Preparation and Characterization of Self Nano-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System Loaded with Citraland Its Antiproliferative Effect on Colorectal Cells In Vitro

Screening of the Antimelanoma Activity of Monoterpenes-In Vitro Experiments on Four Human Melanoma Lines

(1) Malignant melanoma is the most aggressive type of malignant tumor caused by a dysfunction of melanocytes. Despite progress in the treatment of melanoma, further research and search for new potential drugs are necessary to optimize the therapy. (2) The aim of this study was to evaluate the antiproliferative activity of eight selected monoterpenes by MTT and LDH assays on four malignant melanoma cell lines. (3) Myrcene, rhodinol and nerol did not show any significant anticancer effect on melanoma cell lines, but citral, carvacrol, citronellol, thymol and geraniol showed a significant anti-viability effect. Our studies have shown that the most effective terpene among those tested in inhibiting melanoma cell viability was carvacrol, with the lowest IC50 in the range of 0.05 ± 0.00 to 0.06 ± 0.01 mM. Moreover, it did not negatively affect normal human keratinocyte cells. (4) Metastatic melanoma is very difficult to treat, and some terpenes have the ability to sensitize cells to other chemicals; so, it is worth investigating their antimelanoma potential, as terpenes could become an adjuvant to traditional treatment.

Development of Solid Self-Nanoemulsifying Drug Delivery System of Rhein to Improve Biopharmaceutical Performance: Physiochemical Characterization, and Pharmacokinetic Evaluation

Introduction

Rhein, a natural bioactive lipophilic compound with numerous pharmacological activities, faces limitations in clinical application due to poor aqueous solubility and low bioavailability. Thus, this study aimed to develop a rhein-loaded self-nano emulsifying drug delivery system (RL-SNEDDS) to improve solubility and bioavailability.

Methods

The RL-SNEDDS was prepared by aqueous titration method with eucalyptus oil (oil phase), tween 80 (surfactant), and PEG 400 (co-surfactant) and optimization was performed by 32 factorial design. The optimized formulation was characterized for Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, powdered X-ray diffraction, and Field emission scanning electron microscopy. Further, the oral bioavailability study and brain tissue pharmacokinetics study were performed on Sprague-Dawley rats.

Results

The optimized RL-SNEDDS had an average droplet size of 129.3 ±1.57 nm, zeta potential of -24.6 mV ±0.34, % transmittance of 94.82 ± 0.61, and encapsulation efficiency of 98.86 ± 0.23. Furthermore, RL-SNEDDS was transformed into solid RL-SNEDDS (RS-SNEDDS) to increase stability. In vitro release of rhein from RS-SNEDDS showed prolonged release up to 24h with 99.03± 1.04% drug release. Differential scanning calorimetry and powdered X-ray diffraction analysis confirmed the reduction in drug crystallinity and supported the results of the dissolution study. Field emission scanning electron microscopy analysis revealed the smooth and spherical nanosized globule of SNEDDS. Moreover, the in vivo pharmacokinetic study showed a significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05) value of Cmax and AUC0-t of RS-SNEDDS (8 ± 0.930 μg/mL and 37.79 ± 2.01 μg/mL*hr) compared to free rhein suspension (1.96 ± 0.712 μg/mL and 7.32 ± 0.946 μg/mL*hr) which indicated the enhancement of bioavailability of RS-SNEDDS. We also examined the Cmax and AUC0-t of RS-SNEDDS in the brain and it was found to be 2.90 ± 0.171 μg/mL and 18.18 ± 1.68 μg/mL*hr respectively.

Conclusion

This study concludes that the RS-SNEDDS improves brain tissue concentration and oral bioavailability, both of which increase therapeutic potential.

Olive oil and castor oil-based self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system of flurbiprofen can relieve peripheral pain and inflammation through reduction of oxidative stress and inflammatory biomarkers: a comprehensive formulation and pharmacological insights

Flurbiprofen (FBP) is poorly water-soluble BCS class II drug with anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects, used to treat arthritis and degenerative joint diseases. This study was aimed to develop SNEDDS loaded with FBP. Six SNEDDS using two oils olive oil (F1OLV, F2OLV, F3OLV) and castor oil (F4CAS, F5CAS, F6CAS) with three different Smix ratios consisting of Tween 20 and PEG 400 (1:1, 1:2, 2:1) were prepared and characterized. Compatibility between FBP and polymers was investigated using FTIR. SNEDDS were characterized for physicochemical attributes. Two optimized formulations were investigated at 10 mg/kg dose given orally in Wistar rats for analgesic activity by hot plate and tail flick methods, and anti-inflammatory activity by carrageenan induced paw edema method. Anti-inflammatory activity was further explored by motor coordination and motility by Rota rod and cage activity tests. Following anesthesia blood samples were collected before dissection to measure inflammatory mediators and oxidative stress markers. Sciatica nerves and hind paws of rats were also removed for histopathological evaluation. FTIR studies revealed compatibility of FBP with other components. Droplet size of F1OLV, F2OLV, F3OLV was 128.5 ± 0.7 nm, 202.5 ± 1.3 nm, and 541.5 ± 1.7 nm, whereas it was 142.5 ± 1.1 nm, 215.4 ± 1.2 nm and 349.9 ± 1.8 nm for F4CAS, F5CAS, F6CAS. %EE of F1OLV, F2OLV, F3OLV was found 85 ± 4.89%-91 ± 4.67%, whereas the %EE F4CAS, F5CAS, F6CAS was 84 ± 4.15%-90 ± 4.21%. DSC curves of F1OLV and F4CAS revealed amorphous nature of the FBP. SEM showed spherical shape of globules. % of drug released in the pH medium 1.2 for plain FBP, F1OLV and F4CAS was 25%, 59% and 57%. % drug released in the pH 6.8 for plain FBP, F1OLV and F4CAS was 59%, 85% and 83%. Oral administration of FBP-loaded SNEDDS (F1OLV and F4CAS) significantly decreased paw diameter and enhanced motor coordination in rats when compared to the disease control group. This was linked to the ability of FBP to reduce inflammation and oxidative stress, with histological studies indicating decreased tissue damage in SNEDDS treated groups, implying the possibility of tissue recovery. Administration of both formulations started to demonstrate analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects after one hour of administration. In addition to anti-inflammatory effect, both formulations improved motor coordination, motility, and reduced infiltration of inflammatory cells in the inflamed paws. The anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities were attributed to decreased serum levels of IL-6 and TNF-α, increased activity of SOD and reduced nitrite content in sciatic nerves. Histopathological evaluation revealed reduced vascularity, inflammation and synovial hyperplasia. The overall findings suggest that the FBP loaded SNEDDS can be used as carriers for improved delivery of FBP which can effectively be used to cure pain and inflammation.

