of chemotherapy sensitivity. The recent surge in attention towards GS-Rg3 can be attributed to its potential as an antitumor angiogenesis agent and as a therapeutic candidate for immunotherapy. The development of GS-Rg3 as an agent for these purposes has accelerated research on its mechanisms of action. The present review summarizes recent studies investigating the antitumor activity of GS-Rg3 and its underlying mechanisms, as well as providing essential information for future studies on GS-Rg3.

Ginsenoside Rg3 overcomes tamoxifen resistance through inhibiting glycolysis in breast cancer cells

Tamoxifen (TAM) resistance poses a significant clinical challenge in human breast cancer and exhibits high heterogeneity among different patients. Rg3, an original ginsenoside known to inhibit tumor growth, has shown potential for enhancing TAM sensitivity in breast cancer cells. However, the specific role and underlying mechanisms of Rg3 in this context remain unclear. Aerobic glycolysis, a metabolic process, has been implicated in chemotherapeutic resistance. In this study, we demonstrate that elevated glycolysis plays a central role in TAM resistance and can be effectively targeted and overcome by Rg3. Mechanistically, we observed upregulation of 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase 3 (PFKFB3), a key mediator of glycolysis, in TAM-resistant MCF-7/TamR and T-47D/TamR cells. Crucially, PFKFB3 is indispensable for the synergistic effect of TAM and Rg3 combination therapy, which suppresses cell proliferation and glycolysis in MCF-7/TamR and T-47D/TamR cells, both in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, overexpression of PFKFB3 in MCF-7 cells mimicked the TAM resistance phenotype. Importantly, combination treatment significantly reduced TAM-resistant MCF-7 cell proliferation in an in vivo model. In conclusion, this study highlights the contribution of Rg3 in enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of TAM in breast cancer, and suggests that targeting TAM-resistant PFKFB3 overexpression may represent a promising strategy to improve the response to combination therapy in breast cancer.

Mechanisms of vascular invasion after cartilage injury and potential engineering cartilage treatment strategies

Articular cartilage injury is one of the most common diseases in orthopedic clinics. Following an articular cartilage injury, an inability to resist vascular invasion can result in cartilage calcification by newly formed blood vessels. This process ultimately leads to the loss of joint function, significantly impacting the patient's quality of life. As a result, developing anti-angiogenic methods to repair damaged cartilage has become a popular research topic. Despite this, tissue engineering, as an anti-angiogenic strategy in cartilage injury repair, has not yet been adequately investigated. This exhaustive literature review mainly focused on the process and mechanism of vascular invasion in articular cartilage injury repair and summarized the major regulatory factors and signaling pathways affecting angiogenesis in the process of cartilage injury. We aimed to discuss several potential methods for engineering cartilage repair with anti-angiogenic strategies. Three anti-angiogenic tissue engineering methods were identified, including administering angiogenesis inhibitors, applying scaffolds to manage angiogenesis, and utilizing in vitro bioreactors to enhance the therapeutic properties of cultured chondrocytes. The advantages and disadvantages of each strategy were also analyzed. By exploring these anti-angiogenic tissue engineering methods, we hope to provide guidance for researchers in related fields for future research and development in cartilage repair.

Differential antiangiogenic and anticancer activities of the active metabolites of ginsenoside Rg3

Background

Epimers of ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) have a low bioavailability and are prone to deglycosylation, which produces epimers of ginsenoside Rh2 (S-Rh2 and R-Rh2) and protopanaxadiol (S-PPD and R-PPD). The aim of this study was to compare the efficacy and potency of these molecules as anti-cancer agents.

Methods

Crystal violet staining was used to study the anti-proliferatory action of the molecules on a human epithelial breast cancer cell line, MDA-MB-231, and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) and compare their potency. Cell death and cell cycle were studied using flow cytometry and mode of cell death was studied using live cell imaging. Anti-angiogenic effects of the drug were studied using loop formation assay. Molecular docking showed the interaction of these molecules with vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 (VEGFR2) and aquaporin (AQP) water channels. VEGF bioassay was used to study the interaction of Rh2 with VEGFR2, in vitro.

Results

HUVEC was the more sensitive cell line to the anti-proliferative effects of S-Rh2, S-PPD and R-PPD. The molecules induced necroptosis/necrosis in MDA-MB-231 and apoptosis in HUVEC. S-Rh2 was the most potent inhibitor of loop formation. In silico molecular docking predicted a good binding score between Rh2 or PPD and the ATP-binding pocket of VEGFR2. VEGF bioassay showed that Rh2 was an allosteric modulator of VEGFR2. In addition, SRh2 and PPD had good binding scores with AQP1 and AQP5, both of which play roles in cell migration and proliferation.

Conclusion

The combination of these molecules might be responsible for the anti-cancer effects observed by Rg3.

The protective role of ginsenoside Rg3 in heart diseases and mental disorders

Ginsenoside Rg3, a compound derived from Panax ginseng C. A. Mey., is increasingly recognized for its wide range of pharmacological effects. Under the worldwide healthcare challenges posed by heart diseases, Rg3 stands out as a key subject in modern research on Chinese herbal medicine, offering a novel approach to therapy. Mental illnesses are significant contributors to global disease mortality, and there is a well-established correlation between cardiac and psychiatric conditions. This connection is primarily due to dysfunctions in the sympathetic-adrenomedullary system (SAM), the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, inflammation, oxidative stress, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor impairment. This review provides an in-depth analysis of Rg3's therapeutic benefits and its pharmacological actions in treating cardiac and mental health disorders respectively. Highlighting its potential for the management of these conditions, Rg3 emerges as a promising, multifunctional therapeutic agent.

Anti-leukemia effects of ginsenoside monomer: A narrative review of pharmacodynamics study

Background

Leukemia is a prevalent disease with high mortality and morbidity rates. Current therapeutic approaches are expensive and have side effects.

Objective

In this investigation, we reviewed studies that investigated the anticancer effects of ginsenoside derivatives against leukemia and also explained the three main Ginsenoside derivatives (ginsenoside Rg3, Rh2, and Rg1) separately.

Methods

An extensive search was conducted in Pubmed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar and relevant studies that investigated anticancer effects of ginsenoside derivatives against leukemia cancer were extracted and reviewed.

Results

Preclinical studies reported that ginsenoside derivatives can induce apoptosis, suppress the proliferation of cancer cells, and induce differentiation and cell cycle arrest in leukemia cells. in addition, it can suppress the chemokine activity and extramedullary infiltration of leukemia cells from bone marrow. using herbal medicine and its derivatives is a promising approach to current health problems.

Conclusion

This review shows that ginsenoside derivatives can potentially suppress the growth of leukemia cells via various pathways and can be applied as a new natural medicine for future clinical research.

Transformation of Ginsenosides by Lactiplantibacillus plantarum MB11 Fermentation: Minor Ginsenosides Conversion and Enhancement of Anti-Colorectal Cancer Activity

The present study aimed to increase the content of minor ginsenosides and enhance the anti-colorectal cancer activity of ginsenosides via biotransformation by Lactiplantibacillus plantarum MB11 screened from fermented foods. A subcutaneous transplantation tumor model of murine colorectal cancer CT26 cells was established in mice to study the anticarcinogenic activities and mechanism of fermented total ginsenosides (FTGs). The results showed that L. plantarum MB11 fermentation increased the content of minor ginsenosides and decreased that of major ginsenosides. FTGs reduced the tumor weight and size compared with the model group. Immunofluorescence and TdT-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) analysis showed that FTGs significantly increase the number of caspase-3 cells in tumor tissue and induce cell apoptosis. Mechanically, FTGs activate AMPK/mTOR autophagy pathway and regulate JAK2/STAT3 and Bax/Bcl-2/caspase-3 apoptosis pathway. Overall, fermentation with L. plantarum MB11 enhanced minor ginsenosides in total ginsenosides, and FTGs induced subcutaneous transplantation tumor autophagy and apoptosis in mice.

