Nanomaterials as Promising Theranostic Tools in Nanomedicine and Their Applications in Clinical Disease Diagnosis and Treatment

Nanoformulations in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Applications: Green Perspectives

This study provides a brief discussion of the major nanopharmaceuticals formulations as well as the impact of nanotechnology on the future of pharmaceuticals. Effective and eco-friendly strategies of biofabrication are also highlighted. Modern approaches to designing pharmaceutical nanoformulations (e.g., 3D printing, Phyto-Nanotechnology, Biomimetics/Bioinspiration, etc.) are outlined. This paper discusses the need to use natural resources for the "green" design of new nanoformulations with therapeutic efficiency. Nanopharmaceuticals research is still in its early stages, and the preparation of nanomaterials must be carefully considered. Therefore, safety and long-term effects of pharmaceutical nanoformulations must not be overlooked. The testing of nanopharmaceuticals represents an essential point in their further applications. Vegetal scaffolds obtained by decellularizing plant leaves represent a valuable, bioinspired model for nanopharmaceutical testing that avoids using animals. Nanoformulations are critical in various fields, especially in pharmacy, medicine, agriculture, and material science, due to their unique properties and advantages over conventional formulations that allows improved solubility, bioavailability, targeted drug delivery, controlled release, and reduced toxicity. Nanopharmaceuticals have transitioned from experimental stages to being a vital component of clinical practice, significantly improving outcomes in medical fields for cancer treatment, infectious diseases, neurological disorders, personalized medicine, and advanced diagnostics. Here are the key points highlighting their importance. The significant challenges, opportunities, and future directions are mentioned in the final section.

Advances in Atherosclerosis Theranostics Harnessing Iron Oxide-Based Nanoparticles

Atherosclerosis, a multifaceted chronic inflammatory disease, has a profound impact on cardiovascular health. However, the critical limitations of atherosclerosis management include the delayed detection of advanced stages, the intricate assessment of plaque stability, and the absence of efficacious therapeutic strategies. Nanotheranostic based on nanotechnology offers a novel paradigm for addressing these challenges by amalgamating advanced imaging capabilities with targeted therapeutic interventions. Meanwhile, iron oxide nanoparticles have emerged as compelling candidates for theranostic applications in atherosclerosis due to their magnetic resonance imaging capability and biosafety. This review delineates the current state and prospects of iron oxide nanoparticle-based nanotheranostics in the realm of atherosclerosis, including pivotal aspects of atherosclerosis development, the pertinent targeting strategies involved in disease pathogenesis, and the diagnostic and therapeutic roles of iron oxide nanoparticles. Furthermore, this review provides a comprehensive overview of theranostic nanomedicine approaches employing iron oxide nanoparticles, encompassing chemical therapy, physical stimulation therapy, and biological therapy. Finally, this review proposes and discusses the challenges and prospects associated with translating these innovative strategies into clinically viable anti-atherosclerosis interventions. In conclusion, this review offers new insights into the future of atherosclerosis theranostic, showcasing the remarkable potential of iron oxide-based nanoparticles as versatile tools in the battle against atherosclerosis.

A bibliography of smart nanomaterials biological application in myocardial infarction research

Myocardial infarction has been considered the top cause of mortality globally. Numerous studies investigated the biological application of smart nanomaterials in myocardial infarction. Our study aimed to provide an overview of this area through bibliography research. Literature related to the biological application of nanomaterials was retrieved from the web of science core collection database. Bibliography analysis was performed using Microsoft Excel, VOSviewer, Citespace, and the R package "bibliometrix." A total of 1226 publications were included. The USA, China, and India carried out the most of studies. Harvard University is the most productive institution. Matthias Nahrendorf ranked first in article volume and also owned the highest impact. Keyword burst analysis indicated the frontiers and hotspots to be gold nanoparticles and iron oxide nanoparticles. This bibliography analysis provides a comprehensive overview of uncovered current research trends and emerging hotspots of nanomaterials' biological application in myocardial infarction, thus inspiring further investigations.