Development and characterization of a self-nano emulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) for Ornidazole to improve solubility and oral bioavailability of BCS class II drugs

This study aimed to investigate the in vitro performance of self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems (SNEDDSs) of Ornidazole (ORD), a poorly water-soluble drug. Self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems of ORD were prepared using various oils, non-ionic surfactants, and/or water-soluble co-solvents and assessed visually/by droplet size measurement. Equilibrium solubility of ORD in the anhydrous and diluted SNEDDS was conducted to achieve the maximum drug loading. The in vitro dissolution of SNEDDS was studied to compare the solubility of the representative formulations with API. The results from the characterization and solubility studies showed that SNEDDS formulations were stable with lower droplet sizes and showed higher ORD solubility. From the dissolution studies, it was found that the developed A7-SNEDDS formulation provided a significantly higher rate of ORD release (98.94 ± 0.68 in 1.0 h) compared to API. ORD-loaded SNEDDS formulations could be a potential oral pharmaceutical product with high drug-loading capacity, improved drug dissolution, and enhanced oral bioavailability.

Development of transferosomes for topical ocular drug delivery of curcumin

BACKGROUND

Transferosomes (TFS) are ultra-deformable elastic bilayer vesicles that have previously been used to enhance gradient driven penetration through the skin. This study aimed to evaluate the potential of TFS for topical ocular drug delivery and to compare their penetration enhancing properties in different ocular tissues.

METHODS

Curcumin-loaded TFS were prepared using Tween 80 as the edge activator. Drug release and precorneal retention of the TFS were evaluated in vitro, while their ocular biocompatibility and bioavailability were evaluated ex vivo using a curcumin solution in medium chain triglycerides as the oily control.

RESULTS

The TFS had a narrow size distribution with a particle size less than 150 nm and an entrapment efficiency greater than 99.96 %. Burst release from the TFS was minimal and the formulation showed good corneal biocompatibility. Moreover, enhanced corneal and conjunctival drug penetration with significantly greater and deeper drug delivery was observed with TFS in all ocular tissues.

CONCLUSION

TFS offer a promising platform for ocular delivery of hydrophobic drugs. This study, for the first time, elucidates the effect of tissue morphology and osmotic gradients on drug penetration in different ocular tissues.

Geraniol and citral: recent developments in their anticancer credentials opening new vistas in complementary cancer therapy

About 10 million people are diagnosed with cancer each year. Globally, it is the second leading cause of death after heart disease, and by 2035, the death toll could reach 14.6 million. Several drugs and treatments are available to treat cancer, but survival rates remain low. Many studies in recent years have shown that plant-derived monoterpenes, particularly geraniol and citral, are effective against various cancers, including breast, liver, melanoma, endometrial, colon, prostate, and skin cancers. This trend has opened new possibilities for the development of new therapeutics or adjuvants in the field of cancer therapy. These monoterpenes can improve the efficacy of chemotherapy by modulating many signaling molecules and pathways within tumors. Analysis of reports on the anticancer effects published in the past 5 years provided an overview of the most important results of these and related properties. Also, the molecular mechanisms by which they exert their anticancer effects in cell and animal studies have been explained. Therefore, this review aims to highlight the scope of geraniol and citral as complementary or alternative treatment options in cancer therapy.

Isotretinoin self-nano-emulsifying drug delivery system: Preparation, optimization and antibacterial evaluation

Purpose

Isotretinoin (ITN) is a poorly water-soluble drug. The objective of this study was to design a successful liquid self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (L-SNEDDS) for ITN to improve its solubility, dissolution rate, and antibacterial activity.

Methods

According to solubility and emulsification studies, castor oil, Cremophor EL, and Transcutol HP were selected as system excipients. A pseudo ternary phase diagram was constructed to reveal the self-emulsification area. The developed SNEDDS were visually assessed, and the droplet size was measured. In vitro release studies and stability studies were conducted. The antimicrobial effectiveness against multiple bacterial strains, including Staphylococcus aureus, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and different accessory gene regulator (Agr) variants were investigated for the optimum ITN-loaded SNEDDS formulation.

Results

Characterization studies showed emulsion homogeneity and stability (%T 95.40-99.20, A graded) with low droplet sizes (31.87 ± 1.23 nm-115.47 ± 0.36 nm). It was found that the developed ITN-SNEDDS provided significantly a higher release rate (>96 % in 1 h) as compared to the raw drug (<10 % in 1 h). The in vitro antimicrobial activities of pure ITN and ITN-loaded SNEDDS demonstrated a remarkable inhibitory effect on bacterial growth with statistically significant findings (p < 0.0001) for all tested strains when treated with ITN-SNEDDS as compared to the raw drug.

Conclusion

These outcomes suggested that SNEDDS could be a potential approach for improving solubility, dissolution rates, and antibacterial activity of ITN.