Ginsenoside Rg3 improves microcystin-induced cardiotoxicity through the miR-128-3p/MDM4 axis

Microcystin (MC) is the byproduct of cyanobacteria metabolism that is associated with oxidative stress and heart damage. This study aimed to investigate the effect of ginsenoside Rg3 on MC-induced cardiotoxicity. A mouse model of myocardial infarction was constructed by oral MC administration. H9C2 cells were used for in vitro analysis. Cellular oxidative stress, apoptosis, and the relationship between miR-128-3p and double minute 4 protein (MDM4) were analyzed. MiR-128-3p expression was upregulated in vitro and in vivo after MC treatment, which was downregulated after Rg3 treatment. Left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) and left ventricular systolic pressure (LVSP) were increased and left ventricular end-diastolic pressure (LVEDP) was decreased after Rg3 treatment. Moreover, Rg3 alleviated MC-induced pathological changes and apoptosis in myocardial tissues. Meanwhile, Rg3 treatment decreased the lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels and inhabited cell apoptosis and oxidative stress in MC-treated myocardial cells. MiR-128-3p overexpression attenuated the protective effect of Rg3 on MC-induced cardiotoxicity. MiR-128-3p negatively regulated MDM4 expression. This study revealed that Rg3 alleviated MC-induced cardiotoxicity through the miR-128-3p/MDM4 axis, which emphasized the potential of Rg3 as a therapeutic agent for MC-induced cardiotoxicity, and miR-128-3p as a target for the Rg3 therapy.

Research progress of ginger in the treatment of gastrointestinal tumors

Cancer seriously endangers human health. Gastrointestinal cancer is the most common and major malignant tumor, and its morbidity and mortality are gradually increasing. Although there are effective treatments such as radiotherapy and chemotherapy for gastrointestinal tumors, they are often accompanied by serious side effects. According to the traditional Chinese medicine and food homology theory, many materials are both food and medicine. Moreover, food is just as capable of preventing and treating diseases as medicine. Medicine and food homologous herbs not only have excellent pharmacological effects and activities but also have few side effects. As a typical medicinal herb with both medicinal and edible uses, some components of ginger have been shown to have good efficacy and safety against cancer. A mass of evidence has also shown that ginger has anti-tumor effects on digestive tract cancers (such as gastric cancer, colorectal cancer, liver cancer, laryngeal cancer, and pancreatic cancer) through a variety of pathways. The aim of this study is to investigate the mechanisms of action of the main components of ginger and their potential clinical applications in treating gastrointestinal tumors.

Activation of ULK1 to trigger FUNDC1-mediated mitophagy in heart failure: Effect of Ginsenoside Rg3 intervention

BACKGROUND

Although the development of therapies for heart failure (HF) continues apace, clinical outcomes are often far from ideal. Unc51-like-kinase 1 (ULK1)-mediated mitophagy prevents pathological cardiac remodeling and heart failure (HF). Molecularly ULK1-targeted agent to enhance mitophagy is scanty.

HYPOTHESIS/PURPOSE

This study aimed to investigate whether Ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) can activate ULK1 to trigger FUNDC1-mediated mitophagy for protecting heart failure.

METHODS

Molecular docking and surface plasmon resonance were used to detect the ULK1 binding behavior of Rg3. Established HF model in rats and transcriptome sequencing were used to evaluate the therapeutic effect and regulatory mechanism of Rg3. Loss-of-function approaches in vivo and in vitro were performed to determine the role of ULK1 in Rg3-elicited myocardial protection against HF. FUNDC1 recombinant plasmid of site mutation was applied to elucidate more in-depth mechanisms.

RESULTS

Structurally, a good binding mode was unveiled between ULK1 and Rg3. In vivo, Rg3 improved cardiac dysfunction, adverse remodeling, and mitochondrial damage in HF rats. Furthermore, Rg3 promoted Ulk1-triggered mitophagy both in vivo and in vitro, manifested by the impetus of downstream Fundc1-Lc3 interaction. Of note, the protective effects conferred by Rg3 against mitophagy defects, pathological remodeling, and cardiac dysfunction were compromised by Ulk1 gene silencing both in vivo and in vitro. Mechanistically, Rg3 activated mitophagy by inducing ULK1-mediated phosphorylation of FUNDC1 at the Ser17 site, not the Ser13 site.

CONCLUSION

Together these observations demonstrated that Rg3 acts as a ULK1 activator for the precise treatment of HF, which binds to ULK1 to activate FUNDC1-mediated mitophagy.

Ginsenosides: a potential natural medicine to protect the lungs from lung cancer and inflammatory lung disease

Lung cancer is the malignancy with the highest morbidity and mortality. Additionally, pulmonary inflammatory diseases, such as pneumonia, acute lung injury, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and pulmonary fibrosis (PF), also have high mortality rates and can promote the development and progression of lung cancer. Unfortunately, available treatments for them are limited, so it is critical to search for effective drugs and treatment strategies to protect the lungs. Ginsenosides, the main active components of ginseng, have been shown to have anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory activities. In this paper, we focus on the beneficial effects of ginsenosides on lung diseases and their molecular mechanisms. Firstly, the molecular mechanism of ginsenosides against lung cancer was summarized in detail, mainly from the points of view of proliferation, apoptosis, autophagy, angiogenesis, metastasis, drug resistance and immunity. In in vivo and in vitro lung cancer models, ginsenosides Rg3, Rh2 and CK were reported to have strong anti-lung cancer effects. Then, in the models of pneumonia and acute lung injury, the protective effect of Rb1 was particularly remarkable, followed by Rg3 and Rg1, and its molecular mechanism was mainly associated with targeting NF-κB, Nrf2, MAPK and PI3K/Akt pathways to alleviate inflammation, oxidative stress and apoptosis. Additionally, ginsenosides may also have a potential health-promoting effect in the improvement of COPD, asthma and PF. Furthermore, to overcome the low bioavailability of CK and Rh2, the development of nanoparticles, micelles, liposomes and other nanomedicine delivery systems can significantly improve the efficacy of targeted lung cancer treatment. To conclude, ginsenosides can be used as both anti-lung cancer and lung protective agents or adjuvants and have great potential for future clinical applications.

Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of ginsenoside Rg1 for hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes mellitus: systematic reviews and meta-analyses of animal studies

Background: According to existing laboratory data, ginsenoside Rg1 may help cure diabetes and its complications by reducing oxidative stress (OS) and managing inflammation. However, this conclusion lacks reliability and is unclear. As a result, the purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to evaluate the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of ginsenoside Rg1 in the treatment of diabetes and its complications. Methods: We searched for relevant studies published through December 2022, including electronic bibliographic databases such as PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science, CNKI, and Wanfang. The SYstematic Review Center for Laboratory Animal Experimentation Risk of Bias (SYRCLE RoB) tool was used to conduct a meta-analysis to assess the methodological quality of animal research. The meta-analysis was conducted using RevMan5.4 software, following the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. This study is registered in the International Systems Review Prospective Registry (PROSPERO) as CRD42023386830. Results: Eighteen eligible studies involving 401 animals were included. Ginsenoside Rg1 was significantly correlated with blood glucose (BG), insulin levels, body weight, superoxide dismutase (SOD), malondialdehyde (MDA), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels. In addition, according to subgroup analysis, the hypoglycemic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects of ginsenoside Rg1 in type 2 diabetic animals were not affected by experimental species, modeling, experimental drug dosage, or course of treatment. Conclusion: This meta-analysis presents a summary of the hypoglycemic effects of ginsenoside Rg1, which are achieved through anti-inflammatory and antioxidant mechanisms. These findings provide evidence-based support for the medical efficacy of ginsenoside Rg1. Specifically, ginsenoside Rg1 reduced MDA levels and restored SOD activity to exert its antioxidant activity. It had a positive effect on the reduction of IL-6 and TNF-α levels. However, the inclusion of studies with low methodological quality and the presence of publication bias may undermine the validity of the results. Further investigation with a more rigorous experimental design and comprehensive studies is necessary to fully understand the specific glycemic mechanisms of ginsenosides. Systematic Review Registration: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/, identifier https://CRD42023386830.