Size-Related Pathway Flux Analysis of Ultrasmall Iron Oxide Nanoparticles in Macrophage Cell RAW264.7 for Safety Evaluation

The endocytosis, intracellular transport, and exocytosis of different-sized nanoparticles were reported to greatly affect their efficacy and biosafety. The quantitation of endocytosis and exocytosis as well as subcellular distribution of nanoparticles might be an effective approach based on transport pathway flux analysis. Thus, the key parameters that could present the effects of three different-sized ultrasmall iron oxide nanoparticles (USIONPs) were systematically investigated in RAW264.7 cells. The endocytosis and exocytosis of USIONPs were related to their sizes; 15.4 nm of S2 could be quickly and more internalized and excreted in comparison to S1 (7.8 nm) and S3 (30.7 nm). In RAW264.7 cells, USIONPs were observed in endosomes, lysosomes, the Golgi apparatus, and autophagosomes via a transmission electron microscope. Based on flux analysis of intracellular transport pathways of USIONPs, it was found that 43% of S1, 40% of S2, and 44% of S3 were individually transported extracellularly through the Golgi apparatus-involved middle-fast pathway, while 24% of S1, 23% of S2, and 26% of S3 were transported through the fast recycling endosomal pathway, and the residues were transported through the slower speed lysosomal pathway. USIONPs might be transported via size-related endocytosis and exocytosis pathways. The pathway flux could be calculated on the basis of disturbance analysis of special transporters as well as their coding genes. Because there were rate differences among these transport pathways, this pathway flux could anticipate the intracellular remaining time and distribution of different-sized nanoparticles, the function exertion, and side effects of nanomaterials. The size of the nanomaterials could be optimized for improving functions and safety.

RNA nanostructures for targeted drug delivery and imaging

The RNA molecule plays a pivotal role in many biological processes by relaying genetic information, regulating gene expression, and serving as molecular machines and catalyzers. This inherent versatility of RNA has fueled significant advancements in the field of RNA nanotechnology, driving the engineering of complex nanoscale architectures toward biomedical applications, including targeted drug delivery and bioimaging. RNA polymers, serving as building blocks, offer programmability and predictability of Watson-Crick base pairing, as well as non-canonical base pairing, for the construction of nanostructures with high precision and stoichiometry. Leveraging the ease of chemical modifications to protect the RNA from degradation, researchers have developed highly functional and biocompatible RNA architectures and integrated them into preclinical studies for the delivery of payloads and imaging agents. This review offers an educational introduction to the use of RNA as a biopolymer in the design of multifunctional nanostructures applied to targeted delivery in vivo, summarizing physical and biological barriers along with strategies to overcome them. Furthermore, we highlight the most recent progress in the development of both small and larger RNA nanostructures, with a particular focus on imaging reagents and targeted cancer therapeutics in pre-clinical models and provide insights into the prospects of this rapidly evolving field.

Copper and Copper-Based Nanoparticles in Medicine-Perspectives and Challenges

Nanotechnology has ushered in a new era of medical innovation, offering unique solutions to longstanding healthcare challenges. Among nanomaterials, copper and copper oxide nanoparticles stand out as promising candidates for a multitude of medical applications. This article aims to provide contemporary insights into the perspectives and challenges regarding the use of copper and copper oxide nanoparticles in medicine. It summarises the biomedical potential of copper-based nanoformulations, including the progress of early-stage research, to evaluate and mitigate the potential toxicity of copper nanomaterials. The discussion covers the challenges and prospects of copper-based nanomaterials in the context of their successful clinical translation. The article also addresses safety concerns, emphasizing the need for toxicity assessments of nanomedicines. However, attention is needed to solve the current challenges such as biocompatibility and controlled release. Ongoing research and collaborative efforts to overcome these obstacles are discussed. This analysis aims to provide guidance for the safe and effective integration of copper nanoparticles into clinical practice, thereby advancing their medical applications. This analysis of recent literature has highlighted the multifaceted challenges and prospects associated with copper-based nanomaterials in the context of their translation from the laboratory to the clinic. In particular, biocompatibility remains a formidable hurdle, requiring innovative solutions to ensure the seamless integration into the human body. Additionally, achieving the controlled release of therapeutic agents from copper nanoparticles poses a complex challenge that requires meticulous engineering and precise design.