Improving Oral Bioavailability of Herbal Drugs: A Focused Review of Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System for Colon Cancer

One of the most frequent malignancies in the world is colon cancer. Both men and women are affected in the same way. The colon, which makes up the last part of the digestive system and is where water and minerals from food waste are absorbed, is vulnerable to cancer. The most suitable technique of drug administration is oral administration. Aqueous solubility is low in more than 40% of novel chemical entities, resulting in poor oral drug administration. In the formulation of oral medications, low inconsistent bioavailability is a major challenge. Increasing medication bioavailability is one of the most difficult aspects of pharmacological development. Self-nano-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SNEDDS) have been a potential platform for biopharmaceutical classification system class II and IV drugs for oral delivery. Enhanced bioavailability and solubility, control of toxicity, pharmacological effects, improved stability, improved tissue macrophage dispersion, prolonged delivery, and resistance to physical and chemical degradation are just a few benefits of SNEDDS for herbal drugs. To increase activity and address problems associated with herbal drugs, nanosized modern drug delivery technologies are expected to have a promising future. Improved patient compliance, fewer problems with liquid SNEDDS filled in capsules, and enhanced stability SNEDDS are all benefits of converting liquid SNEDDS to solid oral dosage forms or solid SNEDDS. SNEDDS differs from previous solubility augmentation methods due to its biodegradable components, simplicity of large-scale production, and range of drug-targeting possibilities.

Preparation Optimization and Immunological Activity Studies of Portulaca oleracea L. Polysaccharides Liposomes

AIMS

This study combines traditional Chinese medicine polysaccharides with nanomaterials to enhance drug bioavailability and immunological activity.

BACKGROUND

The study of polysaccharide preparation, structure identification, pharmacological activity, and mechanism of action is deepening, but the research combined with the new drug delivery system is relatively weak, so the application of polysaccharides is still facing great limitations. In order to prolong the action time of polysaccharides and improve their bioavailability, liposome has become the most promising delivery carrier.

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to optimize the preparation process of Portulaca oleracea L. polysaccharides liposomes (POL-PL) and evaluate the immunoactivity in vitro.

METHODS

POL-PL was prepared by reverse evaporation, and the preparation process was optimized using the response surface methodology. The characteristic analysis of POL-PL was detected by the indicators including morphology, particle size, zeta potential, encapsulation efficiency, release, and stability. The effects of POL-PL on the proliferation and immunological activity of mouse spleen lymphocytes and RAW264.7 cells were evaluated in vitro.

RESULTS

POL-PL is highly homogeneous in morphology and particle size, and its sustained release improves the bioavailability of Portulaca oleracea L. polysaccharides (POL-P). Moreover, POL-PL treatment significantly enhanced the proliferation and phagocytic activity of RAW264.7 cells and increased the secretion of IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β, and NO.

CONCLUSION

This study suggested that POL-PL were prepared successfully by reverse evaporation method, and POL-PL had immunoenhancing activity in vitro. The results provided a theoretical basis for further application of POL-PL.

Mechanisms and Applications of Citral's Antimicrobial Properties in Food Preservation and Pharmaceuticals Formulations

Citral is a monoterpene constituted by two isomers known as neral and geranial. It is present in different plant sources and recognized as safe (GRAS) by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). In recent years, investigations have demonstrated that this compound exhibited several biological activities, such as antibacterial, antifungal, antibiofilm, antiparasitic, antiproliferative, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties, by in vitro and in vivo assays. Additionally, when incorporated into different food matrices, citral can reduce the microbial load of pathogenic microorganisms and extend the shelf life. This compound has acceptable drug-likeness properties and does not present any violations of Lipinski's rules, which could be used for drug development. The above shows that citral could be a compound of interest for developing food additives to extend the shelf life of animal and vegetable origin foods and develop pharmaceutical products.

Lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles: a custom-tailored next-generation approach for cancer therapeutics

Lipid-based polymeric nanoparticles are the highly popular carrier systems for cancer drug therapy. But presently, detailed investigations have revealed their flaws as drug delivery carriers. Lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPHNPs) are advanced core-shell nanoconstructs with a polymeric core region enclosed by a lipidic layer, presumed to be derived from both liposomes and polymeric nanounits. This unique concept is of utmost importance as a combinable drug delivery platform in oncology due to its dual structured character. To add advantage and restrict one's limitation by other, LPHNPs have been designed so to gain number of advantages such as stability, high loading of cargo, increased biocompatibility, rate-limiting controlled release, and elevated drug half-lives as well as therapeutic effectiveness while minimizing their drawbacks. The outer shell, in particular, can be functionalized in a variety of ways with stimuli-responsive moieties and ligands to provide intelligent holding and for active targeting of antineoplastic medicines, transport of genes, and theragnostic. This review comprehensively provides insight into recent substantial advancements in developing strategies for treating various cancer using LPHNPs. The bioactivity assessment factors have also been highlighted with a discussion of LPHNPs future clinical prospects.

Exploring the Enhanced Antiproliferative Activity of Turmeric Oil and 6-Mercaptopurine in a Combined Nano-Particulate System Formulation

6-Mercaptopurine (6-MP) is a chemotherapeutic agent with inadequate efficacy due to its poor aqueous solubility and limited bioavailability. Turmeric oil is a naturally occurring bioactive substance obtained from the rhizomes of Curcuma longa Linn that has well-known antiproliferative activities. The aim of this study was to develop a 6-MP-loaded turmeric oil-based self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) to improve the anticancer activity of 6-MP. Turmeric oil was extracted and used in a range of 15-25% to develop SNEDDS formulations utilizing tween 80 and dimethyl sulfoxide as the surfactant and cosurfactant, respectively. The size, charge, and effect of the formulations on the viability against HepG2 and MCF-7 cell models, as well as the apoptosis and cell cycle, were analyzed. The prepared SNEDDS formulations were in the size range of 425.7 ± 7.4-303.6 ± 19.3 nm, using a polydispersity index of 0.429-0.692 and electronegative surface charges. Moreover, 6-MP-loaded SNEDDS with 15% turmeric oil content (F1) showed smaller particle sizes and a noticeable antiproliferative activity against both cell line models. Also, F1 showed a higher rate of late apoptosis than the pure drug and the corresponding non-medicated formulation. A morphological study revealed significant changes in the HepG2 cells compared to untreated cells. More cells halted in the S phase, and a marked decrease in the proportions of cells in the G1/G0 phase was observed when using SNEDDS formulation compared to pure drug. Thus, SNEDDS formulation is a promising drug delivery system for improving the antiproliferative activity of 6-MP, especially when turmeric oil is incorporated.