Retinal cell-targeted liposomal ginsenoside Rg3 attenuates retinal ischemia-reperfusion injury via alleviating oxidative stress and promoting microglia/macrophage M2 polarization

Retinal ischemia-reperfusion (RIR) injury remains a major challenge that is detrimental to retinal cell survival in a variety of ocular diseases. However, current clinical treatments focus on a single pathological mechanism, making them unable to provide comprehensive retinal protection. A variety of natural products including ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) exhibit potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. Unfortunately, the hydrophobicity of Rg3 and the presence of various intraocular barriers limit its effective application in clinical settings. Hyaluronic acid (HA)- specifically binds to cell surface receptors, CD44, which is widely expressed in retinal pigment epithelial cells and M1-type macrophage. Here, we developed HA-decorated liposomes loaded with Rg3, termed Rg3@HA-Lips, to protect against retinal damage caused by RIR injury. Treatment with Rg3@HA-Lips significantly inhibited the oxidative stress induced by RIR injury. In addition, Rg3@HA-Lips promoted the transition of M1-type macrophage to the M2 type, ultimately reversing the pro-inflammatory microenvironment. The mechanism of Rg3@HA-Lips was further investigated and found that they can regulateSIRT/FOXO3a, NF-κB and STAT3 signaling pathways. Together with as well demonstrated good safety profiles, this CD44-targeted platform loaded with a natural product alleviates RIR injury by modulating the retinal microenvironment and present a potential clinical treatment strategy.

Ginsenosides in cancer: Targeting cell cycle arrest and apoptosis

Despite the existence of extensive clinical research and novel therapeutic treatments, cancer remains undefeated and the significant cause of death worldwide. Cancer is a disease in which growth of cells goes out of control, being also able to invade other parts of the body. Cellular division is strictly controlled by multiple checkpoints like G1/S and G2/M which, when dysregulated, lead to uncontrollable cell division. The current remedies which are being utilized to combat cancer are monoclonal antibodies, chemotherapy, cryoablation, and bone marrow transplant etc. and these have also been greatly disheartening because of their serious adverse effects like hypotension, neuropathy, necrosis, leukemia relapse and many more. Bioactive compounds derived from natural products have marked the history of the development of novel drug therapies against cancer among which ginsenosides have no peer as they target several signaling pathways, which when abnormally regulated, lead to cancer. Substantial research has reported that ginsenosides like Rb1, Rb2, Rb3, Rc, Rd, Rg3, Rh2 etc. can prevent and treat cancer by targeting different pathways and molecules by induction of autophagy, neutralizing ROS, induction of cancerous cell death by controlling the p53 pathway, modulation of miRNAs by decreasing Smad2 expression, regulating Bcl-2 expression by normalizing the NF-Kb pathway, inhibition of inflammatory pathways by decreasing the production of cytokines like IL-8, causing cell cycle arrest by restricting cyclin E1 and CDC2, and induction of apoptosis during malignancy by decreasing β-catenin levels etc. In this review, we have analyzed the anti-cancer therapeutic potential of various ginsenoside compounds in order to consider their possible use in new strategies in the fight against cancer.

Natural products as the calcium channel blockers for the treatment of arrhythmia: Advance and prospect

Arrhythmia is one of the commonly heart diseases with observed abnormal heart-beat rhythm that caused by the obstacles of cardiac activity and conduction. The arrhythmic pathogenesis is complex and capricious and related with other cardiovascular diseases that may lead to heart failure and sudden death. In particular, calcium overload is recognized as the main reason causing arrhythmia through inducing apoptosis in cardiomyocytes. Moreover, calcium channel blockers have been widely used as the routine drugs for the treatment of arrhythmia, but the different arrhythmic complications and adverse effects limit their further applications and demand new drug discovery. Natural products have always been the rich minerals for the development of new drugs that could be employed as the versatile player for the discovery of safe and effective anti-arrhythmia drugs with new mechanisms. In this review, we summarized natural products with the activity against calcium signaling and the relevant mechanism of actions. We are expected to provide an inspiration for the pharmaceutical chemists to develop more potent calcium channel blockers for the treatment of arrhythmia.

Ginsenoside Rg3 inhibits the malignant progression of cervical cancer cell by regulating AKT2 expression

Although ginsenoside Rg3 has been shown to exert anticancer effects in various malignancies, the effects and molecular mechanisms of ginsenoside Rg3 in cervical cancer (CC) remain unclear. This study explored the effect of ginsenoside Rg3 on CC development at the cellular level. The effect of ginsenoside Rg3 on cell proliferation was measured using colony formation and Cell Counting Kit-8 assays. Migration, invasion, and in vitro angiogenesis of CC cells were detected using wound healing, transwell, and tube formation assays, respectively. In addition, we explored the target genes and molecular mechanisms of ginsenoside Rg3 in CC cells overexpressing AKT serine/threonine kinase 2 (AKT2). The results indicated that ginsenoside Rg3 suppressed proliferation, migration, invasion, and tube formation of CC cells in vitro. In addition, ginsenoside Rg3 treatment decreased the expression of AKT2 in CC cells. Moreover, ginsenoside Rg3 treatment partially reversed AKT2 overexpression-mediated reduction in cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and tube formation. In conclusion, the above findings suggested that ginsenoside Rg3 inhibits CC progression via regulation of AKT2 expression, which might provide a potential therapeutic target for tumor therapy.

Ginsenoside Rh2: A shining and potential natural product in the treatment of human nonmalignant and malignant diseases in the near future

BACKGROUND

Ginseng is well-known as one of the most valuable and commonly used Chinese medicines not only in ancient China but also worldwide including East, Russia, Southeast Asia, North America and some Western European countries. Ginsenosides, as one of the main high active components of Ginseng, have various pharmacological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, antianaphylaxis, anti-depression, and anticancer activities. Ginsenoside Rh2 (Rh2), one of the major bioactive ginsenosides in Panax ginseng, also exhibits versatile pharmacological activities, such as increasing non-specific resistance and specific immune response, improving cardiac function and fibrosis, anti-inflammatory effects and antitumor effects, which may serve as an excellent medicinal potential.

PURPOSE

As one of hundreds of ginsenosides being identified from ginseng, Rh2 exerts a markedly pharmacological effect on various diseases without severe toxicity, it has attracted many researchers 'attention. Although Rh2 plays important roles in some animal models and cell lines to simulate human diseases, its underlying molecular mechanisms have yet to be determined. During the past ten years, nearly 450 studies on Rh2 in the treatment of complex disease have been reported, however, up to now, no comprehensive reviews about the roles of Rh2 in animal models and cellular lines of human nonmalignant and malignant diseases have been conducted.

METHOD

We searched articles on ginsenoside-related diseases from December 2010 to February 2023 in peer-reviewed and nonclinical databases, which include Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, China national knowledge internet and Medline, and using the following keywords: Ginsenoside Rh2, Human diseases, Cancer, Mechanisms, Chinese herbal medicine, Natural products and Signaling pathway.

RESULTS

Therefore, in this review, we make a comprehensive summary on the roles of Rh2 and support the potential mechanisms of Rh2 according to the disease classification, including nonmalignant disease such as ulcerative colitis, neuropathic pain, Asthma, myocardial injury, depression and malignant disease such as breast cancer, colorectal cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma and gastric cancer. Finally, the combination therapy of Rh2 and other medications in human diseases are summarized, apart from that, there are other problems such as the bioavailability of oral administration Rh2 to be overcome in following research.

CONCLUSION

These findings provide strong evidence that Ginsenoside Rh2 plays important roles in the treatment of nonmalignant and malignant diseases.