Exocytosis of Nanoparticles: A Comprehensive Review

Both biomedical applications and safety assessments of manufactured nanomaterials require a thorough understanding of the interaction between nanomaterials and cells, including how nanomaterials enter cells, transport within cells, and leave cells. However, compared to the extensively studied uptake and trafficking of nanoparticles (NPs) in cells, less attention has been paid to the exocytosis of NPs. Yet exocytosis is an indispensable process of regulating the content of NPs in cells, which in turn influences, even decides, the toxicity of NPs to cells. A comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms and influencing factors of the exocytosis of NPs is not only essential for the safety assessment of NPs but also helpful for guiding the design of safe and highly effective NP-based materials for various purposes. Herein, we review the current status and progress of studies on the exocytosis of NPs. Firstly, we introduce experimental procedures and considerations. Then, exocytosis mechanisms/pathways are summarized with a detailed introduction of the main pathways (lysosomal and endoplasmic reticulum/Golgi pathway) and the role of microtubules; the patterns of exocytosis kinetics are presented and discussed. Subsequently, the influencing factors (initial content and location of intracellular NPs, physiochemical properties of NPs, cell type, and extracellular conditions) are fully discussed. Although there are inconsistent results, some rules are obtained, like smaller and charged NPs are more easily excreted. Finally, the challenges and future directions in the field have been discussed.

Nanobiotics and the One Health Approach: Boosting the Fight against Antimicrobial Resistance at the Nanoscale

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a growing public health concern worldwide, and it poses a significant threat to human, animal, and environmental health. The overuse and misuse of antibiotics have contributed significantly and others factors including gene mutation, bacteria living in biofilms, and enzymatic degradation/hydrolyses help in the emergence and spread of AMR, which may lead to significant economic consequences such as reduced productivity and increased health care costs. Nanotechnology offers a promising platform for addressing this challenge. Nanoparticles have unique properties that make them highly effective in combating bacterial infections by inhibiting the growth and survival of multi-drug-resistant bacteria in three areas of health: human, animal, and environmental. To conduct an economic evaluation of surveillance in this context, it is crucial to obtain an understanding of the connections to be addressed by several nations by implementing national action policies based on the One Health strategy. This review provides an overview of the progress made thus far and presents potential future directions to optimize the impact of nanobiotics on AMR.

Scavenger receptor-AI targeted theranostic nanoparticles for regression of atherosclerotic plaques via ABCA1 modulation

ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) plays a crucial role in atherosclerotic formation through mediated cholesterol efflux in macrophage-derived foam cells. In this study, a scavenger receptors AI (SR-AI) targeted theranostic nanoparticles was constructed for atherosclerosis regression via ABCA1 activation in foam cells. ABCA1-upregulator 5242331 and IR780 were encapsulated in PLGA-PEG micelles which were conjugated with SR-AI targeting peptide (PP1) to formulate the nanoparticles (SAU-NPs). Immunostaining revealed that SR-AI was highly expressed both in macrophage foam cells and in atherosclerotic plaque of ApoE^-/- mice. The SAU-NPs have shown more active targeting to plaque lesion with higher stability compared with non-SR-AI targeted nanoparticles. The transformation from macrophage to foam cells was inhibited by SAU-NPs carried 5242331. Cholesterol deposition was effectively reduced in foam cells by SAU-NPs through activating the LXRα-ABCA1/ABCG1/SR-BI pathway. In conclusion, theranostic SAU-NPs which carried ABCA1-upregulator 5242331 exert beneficial effects on atherosclerosis regression via LXRα activation.