A Novel Semi-Solid Self-Emulsifying Formulation of Aprepitant for Oral Delivery: An In Vitro Evaluation

Aprepitant is the first member of a relatively new antiemetic drug class called NK₁ receptor antagonists. It is commonly prescribed to prevent chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. Although it is included in many treatment guidelines, its poor solubility causes bioavailability issues. A particle size reduction technique was used in the commercial formulation to overcome low bioavailability. Production with this method consists of many successive steps that cause the cost of the drug to increase. This study aims to develop an alternative, cost-effective formulation to the existing nanocrystal form. We designed a self-emulsifying formulation that can be filled into capsules in a melted state and then solidified at room temperature. Solidification was achieved by using surfactants with a melting temperature above room temperature. Various polymers have also been tested to maintain the supersaturated state of the drug. The optimized formulation consists of Capryol^TM 90, Kolliphor^® CS20, Transcutol^® P, and Soluplus^®; it was characterized by DLS, FTIR, DSC, and XRPD techniques. A lipolysis test was conducted to predict the digestion performance of formulations in the gastrointestinal system. Dissolution studies showed an increased dissolution rate of the drug. Finally, the cytotoxicity of the formulation was tested in the Caco-2 cell line. According to the results, a formulation with improved solubility and low toxicity was obtained.

Development of a sorafenib-loaded solid self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system: Formulation optimization and characterization of enhanced properties

Sorafenib, marketed under the brand name Nexavar®, is a multiple tyrosine kinase inhibitor drug that has been actively used in the clinical setting for the treatment of several cancers. However, the low solubility and bioavailability of sorafenib constitute a significant barrier to achieving a good therapeutic outcome. We developed a sorafenib-loaded self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) formulation composed of capmul MCM, tween 80, and tetraglycol, and demonstrated that the SNEDDS formulation could improve drug solubility with excellent self-emulsification ability. Moreover, the sorafenib-loaded SNEDDS exhibited anticancer activity against Hep3B and KB cells, which are the most commonly used hepatocellular carcinoma and oral cancer cell lines, respectively. Subsequently, to improve the storage stability and to increase the possibility of commercialization, a solid SNEDDS for sorafenib was further developed through the spray drying method using Aerosil® 200 and PVP K 30. X-ray diffraction and differential scanning calorimeter data showed that the crystallinity of the drug was markedly reduced, and the dissolution rate of the drug was further improved in formulation in simulated gastric and intestinal fluid conditions. In vivo study, the bioavailability of the orally administered formulation increases dramatically compared to the free drug. Our results highlight the use of the solid-SNEDDS formulation to enhance sorafenib's bioavailability and outlines potential translational directions for oral drug development.

Formulation and Development of Curcumin-Piperine-Loaded S-SNEDDS for the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease

Curcumin (CUR) and piperine (PIP) are very well-known phytochemicals that claimed to have many health benefits and have been widely used in foods and traditional medicines. This study investigated the therapeutic efficacy of these compounds to treat Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, poor oral bioavailability and permeability of curcumin are a major challenge for formulation scientists. In this research study, the researcher tried to enhance the bioavailability and permeability of curcumin by a nanotechnological approach. In this research study, we developed a CUR-PIP-loaded SNEDDS in various oils. Optimised formulation NF3 was subjected to evaluate its therapeutic effectiveness on AD animal model in comparison with untreated AD model and treated group (by market formulation donepezil). On the basis of characterisation results, it is confirmed that NF3 formulation is the best formulation. The optimised formulation shows a significant dose-dependent manner therapeutic effect on AD-induced model. Novel formulation CUR-PIP solid-SNEDDS was successfully developed and optimised. It is expected that the developed S-SNEDDS can be a potential, safe and effective carrier for the oral delivery of curcumin to the brain. To date, this article is the only study of CUR-PIP-loaded S-SNEDDS for the treatment of AD.

In Vitro Evaluation of Antiprotozoal Properties, Cytotoxicity Effect and Anticancer Activity of New Essential-Oil Based Phytoncide Mixtures

Protozoa, in both humans and animals, are one of the leading causes of disease. International programmes introduced in many countries have helped reduce the incidence of disease. However, it has recently become increasingly difficult to achieve the goals set for the coming years. One of the main reasons for this, as with other pathogenic organisms, such as bacteria and fungi, is the increasing resistance to current methods of treating and preventing infection. Therefore, new therapies with high efficacy are needed. In the present study, the novel mixtures of essential oils (EOs), clove, garlic, Ceylon cinnamon, and rosemary with organic acids (acetic, propionic, lactic) and metal ions (Cu, Mn, Zn) were tested against five selected model protozoa (Euglena gracilis, Gregarina blattarum, Amoeba proteus, Paramecium caudatum, Pentatrichomonas hominis). The cytotoxicity and potential anticancer activity of the obtained combinations were tested on the human fibroblasts (NHDF) and human cancer cell lines (A549, MCF7, LoVo, HT29). All of the mixtures showed very good antiprotozoal properties. The most efficient were the combination of clove and rosemary essential oils, mixtures of acids, and Mn ions. The LD₅₀ values were in the range of 0.001-0.006% and the LD₁₀₀ values were 0.002-0.008%. All of the tested mixtures did not show cytotoxicity against normal cells, but did show growth inhibition against cancer cell lines. The most cytotoxic against cancer cells were combinations with cinnamon essential oil. Nevertheless, the proposed combinations containing essential oils, organic acids, and metal ions have high antiprotozoal activity, with low toxicity to healthy human cells.