Therapeutic application of natural products: NAD+ metabolism as potential target

BACKGROUND

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺) metabolism is involved in the entire physiopathological process and is critical to human health. Long-term imbalance in NAD⁺ homeostasis is associated with various diseases, including non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, aging, and cancer, making it a potential target for effective therapeutic strategies. Currently, several natural products that target NAD⁺ metabolism have been widely reported to have significant therapeutic effects, but systematic summaries are lacking.

PURPOSE

To summarize the latest findings on the prevention and treatment of various diseases through the regulation of NAD⁺ metabolism by various natural products in vivo and in vitro models, and evaluate the toxicities of the natural products.

METHODS

PubMed, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect were searched using the keywords "natural products sources," "toxicology," "NAD⁺ clinical trials," and "NAD⁺," and/or paired with "natural products" and "diseases" for studies published within the last decade until January 2023.

RESULTS

We found that the natural products mainly include phenols (curcumin, cyclocurcumin, 4-hydroxybenzyl alcohol, salvianolic acid B, pterostilbene, EGCG), flavonoids (pinostrobin, apigenin, acacetin, tilianin, kaempferol, quercetin, isoliquiritigenin, luteolin, silybin, hydroxysafflor yellow A, scutellarin), glycosides (salidroside), quinones (emodin, embelin, β-LAPachone, shikonin), terpenoids (notoginsenoside R1, ginsenoside F2, ginsenoside Rd, ginsenoside Rb1, ginsenoside Rg3, thymoquinone, genipin), pyrazines (tetramethylpyrazine), alkaloids (evodiamine, berberine), and phenylpropanoids (ferulic acid). These natural products have antioxidant, energy-producing, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic and anti-aging effects, which mainly influence the NAMPT/NAD⁺/SIRT, AMPK/SIRT1/PGC-1α, Nrf2/HO-1, PKCs/PARPs/NF-κB, and AMPK/Nrf2/mTOR signaling pathways, thereby regulating NAD⁺ metabolism to prevent and treat various diseases. These natural products have been shown to be safe, tolerable and have fewer adverse effects in various in vivo and in vitro studies and clinical trials.

CONCLUSION

We evaluated the toxic effects of natural products and summarized the available clinical trials on NAD⁺ metabolism, as well as the recent advances in the therapeutic application of natural products targeting NAD⁺ metabolism, with the aim to provide new insights into the treatment of multiple disorders.

Immunomodulatory, Anti-Inflammatory, and Anti-Cancer Properties of Ginseng: A Pharmacological Update

Ginseng, a medicinal plant of the genus Panax, boasts a rich historical record of usage that dates back to the Paleolithic period. This botanical is extensively acknowledged and consumed in Eastern countries for its therapeutic properties, and, in Western countries, it is becoming increasingly popular as a remedy for fatigue and asthenia. This review provides an update on current research pertaining to ginseng and its isolated compounds, namely, ginsenosides and polysaccharides. The primary focus is on three crucial pharmacological activities, namely, immunomodulation, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer effects. The review encompasses studies on both isolated compounds and various ginseng extracts obtained from the root, leaves, and berries.

PRR15 deficiency facilitates malignant progression by mediating PI3K/Akt signaling and predicts clinical prognosis in triple-negative rather than non-triple-negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive subtype of breast neoplasms with a higher risk of recurrence and metastasis than non-TNBC. Nevertheless, the factors responsible for the differences in the malignant behavior between TNBC and non-TNBC are not fully explored. Proline rich 15 (PRR15) is a protein involved in the progression of several tumor types, but its mechanisms are still controversial. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the biological role and clinical applications of PRR15 on TNBC. PRR15 gene was differentially expressed between TNBC and non-TNBC patients, previously described as an oncogenic factor in breast cancer. However, our results showed a decreased expression of PRR15 that portended a favorable prognosis in TNBC rather than non-TNBC. PRR15 knockdown facilitated the proliferation, migration, and invasive ability of TNBC cells in vitro and in vivo, which was abolished by PRR15 restoration, without remarkable effects on non-TNBC. High-throughput drug sensitivity revealed that PI3K/Akt signaling was involved in the aggressive properties of PRR15 silencing, which was confirmed by the PI3K/Akt signaling activation in the tumors of PRR15^Low patients, and PI3K inhibitor reversed the metastatic capacity of TNBC in mice. The reduced PRR15 expression in TNBC patients was positively correlated with more aggressive clinicopathological characteristics, enhanced metastasis, and poor disease-free survival. Collectively, PRR15 down-regulation promotes malignant progression through the PI3K/Akt signaling in TNBC rather than in non-TNBC, affects the response of TNBC cells to antitumor agents, and is a promising indicator of disease outcomes in TNBC.

LC-MS Analysis of Ginsenosides in Different Parts of Panax quinquefolius and Their Potential for Coronary Disease Improvement

Seven main ginsenosides, including ginsenoside Re, ginsenoside Rb₁, pseudoginsenoside F₁₁, ginsenoside Rb₂, ginsenoside Rb₃, ginsenoside Rd, and ginsenoside F₂, were identified by LC-QTOF MS/MS from root, leaf and flower extracts of Panax quinquefolius. These extracts promoted intersegmental vessel growth in a zebrafish model, indicating their potential cardiovascular health benefits. Network pharmacology analysis was then conducted to reveal the potential mechanisms of ginsenoside activity in the treatment of coronary artery disease. GO and KEGG enrichment analyses elucidated that G protein-coupled receptors played a critical role in VEGF-mediated signal transduction and that the molecular pathways associated with ginsenoside activity are involved in neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction, cholesterol metabolism, the cGMP-PKG signaling pathway, etc. Moreover, VEGF, FGF2, and STAT3 were confirmed as the major targets inducing proliferation of endothelial cells and driving the pro-angiogenic process. Overall, ginsenosides could be potent nutraceutical agents that act to reduce the risks of cardiovascular disease. Our findings will provide a basis to utilize the whole P. quinquefolius plant in drugs and functional foods.

Ginsenoside Rg3 has effects comparable to those of ginsenoside re on diabetic kidney disease prevention in db/db mice by regulating inflammation, fibrosis and PPARγ

Ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) is an adjuvant antitumor drug, while ginsenoside Re (Re) is an adjuvant antidiabetic drug. Our previous studies demonstrated that Rg3 and Re both have hepatoprotective effects in db/db mice. The present study aimed to observe the renoprotective effects of Rg3 on db/db mice, with Re as the control. The db/db mice were randomly assigned to receive daily oral treatment with Rg3, Re or vehicle for 8 weeks. Body weight and blood glucose were examined weekly. Blood lipids, creatinine, and BUN were examined by biochemical assay. Hematoxylin and eosin and Masson staining were used for pathological examination. The expression of peroxisome proliferator‑activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) and inflammation and fibrosis biomarkers was examined by immunohistochemical and reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR. Although neither had a significant effect on body weight, blood glucose or lipids, Rg3 and Re were both able to decrease the creatinine and blood urea nitrogen levels of db/db mice to levels similar to those of wild type mice and inhibit pathological changes. The expression of PPARγ was upregulated and biomarkers of inflammation and fibrosis were downregulated by Rg3 and Re. The results showed that the potential of Rg3 as a preventive treatment of diabetic kidney disease was similar to that of Re.

Ginsenoside Rg3 alleviates the migration, invasion, and angiogenesis of lung cancer cells by inhibiting the expressions of cyclooxygenase-2 and vascular endothelial growth factor

Lung cancer (LC) is a common cancer with high incidence and mortality rates. In recent years, ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3), a traditional medicine, is widely used for the treatment of LC. Herein, we concentrate on assessing the effect of Rg3 on LC cell migration and invasion. The effects of Rg3 (0, 25, 50, and 100 μg/ml) on the viability, migration, invasion, angiogenesis, and expressions of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT)-related proteins, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX2), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) of LC cell lines were evaluated by cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8), scratch, transwell, tube formation, and western blot assays. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) was performed to assess transfection efficiency. COX2 overexpression plasmid and short hairpin RNA for VEGF (shVEGF) were applied to evaluate whether the effect of Rg3 is related to COX2 and VEGF through rescue assay. In this study, Rg3 significantly dose-dependently suppressed the viability, migration, invasion, angiogenesis, and protein expressions of N-cadherin, vimentin, COX2, and VEGF in H1299 and A549 cells, while promoting the expression of E-cadherin protein. COX2 overexpression markedly reversed the effects of Rg3 on the viability, migration, invasion, angiogenesis, and EMT-related protein expression levels in LC cells; however, such effects of COX2 overexpression were offset by VEGF knockdown. In sum, Rg3 alleviates the migration, invasion, and angiogenesis of LC cells by inhibiting the expressions of COX2 and VEGF.