Effect of Gd3+, La3+, Lu3+ Co-Doping on the Morphology and Luminescent Properties of NaYF4:Sm3+ Phosphors

The series of luminescent NaYF₄:Sm³⁺ nano- and microcrystalline materials co-doped by La³⁺, Gd³⁺, and Lu³⁺ ions were synthesized by hydrothermal method using rare earth chlorides as the precursors and citric acid as a stabilizing agent. The phase composition of synthesized compounds was studied by PXRD. All synthesized materials except ones with high La³⁺ content (where LaF₃ is formed) have a β-NaYF₄ crystalline phase. SEM images demonstrate that all particles have shape of hexagonal prisms. The type and content of doping REE significantly effect on the particle size. Upon 400 nm excitation, phosphors exhibit distinct emission peaks in visible part of the spectrum attributed to ⁴G_5/2→⁶H_J transitions (J = 5/2-11/2) of Sm³⁺ ion. Increasing the samarium (III) content results in concentration quenching by dipole-dipole interactions, the optimum Sm³⁺concentration is found to be of 2%. Co-doping by non-luminescent La³⁺, Gd³⁺ and Lu³⁺ ions leads to an increase in emission intensity. This effect was explained from the Sm³⁺ local symmetry point of view.

Nanotechnology-enabled immunogenic cell death for improved cancer immunotherapy

Tumor immunotherapy has revolutionized the field of oncology treatments in recent years. As one of the promising strategies of cancer immunotherapy, tumor immunogenic cell death (ICD) has shown significant potential for tumor therapy. Nanoparticles are widely used for drug delivery due to their versatile characteristics, such as stability, slow blood elimination, and tumor-targeting ability. To increase the specificity of ICD inducers and improve the efficiency of ICD induction, functionally specific nanoparticles, such as liposomes, nanostructured lipid carriers, micelles, nanodiscs, biomembrane-coated nanoparticles and inorganic nanoparticles have been widely reported as the vehicles to deliver ICD inducers in vivo. In this review, we summarized the strategies of different nanoparticles for ICD-induced cancer immunotherapy, and systematically discussed their advantages and disadvantages as well as provided feasible strategies for solving these problems. We believe that this review will offer some insights into the design of effective nanoparticulate systems for the therapeutic delivery of ICD inducers, thus, promoting the development of ICD-mediated cancer immunotherapy.

Engineering Liganded Gold Nanoclusters as Efficient Theranostic Agents for Cancer Applications

Luminescent gold nanoclusters are rapidly gaining attention as efficient theranostic targets for imaging and therapeutics. Indeed, their ease of synthesis, their tunable optical properties and tumor targeting make them potential candidates for sensitive diagnosis and efficacious therapeutic applications. This concept highlights the key components for designing gold nanoclusters as efficient theranostics focusing on application in the field of oncology.

Synthesis of Multifunctional Eu(III) Complex Doped Fe3O4/Au Nanocomposite for Dual Photo-Magnetic Hyperthermia and Fluorescence Bioimaging

In this paper, the luminescent complex Eu(3-thenoyltrifluoroacetonate)₃ was integrated with Fe₃O₄ and gold (Au) nanoparticles to form a multifunctional nanocomposite, Fe₃O₄/Au/Eu(TTA)₃ (FOASET NC), for dual magnetic-photothermal therapy and biomedical imaging. Upon functionalization with amine-NH₂, the FOASET NC exhibits a small size of 60-70 nm and strong, sharp emission at λ_max = 614 nm, enhanced by surface plasmon resonance (SPR) of Au nanoparticles that provided an effective label for HT29 colorectal cancer cells by fluorescence microscopy imaging. In addition, a hyperthermia temperature (42-46 °C) was completely achieved by using these FOASET NCs in an aqueous solution with three heating modes for (i) Magnetic therapy (MT), (ii) Photothermal therapy (PT), and (iii) Dual magnetic-photothermal therapy (MPT). The heating efficiency was improved in the dual magnetic-photothermal heating mode.

Potential of Nanotechnology-based Formulations in Combating Pulmonary Infectious Diseases: A Current Scenario

BACKGROUND

Pulmonary microbial infection is mainly caused by microbes like atypical bacteria, viruses, and fungi, on both the upper and lower respiratory tracts. One of the demands of the present is the use of nanotechnology-based treatments to fight various lung infections.