Self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) mediated improved oral bioavailability of thymoquinone: optimization, characterization, pharmacokinetic, and hepatotoxicity studies

Thymoquinone (TQ) is an antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and hepatoprotective compound obtained from the black seed oil of Nigella sativa. However, high hydrophobicity, instability at higher pH levels, photosensitivity, and low oral bioavailability hinder its delivery to the target tissues. A self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) was fabricated using the microemulsification technique to address these issues. Its physicochemical properties, thermodynamic stability studies, drug release kinetics, in vivo pharmacokinetics, and hepatoprotective activity were evaluated. The droplet size was in the nano-range (< 90 nm). Zeta potential was measured to be -11.35 mV, signifying the high stability of the oil droplets. In vivo pharmacokinetic evaluation showed a fourfold increase in the bioavailability of TQ-SNEDDS over pure TQ. Furthermore, in a PCM-induced animal model, TQ-SNEDDS demonstrated significant (p < 0.05) hepatoprotective activity compared to pure TQ and silymarin. Reduction in liver biomarker enzymes and histopathological examinations of liver sections further supported the results. In this study, SNEDDS was demonstrated to be an improved oral delivery method for TQ, since it potentiates hepatotoxicity and enhances bioavailability.

Boosting Tadalafil Bioavailability via Sono-Assisted Nano-Emulsion-Based Oral Jellies: Box-Behnken Optimization and Assessment

Tadalafil (TAD) is a poorly soluble, phosphodiesterase inhibitor used to treat erectile dysfunction. The primary goal of this project was to prepare nano-emulsions using ultrasonic technology to address TAD bioavailability concerns. The Box−Behnken design was employed to find prominent correlations between factors impacting the sono-emulsification process. The emulsifier concentration, amplitude level, and ultrasonication time were the independent factors, whereas the average droplet size (ADS) and polydispersity index (PDI) were designated as the response variables. TAD-loaded nano-emulsions (93−289 nm) were generated and the emulsifier concentration showed a crucial role in directing emulsion droplet size. The model desirability function was utilized to optimize a nano-emulsion with a small ADS (99.67 ± 7.55 nm) and PDI (0.45 ± 0.04) by adjusting the emulsifiers concentration, amplitude level, and ultrasonication time at 9.85%, 33%, 49 s, respectively. The optimized nano-emulsions did not demonstrate any precipitation or phase separation after stability stress tests. TAD jellies were formulated based on the optimized nano-emulsion and subjected to in vitro evaluation for physical characteristics; TAD content, pH, spreadability, viscosity, syneresis, and taste-masking ability. An optimized nano-emulsion-based jelly (NEJ) formulation showed more than 96% drug dissolution in 30 min relative to 14% for the unprocessed TAD. In vivo assessment of NEJ in experimental rats demonstrated a significant enhancement (p < 0.05) of TAD bioavailability with an AUC0−24h of 2045 ± 70.2 vs. 259.9 ± 17.7 ng·h·mL−1 for the unprocessed TAD. Storage stability results revealed that NEJ remained stable with unremarkable changes in properties for 3 months. Overall, NEJ can be regarded as a successful therapeutic option for TAD administration with immediate-release properties and improved bioavailability.

Tetracycline-grafted mPEG-PLGA micelles for bone-targeting and osteoporotic improvement

Aim: We aimed to create a nano drug delivery system with tetracycline (TC)-grafted methoxy poly-(ethylene-glycol)‒poly-(D, L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (mPEG‒PLGA) micelles (TC‒mPEG‒PLGA) with TC and mPEG‒PLGA for potential bone targeting. Prospectively, TC‒mPEG‒PLGA aims to deliver bioactive compounds, such as astragaloside IV (AS), for osteoporotic therapy.

Methods: Preparation and evaluation of TC‒mPEG‒PLGA were accomplished via nano-properties, cytotoxicity, uptake by MC3T3-E1 cells, ability of hydroxyapatite targeting and potential bone targeting in vivo, as well as pharmacodynamics in a rat model.

Results: The measured particle size of AS-loaded TC‒mPEG‒PLGA micelles was an average of 52.16 ± 2.44 nm, which exhibited a sustained release effect compared to that by free AS. The TC‒mPEG‒PLGA demonstrated low cytotoxicity and was easily taken by MC3T3-E1 cells. Through assaying of bone targeting in vitro and in vivo, we observed that TC‒mPEG‒PLGA could effectively increase AS accumulation in bone. A pharmacodynamics study in mice suggested potentially increased bone mineral density by AS-loaded TC‒mPEG‒PLGA in ovariectomized rats compared to that by free AS.

Conclusion: The nano drug delivery system (TC‒mPEG‒PLGA) could target bone in vitro and in vivo, wherein it may be used as a novel delivery method for the enhancement of therapeutic effects of drugs with osteoporotic activity.