Panax ginseng against myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury: A review of preclinical evidence and potential mechanisms

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer (P. ginseng) is effective in the prevention and treatment of myocardial ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury. The mechanism by which P. ginseng exerts cardioprotective effects is complex. P. ginseng contains many pharmacologically active ingredients, such as molecular glycosides, polyphenols, and polysaccharides. P. ginseng and each of its active components can potentially act against myocardial I/R injury. Myocardial I/R was originally a treatment for myocardial ischemia, but it also induced irreversible damage, including oxygen-containing free radicals, calcium overload, energy metabolism disorder, mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation, microvascular injury, autophagy, and apoptosis.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to clarify the protective effects of P. ginseng and its active ingredients against myocardial I/R injury, so as to provide experimental evidence and new insights for the research and application of P. ginseng in the field of myocardial I/R injury.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This review was based on a search of PubMed, NCBI, Embase, and Web of Science databases from their inception to February 21, 2022, using terms such as "ginseng," "ginsenosides," and "myocardial reperfusion injury." In this review, we first summarized the active ingredients of P. ginseng, including ginsenosides, ginseng polysaccharides, and phytosterols, as well as the pathophysiological mechanisms of myocardial I/R injury. Importantly, preclinical models with myocardial I/R injury and potential mechanisms of these active ingredients of P. ginseng for the prevention and treatment of myocardial disorders were generally summarized.

RESULTS

P. ginseng and its active components can regulate oxidative stress related proteins, inflammatory cytokines, and apoptosis factors, while protecting the myocardium and preventing myocardial I/R injury. Therefore, P. ginseng can play a role in the prevention and treatment of myocardial I/R injury.

CONCLUSIONS

P. ginseng has a certain curative effect on myocardial I/R injury. It can prevent and treat myocardial I/R injury in several ways. When ginseng exerts its effects, should be based on the theory of traditional Chinese medicine and with the help of modern medicine; the clinical efficacy of P. ginseng in preventing and treating myocardial I/R injury can be improved.

Ginsenoside Rg3 enhances the radiosensitivity of lung cancer A549 and H1299 cells via the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway

Lung cancer is one of the most common cancers and the leading cause of cancer-related deaths in the world. Radiation is widely used for the treatment of lung cancer. However, radioresistance and toxicity limit its effectiveness. Ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) is a positive monomer extracted from ginseng and has been shown to the anti-cancer ability on many tumors. The aim of the present study was to ascertain whether Rg3 is able to enhance the radiosensitivity of lung cancer cells and investigate the underlying mechanisms. The effect of Rg3 on cell proliferation was examined by Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) and radiosensitivity was measured by colony formation assay. Flow cytometry, transwell, and wound healing assay were used to determine apoptosis, cell cycle, and metastasis. Western blot was used to detect the main protein levels of the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. We found that Rg3 inhibited cell proliferation, promoted apoptosis, and suppressed migration and invasion in radio-induced lung cancer cells. In addition, Rg3 increased the proportion of G2/M phase cells and inhibited the formation of cell colonies. Moreover, Rg3 decreased the expression levels of PI3K, p-AKT, and PDK1 in radio-induced cells. These findings indicate that Rg3 may be able to enhance the radiosensitivity in lung cancer cells by the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. These results demonstrate the therapeutic potential of Rg3 as a radiosensitizer for lung cancer.

Biometrics Data Visualization of Ginsenosides in Anticancer Investigations

Ginsenoside extracts have been shown to have anticancer effects by a growing number of studies and have thus become a hot topic in cancer research. Our study used VOSviewer and CiteSpace softwares to conduct a bibliometric approach to co-citation and co-occurrence analysis of countries, institutions, authors, references, and keywords in the field of cancer research to investigate the current status and trends of ginsenosides research in cancer. The web of science core collection (WoSCC) contained a total of 1102 papers. China made the most contributions in this area, with the most publications (742, 67.3%), and collaborated closely with Korea and the USA. The Journal of Ginseng Research, with the most total citations (1607) and an IF of 6.06, is the leading journal in the field of ginsenoside and cancer research, publishing high quality articles. Saponin and its extracts inhibit oxidative stress, promote apoptosis, and inhibits chemotherapy resistance by ginsenosides, all of which are hot research areas in this field. In the coming years, it is expected that the combination of ginsenosides and nanoparticles, in-depth mechanisms of cancer inhibition, and targeted therapy will receive widespread attention.

Research progress of ginseng in the treatment of gastrointestinal cancers

Cancer has become one of the major causes of human death. Several anticancer drugs are available; howeve their use and efficacy are limited by the toxic side effects and drug resistance caused by their continuous application. Many natural products have antitumor effects with low toxicity and fewer adverse effects. Moreover, they play an important role in enhancing the cytotoxicity of chemotherapeutic agents, reducing toxic side effects, and reversing chemoresistance. Consequently, natural drugs are being applied as potential therapeutic options in the field of antitumor treatment. As natural medicinal plants, some components of ginseng have been shown to have excellent efficacy and a good safety profile for cancer treatment. The pharmacological activities and possible mechanisms of action of ginseng have been identified. Its broad range of pharmacological activities includes antitumor, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-stress, anti-fibrotic, central nervous system modulating, cardioprotective, and immune-enhancing effects. Numerous studies have also shown that throuth multiple pathways, ginseng and its active ingredients exert antitumor effects on gastrointestinal (GI) tract tumors, such as esophageal, gastric, colorectal, liver, and pancreatic cancers. Herein, we introduced the main components of ginseng, including ginsenosides, polysaccharides, and sterols, etc., and reviewed the mechanism of action and research progress of ginseng in the treatment of various GI tumors. Futhermore, the pathways of action of the main components of ginseng are discussed in depth to promote the clinical development and application of ginseng in the field of anti-GI tumors.

New Therapeutic Approaches to and Mechanisms of Ginsenoside Rg1 against Neurological Diseases

Neurological diseases, including Parkinson’s disease (PD), Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Huntington’s disease (HD), stroke, cerebral infarction, ischemia-reperfusion injury, depression and, stress, have high incidence and morbidity and often lead to disability. However, there is no particularly effective medication against them. Therefore, finding drugs with a suitable efficacy, low toxicity and manageable effects to improve the quality of life of patients is an urgent problem. Ginsenoside Rg1 (Rg1) is the main active component of ginseng and has a variety of pharmacological effects. In this review, we focused on the therapeutic potential of Rg1 for improving neurological diseases. We introduce the mechanisms of Ginsenoside Rg1 in neurological diseases, including apoptosis, neuroinflammation, the microRNA (miRNA) family, the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family, oxidative stress, nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), and learning and memory of Rg1 in neurological diseases. In addition, Rg1 can also improve neurological diseases through the interaction of different signal pathways. The purpose of this review is to explore more in-depth ideas for the clinical treatment of neurological diseases (including PD, AD, HD, stroke, cerebral infarction, ischemia–reperfusion injury, depression, and stress). Therefore, Rg1 is expected to become a new therapeutic method for the clinical treatment of neurological diseases.

Ginsenoside Rg3 induces apoptosis and inhibits proliferation by down-regulating TIGAR in rats with gastric precancerous lesions

BACKGROUND

Ginsenoside Rg3 (GRg3) is one of the main active ingredients in Chinese ginseng extract and has various biological effects, such as immune-enhancing, antitumour, antiangiogenic, immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects. This study aimed to investigate the therapeutic effect of GRg3 on gastric precancerous lesion (GPL) induced by N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG) and the potential mechanism of action.