AIM

The main aim of the study is to explore all pulmonary infectious diseases and to compare the advanced and novel treatment approaches with the conventional methods which are available to treat infections.

METHODS

This work sheds light on pulmonary infectious diseases with their conventional and present treatment approaches along with a focus on the advantageous roles of nano-based formulations. In the literature, it has been reported that the respiratory system is the key target of various infectious diseases which gives rise to various challenges in the treatment of pulmonary infections.

RESULTS

The present review article describes the global situation of pulmonary infections and the different strategies which are available for their management, along with their limitations. The article also highlights the advantages and different examples of nanoformulations currently combating the limitations of conventional therapies.

CONCLUSION

The content of the present article further reflects on the summary of recently published research and review works on pulmonary infections, conventional methods of treatment with their limitations, and the role of nano-based approaches to combat the existing infectious diseases which will jointly help the researchers to produce effective drug formulations with desired pharmacological activities.

Phenylboronic acid conjugated multifunctional nanogels with 131I-labeling for targeted SPECT imaging and radiotherapy of breast adenocarcinoma

We report a new 131I-labeling functional platform for targeted single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) imaging and radiotherapy of breast adenocarcinoma. In this study, polyethyleneimine (PEI) based nanogels (P.NH2 NGs) were prepared by water/oil polymerization, modified with targeted agent phenylboronic acid (PBA), and labeled with radionuclide 131I. The NGs without 131I-labeling own a spherical structure, uniform size distribution, and good cell viability. After 131I-labeling, the obtained 131I-PBA-PHP NGs displayed much higher cellular uptake than the non-targeted NGs due to the good softness and fluidity of NGs and the PBA targeting. The in vivo results demonstrated that 131I-PBA-PHP NGs could specifically target breast cancer cells and efficiently aggregate into xenograft breast adenocarcinoma for tumor SPECT imaging and specific radiotherapy. The developed 131I-labeling NGs may be used as a promising platform for efficient radioactive theranostic nanoplatform of tumor.

The Effect of Capping Agents on Gold Nanostar Stability, Functionalization, and Colorimetric Biosensing Capability

Capping agents (organic ligands, polymers, and surfactants) are pivotal for stabilizing nanoparticles; however, they may influence the surface chemistry, as well as the physico-chemical and biological characteristics, of gold nanostar (AuNS)-based biosensors. In this study, we proved that various capping agents affected capped and bioconjugated AuNS stability, functionality, biocatalysis, and colorimetric readouts. Capped and bioconjugated AuNSs were applied as localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR)-based H2O2 sensors using glucose oxidase (GOx) as a model enzyme. Furthermore, our analyses revealed that the choice of capping agent influenced the properties of the AuNSs, their stability, and their downstream applications. Our analyses provide new insights into factors governing the choice of capping agents for gold nanostars and their influences on downstream applications with conjugated enzymes in confined environments.

Bioinspired Hydrogels as Platforms for Life-Science Applications: Challenges and Opportunities

Hydrogels, as interconnected networks (polymer mesh; physically, chemically, or dynamic crosslinked networks) incorporating a high amount of water, present structural characteristics similar to soft natural tissue. They enable the diffusion of different molecules (ions, drugs, and grow factors) and have the ability to take over the action of external factors. Their nature provides a wide variety of raw materials and inspiration for functional soft matter obtained by complex mechanisms and hierarchical self-assembly. Over the last decade, many studies focused on developing innovative and high-performance materials, with new or improved functions, by mimicking biological structures at different length scales. Hydrogels with natural or synthetic origin can be engineered as bulk materials, micro- or nanoparticles, patches, membranes, supramolecular pathways, bio-inks, etc. The specific features of hydrogels make them suitable for a wide variety of applications, including tissue engineering scaffolds (repair/regeneration), wound healing, drug delivery carriers, bio-inks, soft robotics, sensors, actuators, catalysis, food safety, and hygiene products. This review is focused on recent advances in the field of bioinspired hydrogels that can serve as platforms for life-science applications. A brief outlook on the actual trends and future directions is also presented.