Self-Nanoemulsifying Drug Delivery System of 2-Methoxyestradiol Exhibits Enhanced Anti-Proliferative and Pro-Apoptotic Activities in MCF-7 Breast Cancer Cells

(1) Background: 2-Methoxyestradiol (2ME) is a metabolite of estrogens and possesses promising anti-proliferative and cytotoxic activities. However, it suffers unfavorable pharmacokinetic characteristics such as absorption after oral administration. The aim of this study was to prepare an optimized 2ME self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (2ME-SNEDDS) and evaluate its cytotoxicity and pro-apoptotic activities in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. (2) Methods: For optimization of the 2ME-SNEDDS, a three-component system was used in the D-optimal mixture experimental study. MCF-7 cells were incubated with the 2ME-SNEDDS and subjected to an assessment of growth inhibition, cell cycle progression, annexin V staining, caspase-3 concentration, Bax, Bcl-2, and cyclin D1 mRNA expression, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. (3) Results: The optimized formula had a globule size of 94.97 ± 4.35 nm. Zeta potential was found to be −3.4 ± 1.2 mV with a polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.34. In addition, 96.3  ± 4.3% of 2ME was released from the 2ME-SNEDDS within 24 h using the activated analysis bag technique. Moreover, the prepared 2ME-SNEDDS exhibited a significant enhancement of the anti-proliferative activity against MCF-7 cells in comparison to raw 2ME. This was associated with cyclin D1 expression down-regulation and the accumulation of cells in the G0/G1 and G2/M phases. The pro-apoptotic activities of the 2ME-SNEDDS were confirmed by annexin V staining, which indicated enhanced early and late cell death. This accompanied modulation of the mRNA expression of Bax and Bcl-2 in favor of apoptosis. The 2ME-SNEDDS significantly enhanced cleaved caspase-3 concentration in comparison to raw 2ME. In addition, the 2ME-SNEDDS significantly increased the generation of ROS in MCF-7 cells. (4) Conclusions: The 2ME-SNEDDS exhibits enhanced cytotoxicity and pro-apoptotic activity in MCF-7 cells. This is mediated by, at least partially, ROS generation.

Cinnamaldehyde-Based Self-Nanoemulsion (CA-SNEDDS) Accelerates Wound Healing and Exerts Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, and Anti-Inflammatory Effects in Rats’ Skin Burn Model

Cinnamaldehyde, the main phytoconstituent of the cinnamon oil, has been reported for its potential wound healing activity, associated to its antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects. In this study, we are reporting on the cinnamaldehyde-based self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (CA-SNEDDS), which was prepared and evaluated for its antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and wound healing potential using the rat third-degree skin injury model. The parameters, i.e., skin healing, proinflammatory, and oxidative/antioxidant markers, were evaluated after 3 weeks of treatment regimens with CA-SNEDDS. Twenty rats were divided randomly into negative control (untreated), SNEDDS control, silver sulfadiazine cream positive control (SS), and CA-SNEDDS groups. An aluminum cylinder (120 °C, 10-s duration) was used to induce 3rd-degree skin burns (1-inch square diameter each) on the rat’s dorsum. At the end of the experiment, skin biopsies were collected for biochemical analysis. The significantly reduced wound size in CA-SNEDDS compared to the negative group was observed. CA-SNEDDS-treated and SS-treated groups demonstrated significantly increased antioxidant biomarkers, i.e., superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT), and a significant reduction in the inflammatory marker, i.e., NAP-3, compared to the negative group. Compared to SNEDDS, CA-SNEDDS exhibited a substantial antimicrobial activity against all the tested organisms at the given dosage of 20 µL/disc. Among all the tested microorganisms, MRSA and S. typhimurium were the most susceptible bacteria, with an inhibition zone diameter (IZD) of 17.0 ± 0.3 mm and 19.0 ± 0.9 mm, respectively. CA-SNEDDS also exhibited strong antifungal activity against C. albicans and A. niger, with IZD of 35.0 ± 0.5 mm and 34.0 ± 0.5 mm, respectively. MIC and MBC of CA-SNEDDS for the tested bacteria ranged from 3.125 to 6.25 µL/mL and 6.25 to 12.5 µL/mL, respectively, while the MIC and MBC for C. albicans and A. niger were 1.56 µL/mL and 3.125 µL/mL, respectively. The MBIC and MBEC of CA-SNEDDS were also very significant for the tested bacteria and ranged from 6.25 to 12.5 µL/mL and 12.5 to 25.0 µL/mL, respectively, while the MBIC and MBEC for C. albicans and A. niger were 3.125 µL/mL and 6.25 µL/mL, respectively. Thus, the results indicated that CA-SNEDDS exhibited significant wound healing properties, which appeared to be attributed to the formulation’s antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects.

An Investigation for Skin Tissue Regeneration Enhancement/Augmentation by Curcumin-Loaded Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System (SEDDS)

Diabetes, one of the global metabolic disorders, is often associated with delayed wound healing due to the elevated level of free radicals at the wound site, which hampers skin regeneration. This study aimed at developing a curcumin-loaded self-emulsifying drug delivery system (SEDDS) for diabetic wound healing and skin tissue regeneration. For this purpose, various curcumin-loaded SEDDS formulations were prepared and optimized. Then, the SEDDS formulations were characterized by the emulsion droplet size, surface charge, drug content/entrapment efficiency, drug release, and stability. In vitro, the formulations were assessed for the cellular uptake, cytotoxicity, cell migration, and inhibition of the intracellular ROS production in the NIH3T3 fibroblasts. In vivo, the formulations' wound healing and skin regeneration potential were evaluated on the induced diabetic rats. The results indicated that, after being dispersed in the aqueous medium, the optimized SEDDS formulation was readily emulsified and formed a homogenous dispersion with a droplet size of 37.29 ± 3.47 nm, surface charge of -20.75 ± 0.07 mV, and PDI value of less than 0.3. The drug content in the optimized formulation was found to be 70.51% ± 2.31%, with an encapsulation efficiency of 87.36% ± 0.61%. The SEDDS showed a delayed drug release pattern compared to the pure drug solution, and the drug release rate followed the Fickian diffusion kinetically. In the cell culture, the formulations showed lower cytotoxicity, higher cellular uptake, and increased ROS production inhibition, and promoted the cell migration in the scratch assay compared to the pure drug. The in vivo data indicated that the curcumin-loaded SEDDS-treated diabetic rats had significantly faster-wound healing and re-epithelialization compared with the untreated and pure drug-treated groups. Our findings in this work suggest that the curcumin-loaded SEDDS might have great potential in facilitating diabetic wound healing and skin tissue regeneration.