METHODS

The MNNG-ammonia composite modelling method was used to establish a rat model of GPL. Histopathological changes in the rat gastric mucosa were observed by pathological analysis using haematoxylin-eosin staining to assess the success rate of the composite modelling method. Alcian blue-periodic acid Schiff staining was used to observe intestinal metaplasia in the rat gastric mucosa. Apoptosis was detected in rat gastric mucosal cells by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labelling staining. The production level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was determined by the dihydroethidium fluorescent probe method, and that of TP53-induced glycolysis and apoptosis regulator (TIGAR) protein was determined by immunohistochemical staining and western blotting. The production levels of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH) were determined by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and that of glutathione (GSH) was determined by microanalysis.

RESULTS

GRg3 significantly alleviated the structural disorganization and cellular heteromorphism in the form of epithelial glands in the gastric mucosa of rats with GPL and retarded the progression of the disease. Overexpression of TIGAR and overproduction of NADP, GSH and G6PDH occurred in the gastric mucosal epithelium of rats with GPL, which in turn led to an increase in the ROS concentration. After treatment with GRg3, the expression of TIGAR and production of NADP, GSH G6PDH decreased, causing a further increase in the concentration of ROS in the gastric mucosal epithelium, which in turn induced apoptosis and played a role in inhibiting the abnormal proliferation and differentiation of gastric mucosal epithelial cells.

CONCLUSION

Grg3 can induce apoptosis and inhibit cell proliferation in MNNG-induced GPL rats. The mechanism may be related to down-regulating the expression levels of TIGAR and production levels of GSH, NADP and G6PD, and up-regulating the concentration of ROS.

Cancer metabolism control by natural products: Pyruvate kinase M2 targeting therapeutics

Glycolysis is the primary source of energy for cancer growth and metastasis. The shift in metabolism from mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation to aerobic glycolysis is called the Warburg effect. Cancer progression due to aerobic glycolysis is often associated with the activation of oncogenes or the loss of tumor suppressors. Therefore, inhibition of glycolysis is one of the effective strategies in cancer control. Pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2) is a key glycolytic enzyme overexpressed in breast, prostate, lung, colorectal, and liver cancers. Here, we discuss published studies regarding PKM2 inhibitors from natural products that are promising drug candidates for cancer therapy. We have highlighted the potential of natural PKM2 inhibitors for various cancer types. Moreover, we encourage researchers to evaluate the combinational effects between natural and synthetic PKM2 inhibitors. Also, further high-quality studies are needed to firmly establish the clinical efficacy of natural products.

Examination of Combined Treatment of Ginsenoside Rg3 and 5-Fluorouracil in Lung Adenocarcinoma Cells

Chemotherapy is a commonly used strategy for advanced lung cancer patients. However, its clinical application is restrained due to its toxicity and drug resistance. Ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) has a strong anticancer influence on colon cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer, and other malignant tumors. However, it is still unclear whether Rg3 can cooperate with 5-FU to inhibit the tumor growth and angiogenesis of lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD). This study examined the combined treatment of Rg3 and 5-FU in LUAD. It was revealed that the combined treatment could notably enhance the suppression on proliferative, invasive, and migratory abilities and angiogenesis in LUAD cells A549 and SPC-A-1. On the other hand, we also discovered that Rg3 or 5-FU could suppress the activity of the NF-κB signaling pathway and downregulate VEGFA expression in LUAD cells. Collectively, this study suggested that Rg3 combined chemotherapy may perform a more powerful drug efficiency in LUAD cells.

The Untapped Potential of Ginsenosides and American Ginseng Berry in Promoting Mental Health via the Gut-Brain Axis

Despite the popularity of the ginseng (Panax) root in health research and on the market, the ginseng berry’s potential remains relatively unexplored. Implementing ginseng berry cultivations and designing berry-derived products could improve the accessibility to mental health-promoting nutraceuticals. Indeed, the berry could have a higher concentration of neuroprotective and antidepressant compounds than the root, which has already been the subject of research demonstrating its efficacy in the context of neuroprotection and mental health. In this review, data on the berry’s application in supporting mental health via the gut–brain axis is compiled and discussed.

Co-Targeting Tumor Angiogenesis and Immunosuppressive Tumor Microenvironment: A Perspective in Ethnopharmacology

Tumor angiogenesis is one of the most important processes of cancer deterioration via nurturing an immunosuppressive tumor environment (TME). Targeting tumor angiogenesis has been widely accepted as a cancer intervention approach, which is also synergistically associated with immune therapy. However, drug resistance is the biggest challenge of anti-angiogenesis therapy, which affects the outcomes of anti-angiogeneic agents, and even combined with immunotherapy. Here, emerging targets and representative candidate molecules from ethnopharmacology (including traditional Chinese medicine, TCM) have been focused, and they have been proved to regulate tumor angiogenesis. Further investigations on derivatives and delivery systems of these molecules will provide a comprehensive landscape in preclinical studies. More importantly, the molecule library of ethnopharmacology meets the viability for targeting angiogenesis and TME simultaneously, which is attributed to the pleiotropy of pro-angiogenic factors (such as VEGF) toward cancer cells, endothelial cells, and immune cells. We primarily shed light on the potentiality of ethnopharmacology against tumor angiogenesis, particularly TCM. More research studies concerning the crosstalk between angiogenesis and TME remodeling from the perspective of botanical medicine are awaited.

Efficacy of ginsenoside Rg3 nanoparticles against Ehrlich solid tumor growth in mice

Solid tumors are fairly common and face many clinical difficulties since they are hardly surgically resectable and broadly do not respond to radiation and chemotherapy. The current study aimed to fabricate ginsenoside Rg3 nanoparticles (Rg3-NPs) and evaluate their antitumor effect against Ehrlich solid tumors (EST) in mice. Rg3-NPs were fabricated using whey protein isolates (WPI), maltodextrin (MD), and gum Arabic (GA). EST was developed by the injection of mice with Ehrlich ascites cells (2.5 × 10⁶). The mice were divided into a control group, EST group, and the EST groups that were treated orally 2 weeks for with normal Rg3 (3 mg/kg b.w.), Rg3-NPs at a low dose (3 mg/kg b.w.), and Rg3-NPs at a high dose (6 mg/kg b.w.). Serum and solid tumors were collected for different assays. The results revealed that synthesized Rg3-NPs showed a spherical shape with an average particle size of 20 nm and zeta potential of -5.58 mV. The in vivo study revealed that EST mice showed a significant increase in AFP, Casp3, TNF-α, MMP-9, VEGF, MDA, and DNA damage accompanied by a significant decrease in SOD and GPx. Treatment with Rg3 or Rg3-NPs decreased the tumor weight and size and induced a significant improvement in all the biochemical parameters. Rg3-NPs were more effective than Rg3, and the improvement was dose-dependent. It could be concluded that fabrication of Rg3-NPs enhanced the protective effect against EST development which may be due to the synergistic effect of Rg3 and MD, GA, and WPI.

Hematopoiesis reconstitution and anti-tumor effectiveness of Pai-Neng-Da capsule in acute leukemia patients with haploidentical hematopoietic stem cell transplantation

BACKGROUND

With the rapid development of haploidentical hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (haplo-HSCT), primary poor graft function (PGF) has become a life-threatening complication. Effective therapies for PGF are inconclusive. New Chinese patent medicine Pai-Neng-Da (PND) Capsule exerts dual effect in promoting hematopoiesis recovery and regulating immunity. Still, the application of PND capsule in hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, especially in the haplo-HSCT setting, has not yet been reported.

AIM

To evaluate the role of PND capsule in acute leukemia patients with haplo-HSCT.