Nanoparticles of Costus speciosus Ameliorate Diabetes-Induced Structural Changes in Rat Prostate through Mediating the Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines IL 6, IL1β and TNF-α

Diabetes mellitus is a common global health problem. Among the complications that are frequently associated with DM are the alternation of sexual function and fertility, especially in young men. This study aimed to assess the efficacy of nanoparticles of Costus speciosus (C. speciosus) in preserving the prostatic structure of diabetic rats and to explore the mechanism behind this effect. A model of DM was induced in male albino rats by a single intraperitoneally injection of streptozotocin (STZ, 60 mg/kg body weight). Five groups (n = 10 each) of rats were included in this study: the control, C. speciosus gold nanoparticles-treated (150 mg/kg body weight through gastric intubation for 30 days), untreated diabetic, metformin-treated diabetic (500 mg/kg/day gastric intubation for 30 days) and the C. speciosus-treated diabetic group. The blood glucose, insulin and testosterone levels as well as oxidants/antioxidants status were assessed in the serum. Gene expression of proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL1β and IL-6 were assessed in the prostate homogenate. At the end of the experiment, the rats were sacrificed and the prostate was dissected out and prepared for histopathological and immunohistochemistry study using Ki67 and Bcl-2. C. Speciosus nanoparticles significantly decreased (p = 0.03) the blood glucose level while significantly increasing insulin (p = 0.01) and testosterone (p = 0.04) levels compared to the untreated diabetic rats. Oxidants/antioxidants status was markedly improved after administration of C. speciosus. Prostatic expression of the mRNA of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL1β and TNF-α was down-regulated in metformin- and C. speciosus-treated rats. The histological structure of the ventral prostate was preserved in metformin- and C. speciosus-treated diabetic rats with a significantly thicker epithelial cell layer and significant increase immunoexpression in Bcl-2 and Ki67. In conclusion, the protective effect induced by C. speciosus nanoparticles on the prostate of diabetic rats might be directly mediated through the down-regulation of inflammatory cytokines and the up-regulation of antioxidant activity and indirectly mediated through the anti-hyperglycemic effect through enhancing insulin secretion.

Enhancement of Vancomycin Potential against Pathogenic Bacterial Strains via Gold Nano-Formulations: A Nano-Antibiotic Approach

The remarkable rise of antibiotic resistance among pathogenic bacteria poses a significant threat to human health. Nanoparticles (NPs) have recently emerged as novel strategies for conquering fatal bacterial diseases. Furthermore, antibiotic-functionalized metallic NPs represent a viable nano-platform for combating bacterial resistance. In this study, we present the use of vancomycin-functionalized gold nanoparticles (V-GNPs) to battle pathogenic bacterial strains. A facile one-pot method was adopted to synthesize vancomycin-loaded GNPs in which the reducing properties of vancomycin were exploited to produce V-GNPs from gold ions. UV–Visible spectroscopy verified the production of V-GNPs via the existence of a surface plasmon resonance peak at 524 nm, whereas transmission electron microscopy depicted a size of ~24 nm. Further, dynamic light scattering (DLS) estimated the hydrodynamic diameter as 77 nm. The stability of V-GNPs was investigated using zeta-potential measurements, and the zeta potential of V-GNPs was found to be −18 mV. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy confirmed the efficient loading of vancomycin onto GNP surfaces; however, the loading efficiency of vancomycin onto V-GNPs was 86.2%. Finally, in vitro antibacterial studies revealed that V-GNPs were much more effective, even at lower concentrations, than pure vancomycin. The observed antibacterial activities of V-GNPs were 1.4-, 1.6-, 1.8-, and 1.6-fold higher against Gram-negative Escherichia coli, Klebsiella oxytoca, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus, respectively, compared to pure vancomycin. Collectively, V-GNPs represented a more viable alternative to pure vancomycin, even at a lower antibiotic dose, in conquering pathogenic bacteria.