Colorectal cancer management: Strategies in drug delivery

INTRODUCTION

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common cancer leading to death worldwide following breast and lung cancer with the incidence rate of 10%. The treatment comprises of surgery, radiation, and ablation therapy depending upon the stage of cancer.

AREAS COVERED

The review focuses on various drug delivery strategies explored to circumvent the major constraints associated with the conventional drug delivery systems- poor bioavailability, intra- and inter individual variability, exposure of normal cells to antineoplastic agents, and presence of efflux pump. All these attributes impact the effective delivery of chemotherapeutic agents at the tumor site. The various target specific drug delivery systems developed for colorectal cancer include pH dependent, microbiologically triggered, time dependent, magnetically driven, pressure dependent, prodrug/polysaccharide based, osmotic and ligand mediated systems. This review enumerates novel target specific approaches developed and investigated for potential utility in CRC therapeutics.

EXPERT OPINION

The limitations of conventional delivery systems can be overcome by development of colon-specific targeted drug delivery systems that overcome the obstacles of nonspecific biodistribution, drug resistance and unwanted adverse effects of conventional drug delivery systems. In addition, nanotechnology approaches help to increase drug solubility, bioavailability, reduce side effects and provide superior drug response in CRC.

Essential oils as anticancer agents: Potential role in malignancies, drug delivery mechanisms, and immune system enhancement

Cancer retains a central place in fatality rates among the wide variety of diseases known world over, and the conventional synthetic medicaments, albeit used until now, produce numerous side effects. As a result, newer, better, and safer alternatives such as natural plant products, are gravely required. Essential oils (EOs) offer a plethora of bioactivities including antibacterial, antiviral, antioxidant, and anticancer properties, therefore, the use of EOs in combination with synthetic drugs or aromatherapy continues to be popular in many settings. In view of the paramount importance of EOs and their potential bioactivities, this review summarizes the current knowledge on the interconnection between EOs and cancer treatment. In particular, the current review presents an updated summary of the chemical composition of EOs, their current applications in cancer treatments based on clinical studies, and the mechanism of action against the cancer cell lines. Similarly, an overview of using EOs in aromatherapy and enhancing immunity during cancer treatment is provided. Further, this review focuses on the recent technological advancements such as the loading of EOs using protein microspheres, ligands, or nanoemulsions/nanoencapsulation, which offer multiple benefits in cancer treatment via site-specific and target-oriented delivery of drugs. The continuing clinical studies of EOs implicate that their pharmacological applications are a rewarding research area.

Lemongrass Essential Oil Components with Antimicrobial and Anticancer Activities

The prominent cultivation of lemongrass (Cymbopogon spp.) relies on the pharmacological incentives of its essential oil. Lemongrass essential oil (LEO) carries a significant amount of numerous bioactive compounds, such as citral (mixture of geranial and neral), isoneral, isogeranial, geraniol, geranyl acetate, citronellal, citronellol, germacrene-D, and elemol, in addition to other bioactive compounds. These components confer various pharmacological actions to LEO, including antifungal, antibacterial, antiviral, anticancer, and antioxidant properties. These LEO attributes are commercially exploited in the pharmaceutical, cosmetics, and food preservations industries. Furthermore, the application of LEO in the treatment of cancer opens a new vista in the field of therapeutics. Although different LEO components have shown promising anticancer activities in vitro, their effects have not yet been assessed in the human system. Hence, further studies on the anticancer mechanisms conferred by LEO components are required. The present review intends to provide a timely discussion on the relevance of LEO in combating cancer and sustaining human healthcare, as well as in food industry applications.

Physicochemical characterization, cytotoxic effect and toxicity evaluation of nanostructured lipid carrier loaded with eucalyptol

Background

Eucalyptol is an active compound of eucalyptus essential oil and was reported to have many medical attributes including cytotoxic effect on breast cancer cells. However, it has low solubility in aqueous solutions which limits its bioavailability and cytotoxic efficiency. In this study, nanostructured lipid carrier loaded with eucalyptol (NLC-Eu) was formulated and characterized and the cytotoxic effect of NLC-Eu towards breast cancer cell lines was determined. In addition, its toxicity in animal model, BALB/c mice was also incorporated into this study to validate the safety of NLC-Eu.

Methods

Eucalyptol, a monoterpene oxide active, was used to formulate the NLC-Eu by using high pressure homogenization technique. The physicochemical characterization of NLC-Eu was performed to assess its morphology, particle size, polydispersity index, and zeta potential. The in vitro cytotoxic effects of this encapsulated eucalyptol on human (MDA MB-231) and murine (4 T1) breast cancer cell lines were determined using the MTT assay. Additionally, acridine orange/propidium iodide assay was conducted on the NLC-Eu treated MDA MB-231 cells. The in vivo sub-chronic toxicity of the prepared NLC-Eu was investigated using an in vivo BALB/c mice model.

Results

As a result, the light, translucent, milky-colored NLC-Eu showed particle size of 71.800 ± 2.144 nm, poly-dispersity index of 0.258 ± 0.003, and zeta potential of − 2.927 ± 0.163 mV. Furthermore, the TEM results of NLC-Eu displayed irregular round to spherical morphology with narrow size distribution and relatively uniformed particles. The drug loading capacity and entrapment efficiency of NLC-Eu were 4.99 and 90.93%, respectively. Furthermore, NLC-Eu exhibited cytotoxic effects on both, human and mice, breast cancer cells with IC50 values of 10.00 ± 4.81 μg/mL and 17.70 ± 0.57 μg/mL, respectively at 72 h. NLC-Eu also induced apoptosis on the MDA MB-231 cells. In the sub-chronic toxicity study, all of the studied mice did not show any signs of toxicity, abnormality or mortality. Besides that, no significant changes were observed in the body weight, internal organ index, hepatic and renal histopathology, serum biochemistry, nitric oxide and malondialdehyde contents.