METHODS

We retrospectively collected data of acute leukemia patients who underwent haplo-HSCT at the Affiliated People’s Hospital of Ningbo University between April 1, 2015 and June 30, 2020. Twenty-nine consecutive patients received oral PND capsule from the sixth day to the first month after haplo-HSCT were included in the PND group. In addition, 31 patients who did not receive PND capsule during haplo-HSCT were included in the non-PND group. Subsequently, we compared the therapeutic efficacy according to the western medical evaluation indexes and Chinese medical symptom scores, and the survival between the PND group and the non-PND group, using the chi-square test, Fisher’s exact test, and the Kaplan–Meier method.

RESULTS

The duration of platelet engraftment was shorter in the PND group than in the non-PND group (P = 0.039). The PND group received a lower frequency of red blood cells and platelet transfusions than the non-PND group (P = 0.033 and P = 0.035, respectively). In addition, PND capsule marginally reduced the rate of PGF (P = 0.027) and relapse (P = 0.043). After 33 (range, 4-106) months of follow-up, the 3-year relapse-free survival (P = 0.046) and progression-free survival (P = 0.049) were improved in the PND group than in the non-PND group. Also, the therapeutic efficacy of the PND group according to Chinese medical symptom scores was significantly better than that of the non-PND group (P = 0.022). Moreover, the adverse events caused by PND capsule were mild. Nevertheless, there were no significant differences in the duration of neutrophil engraftment, the risk of infection within 100 days after haplo-HSCT, the acute graft-versus-host disease, or the 3-year overall survival between the two groups.

CONCLUSION

PND capsule could promote hematopoiesis reconstitution, improve the therapeutic efficacy of Chinese medical symptom scores, present anti-tumor effectiveness, and prolong the survival of acute leukemia patients with haplo-HSCT.

Traditional Chinese Medicines as Effective Reversals of Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition Induced-Metastasis of Colorectal Cancer: Molecular Targets and Mechanisms

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common type of cancer worldwide. Distant metastasis is the major cause of cancer-related mortality in patients with CRC. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a critical process triggered during tumor metastasis, which is also the main impetus and the essential access within this duration. Therefore, targeting EMT-related molecular pathways has been considered a novel strategy to explore effective therapeutic agents against metastatic CRC. Traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) with unique properties multi-target and multi-link that exert their therapeutic efficacies holistically, which could inhibit the invasion and metastasis ability of CRC cells via inhibiting the EMT process by down-regulating transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β)/Smads, PI3K/Akt, NF-κB, Wnt/β-catenin, and Notch signaling pathways. The objective of this review is to summarize and assess the anti-metastatic effect of TCM-originated bioactive compounds and Chinese medicine formulas by mediating EMT-associated signaling pathways in CRC therapy, providing a foundation for further research on the exact mechanisms of action through which TCMs affect EMT transform in CRC.

The mechanism of microglia-mediated immune inflammation in ischemic stroke and the role of natural botanical components in regulating microglia: A review

Ischemic stroke (IS) is one of the most fatal diseases. Neuroimmunity, inflammation, and oxidative stress play important roles in various complex mechanisms of IS. In particular, the early proinflammatory response resulting from the overactivation of resident microglia and the infiltration of circulating monocytes and macrophages in the brain after cerebral ischemia leads to secondary brain injury. Microglia are innate immune cells in the brain that constantly monitor the brain microenvironment under normal conditions. Once ischemia occurs, microglia are activated to produce dual effects of neurotoxicity and neuroprotection, and the balance of the two effects determines the fate of damaged neurons. The activation of microglia is defined as the classical activation (M1 type) or alternative activation (M2 type). M1 type microglia secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines and neurotoxic mediators to exacerbate neuronal damage, while M2 type microglia promote a repairing anti-inflammatory response. Fine regulation of M1/M2 microglial activation to minimize damage and maximize protection has important therapeutic value. This review focuses on the interaction between M1/M2 microglia and other immune cells involved in the regulation of IS phenotypic characteristics, and the mechanism of natural plant components regulating microglia after IS, providing novel candidate drugs for regulating microglial balance and IS drug development.

Ginsenoside Rg3 inhibits osteosarcoma progression by reducing circ_0003074 expression in a miR-516b-5p/KPNA4-dependent manner

Background

Previous data have suggested that ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3), isolated from the roots of Panax ginseng, plays a repressing role in multiple cancers, including osteosarcoma (OS). However, there is no any literature available about the role of circular RNA (circRNA) in Rg3-mediated OS development. The study aimed to explore the function of circ_0003074 in the anti-cancer effects of Rg3 on OS.

Methods

RNA expression of circ_0003074, miR-516b-5p and karyopherin subunit alpha 4 (KPNA4) was detected by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Protein expression was evaluated by Western blotting or immunohistochemistry assay. Cell viability, proliferation, apoptosis, migration and invasion were investigated by cell counting kit-8, 5-ethynyl-29-deoxyuridine (EdU), flow cytometry analysis, wound-healing and transwell invasion assays, respectively. Dual-luciferase reporter and/or RNA immunoprecipitation assay was performed to confirm the interplay between miR-516b-5p and circ_0003074 or KPNA4. Xenograft mouse model assay was conducted to reveal the effect of Rg3 treatment on tumor formation.

Results

Circ_0003074 and KPNA4 expression was significantly upregulated, while miR-516b-5p was downregulated in OS tissues and cells compared with controls. Rg3 treatment dramatically decreased circ_0003074 expression in OS cells. Rg3 treatment led to decreased cell proliferation, migration and invasion but increased cell apoptosis, which was attenuated after circ_0003074 overexpression. Besides, miR-516b-5p was a target miRNA of circ_0003074 and partially restored circ_0003074-mediated action under Rg3 treatment. Decreasing miR-516b-5p expression also promoted Rg3-treated OS cell malignancy through KPNA4, which was identified as a target mRNA of miR-516b-5p. Besides, circ_0003074 induced KPNA4 production owing to the decrease of miR-516b-5p expression. Furthermore, Rg3 treatment inhibited tumor formation by regulating circ_0003074 in vivo.

Conclusion

Rg3 inhibited OS progression through circ_0003074/miR-516b-5p/KPNA4 axis, showing the potential of Rg3 as a therapeutic agent for OS.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13018-021-02868-7.

Circ_0003074 expression was upregulated in OS tissues and cells.

Rg3 treatment significantly decreased circ_0003074 expression in OS cells.

Circ_0003074 overexpression rescued Rg3-induced inhibition in OS progression.

Circ_0003074 induced KPNA4 production through miR-516b-5p under Rg3 treatment.

Ginsenoside Rg3 inhibits angiogenesis in gastric precancerous lesions through downregulation of Glut1 and Glut4

Ginsenoside Rg3 (GRg3) is a ginsenoside extracted from Panax ginseng. GRg3 displays multiple pharmacological properties, such as antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antioxidative and antifibrotic properties. However, whether GRg3 inhibits angiogenesis in gastric precancerous lesions (GPLs) and the possible mechanisms remain unknown. GRg3 attenuated gastric intestinal metaplasia and gastric dysplasia, the hallmark of GPL pathology, in rats with MNNG-ammonia compound induced GPLs. Increased CD34+ microvessel density and VEGF expression, which indicate the presence of angiogenesis, were evident in the rats with GPLs. GRg3 administration reduced VEGF protein expression and CD34+ microvessel density. In addition, GRg3 was capable of attenuating microvascular abnormalities. Data analysis revealed that enhanced protein expression of GLUT1, GLUT3 and GLUT4 were present in both human and animal GPL specimens. The administration of GRg3 caused significant decreases in the mRNA and protein expression levels of GLUT1 and GLUT4 in the rats with GPLs. However, the GRg3-treated rats with GPLs did not demonstrate regulatory effects on GLUT3, GLUT6, GLUT10, and GLUT12. Consistent with in vitro results, GRg3 administration significantly reduced the protein expression levels of GLUT1 and GLUT4 in both AGS and HGC-27 human gastric cancer cells in vitro. In conclusion, GRg3 can attenuate angiogenesis and temper microvascular abnormalities in rats with GPLs, which may be associated with its inhibition on the aberrant activation of GLUT1 and GLUT4.

Cerium-Promoted Ginsenosides Accumulation by Regulating Endogenous Methyl Jasmonate Biosynthesis in Hairy Roots of Panax ginseng

Among rare earth elements, cerium has the unique ability of regulating the growth of plant cells and the biosynthesis of metabolites at different stages of plant development. The signal pathways of Ce3+-mediated ginsenosides biosynthesis in ginseng hairy roots were investigated. At a low concentration, Ce3+ improved the elongation and biomass of hairy roots. The Ce3+-induced accumulation of ginsenosides showed a high correlation with the reactive oxygen species (ROS), as well as the biosynthesis of endogenous methyl jasmonate (MeJA) and ginsenoside key enzyme genes (PgSS, PgSE and PgDDS). At a Ce3+ concentration of 20 mg L-1, the total ginsenoside content was 1.7-fold, and the total ginsenosides yield was 2.7-fold that of the control. Malondialdehyde (MDA) content and the ROS production rate were significantly higher than those of the control. The activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) was significantly activated within the Ce3+ concentration range of 10 to 30 mg L-1. The activity of catalase (CAT) and peroxidase (POD) strengthened with the increasing concentration of Ce3+ in the range of 20-40 mg L-1. The Ce3+ exposure induced transient production of superoxide anion (O2•-) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Together with the increase in the intracellular MeJA level and enzyme activity for lipoxygenase (LOX), there was an increase in the gene expression level of MeJA biosynthesis including PgLOX, PgAOS and PgJMT. Our results also revealed that Ce3+ did not directly influence PgSS, PgSE and PgDDS activity. We speculated that Ce3+-induced ROS production could enhance the accumulation of ginsenosides in ginseng hairy roots via the direct stimulation of enzyme genes for MeJA biosynthesis. This study demonstrates a potential approach for understanding and improving ginsenoside biosynthesis that is regulated by Ce3+-mediated signal transduction.

Anti-Cancer Effects of an Optimised Combination of Ginsenoside Rg3 Epimers on Triple Negative Breast Cancer Models

Key problems of chemotherapies, as the mainstay of treatment for triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), are toxicity and development of tumour resistance. Using response surface methodology, we previously optimised the combination of epimers of ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) for anti-angiogenic action. Here, we show that the optimised combination of 50 µM SRg3 and 25 µM RRg3 (C3), derived from an RSM model of migration of TNBC cell line MDA-MB-231, inhibited migration of MDA-MB-231 and HCC1143, in 2D and 3D migration assays (p < 0.0001). C3 inhibited mammosphere formation efficiency in both cell lines and decreased the CD44⁺ stem cell marker in the mammospheres. Molecular docking predicted that Rg3 epimers had a better binding score with IGF-1R than with EGFR, HER-2 or PDGFR, and predicted an mTOR inhibitory function of Rg3. C3 affected the signalling of AKT in MDA-MB-231 and HCC1143 mammospheres. In a mouse model of metastatic TNBC, an equivalent dose of C3 (23 mg/kg SRg3 + 11 mg/kg RRg3) or an escalated dose of 46 mg/kg SRg3 + 23 mg/kg RRg3 was administered to NSG mice bearing MDA-MB-231-Luc cells. Calliper and IVIS spectrum measurement of the primary and secondary tumour showed that the treatment shrunk the primary tumour and decreased the load of metastasis in mice. In conclusion, this combination of Rg3 epimers showed promising results as a potential treatment option for TNBC patients.

Anti-Angiogenic Properties of Ginsenoside Rg3 Epimers: In Vitro Assessment of Single and Combination Treatments

Tumour angiogenesis plays a key role in tumour growth and progression. The application of current anti-angiogenic drugs is accompanied by adverse effects and drug resistance. Therefore, finding safer effective treatments is needed. Ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) has two epimers, 20(S)-Rg3 (SRg3) and 20(R)-Rg3 (RRg3), with stereoselective activities. Using response surface methodology, we optimised a combination of these two epimers for the loop formation of human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC). The optimised combination (C3) was tested on HUVEC and two murine endothelial cell lines. C3 significantly inhibited the loop formation, migration, and proliferation of these cells, inducing apoptosis in HUVEC and cell cycle arrest in all of the cell lines tested. Using molecular docking and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) bioassay, we showed that Rg3 has an allosteric modulatory effect on vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2). C3 also decreased the VEGF expression in hypoxic conditions, decreased the expression of aquaporin 1 and affected AKT signaling. The proteins that were mostly affected after C3 treatment were those related to mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E)-binding protein 1 (4E-BP1) was one of the important targets of C3, which was affected in both hypoxic and normoxic conditions. In conclusion, these results show the potential of C3 as a novel anti-angiogenic drug.

The Efficacy of Ginsenoside Rg3 Combined with First-line Chemotherapy in the Treatment of Advanced Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer in China: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials

Background: For advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients, first-line chemotherapy is the main treatment in the clinic despite its efficacy is limited and adverse effects are always inescapable. Ginsenoside Rg3, an anti-cancer active ingredient by suppressing angiogenesis, has been increasingly widely used as an adjuvant in first-line chemotherapy for advanced NSCLC to optimize treatment in China. However, no comprehensive meta-analyses have been conducted to estimate the efficacy and safety of the therapy combining ginsenoside Rg3 and first-line chemotherapy in advanced NSCLC patients. Methods: Randomized controlled trails using a combination of first-line chemotherapy and ginsenoside Rg3 for advanced NSCLC patients were searched and selected from six databases. The Cochrane Risk of Bias tool was used to assessed the quality of these selected original researches. And we used Review Manager 5.3 and STATA to analyze the data. Results: Twenty-two RCTs that matched our selection criteria with a number of 2202 patients were included in our review. The results showed that compared with first-line chemotherapy alone, the combination of ginsenoside Rg3 and first-line chemotherapy could better improve the objective response rate (ORR) (RR [95% CI], 1.44 [1.27, 1.63], p < 0.00001 ), the disease control rate (DCR) (RR [95% CI], 1.24 [1.12, 1.38], p < 0.0001), karnofsky performance status (KPS) (RR [95% CI], 1.62 [1.42, 1.84], p < 0.00001), one-year survival rate (RR [95% CI], 1.49 [1.08, 2.06], p = 0.01), two-year survival rate (RR [95% CI], 6.22 [1.68, 22.95], p = 0.006), weight change (RR [95% CI], 1.31 [1.04, 1.66], p = 0.02), and higher reduce the VEGF levels (RR [95% CI], -2.21 [-4.03, -0.38], p = 0.02), the incidence of gastrointestinal reactions (RR [95% CI], 0.66 [0.47, 0.93], p = 0.02) and bone marrow suppression (RR [95% CI], 0.43 [0.30, 0.61], p < 0.00001). Conclusion: Ginsenoside Rg3 can enhance drug efficacy and reduce drug-induced toxicity from chemotherapy. These findings provide helpful information for clinicians indicating that a therapy combined of ginsenoside Rg3 and first-line chemotherapy may be used to optimal the treatment of advanced NSCLC.

Insights into the antitumor mechanism of ginsenosides Rg3

Panax ginseng, an ancient herb, belonging to Chinese traditional medicine, is an important herb that has a remarkable impact on various diseases. Ginsenoside Rg3, one of the most abundant ginsenosides, exerts significant functions in the prevention of various types of cancers with few side effects. In the present review, its functional molecular mechanisms are explored, including the improvement of antioxidant and anti-inflammation properties, immune regulation, induction of tumor apoptosis, prevention of tumor invasion and metastasis, tumor proliferation and angiogenesis, and reduction of chemoresistance and radioresistance. On the other hand, metabolism, pharmacokinetics and clinical indications of Rg3 are also discussed. The biological functional role of ginsenoside Rg3 may be associated with that it is a steroid glycoside with diverse biological activities and many signaling pathway can be regulated. Many clinical trials are highly needed to confirm the functions of ginsenoside Rg3.