Conclusions

This study suggests that the well-characterized NLC-Eu offers a safe and promising carrier system which has cytotoxic effect on breast cancer cell lines.

Ion-Triggered In Situ Gelling Nanoemulgel as a Platform for Nose-to-Brain Delivery of Small Lipophilic Molecules

Background: Intranasal route offers a direct nose-to-brain delivery via olfactory and trigeminal nerves and minimizes the systemic exposure of the drug. Although reliable and non-invasive, intranasal administration of lipophilic neuroprotective agents for brain targeting is still challenging. Literature focuses on naturally-derived compounds as a promising therapeutics for chronic brain diseases. Naringin, a natural flavonoid obtained from citrus fruits possesses neuroprotective effects. By regulating multiple crucial cellular signaling pathways, naringin acts on several therapeutic targets that make it suitable for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s disease and making it a suitable candidate for nasal administration. However, the hydrophobicity of naringin is the primary challenge to formulate it in an aqueous system for nasal administration. Method: We designed a lipid-based nanoemulsifying drug delivery system of naringin using Acrysol K140 as an oil, Tween 80 as a surfactant and Transcutol HP as a cosolvent, to improve solubility and harness the benefits of nanosizing like improved cellular penetration. Intranasal instillations of therapeutic agents have limited efficacy due to drug washout and inadequate adherence to the nasal mucosa. Therefore, we reconstituted the naringin self-emulsifying system in a smart, biodegradable, ion-triggered in situ gelling hydrogel and optimized for desirable gel characteristics. The naringin-loaded composition was optimized and characterized for various physicochemical and rheological properties. Results: The formulation showed a mean droplet size 152.03 ± 4.6 nm with a polydispersity index <0.23. Ex vivo transmucosal permeation kinetics of the developed formulation through sheep nasal mucosa showed sustained diffusion and enhanced steady-state flux and permeability coefficient. Scanning and transmission electron microscopy revealed the spherical shape of emulsion droplets and entrapment of droplets in a gel structure. The formulation showed excellent biocompatibility as analyzed from the viability of L929 fibroblast cells and nasal mucosa histopathology after treatment. In vivo biodistribution studies revealed significantly higher drug transport and brain targeting efficiency. Conclusion: In situ gelling system with nanoemulsified naringin demonstrated a safe nasal delivery providing a new dimension to the treatment of chronic neurodegenerative diseases using small hydrophobic phytoconstituents with minimization of dose and related systemic adverse effects.

Enhanced Bioavailability of AC1497, a Novel Anticancer Drug Candidate, via a Self-Nanoemulsifying Drug Delivery System

AC1497 is an effective dual inhibitor of malate dehydrogenase 1 and 2 targeting cancer metabolism. However, its poor aqueous solubility results in low bioavailability, limiting its clinical development. This study was conducted to develop an effective self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) of AC1497 to improve its oral absorption. Based on the solubility of AC1497 in various oils, surfactants, and cosurfactants, Capryol 90, Kolliphor RH40, and Transcutol HP were selected as the components of SNEDDS. After testing various weight ratios of Capryol 90 (20–30%), Kolliphor RH40 (35–70%), and Transcutol HP (10–35%), SNEDDS-F4 containing 20% Capryol 90, 45% Kolliphor RH40, and 35% Transcutol HP was identified as an optimal SNEDDS with a narrow size distribution (17.8 ± 0.36 nm) and high encapsulation efficiency (93.6 ± 2.28%). Drug release from SNEDDS-F4 was rapid, with approximately 80% of AC1497 release in 10 min while the dissolution of the drug powder was minimal (<2%). Furthermore, SNEDDS-F4 significantly improved the oral absorption of AC1497 in rats. The maximum plasma concentration and area under the plasma concentration–time curve of AC1497 were, respectively 6.82- and 3.14-fold higher for SNEDDS-F4 than for the drug powder. In conclusion, SNEDDS-F4 with Capryol 90, Kolliphor RH40, and Transcutol HP (20:45:35, w/w) effectively improves the solubility and oral absorption of AC1497.

Pluronic F127 micelles improve the stability and enhance the anticancer stem cell efficacy of citral in breast cancer

Aim: Improving the stability and anti-cancer stem cell (CSC) activity of citral, a natural ALDH1A inhibitor. Materials & methods: Citral-loaded micelles (CLM) were obtained using Pluronic^® F127 and its efficacy tested on the growth of four breast cancer cell lines. The impact of the CLM on the growth and functional hallmarks of breast CSCs were also evaluated using mammosphere and CSC reporter cell lines. Results: CLM improved the stability and growth inhibitory effects of citral. Importantly, CLM fully blocking the stemness features of CSCs (self-renewal, differentiation and migration) and in combination with paclitaxel CLM sensitized breast cancer cells to the chemotherapy. Conclusion: Targeting CSCs with CLM could improve the treatment of advanced breast cancer in combination with the standard chemotherapy.

Preclinical Drug Discovery in Colorectal Cancer: A Focus on Natural Compounds

BACKGROUND

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is considered one of the most predominant and deadly cancer globally. Nowadays, the main clinical management for this cancer includes chemotherapy and surgery; however, these treatments result in the occurrence of drug resistance and severe side effects, and thus it is a crucial requirement to discover an alternative and potential therapy for CRC treatment. Numerous therapeutic cancers were initially recognized from natural metabolites utilized in traditional medicine, and several recent types of research have shown that many natural products own potential effects against CRC and may assist the action of chemotherapy for the treatment of CRC. It has been indicated that most patients are well tolerated by natural compounds without showing any toxicity signs even at high doses. Conventional chemotherapeutics interaction with natural medicinal compounds presents a new feature in cancer exploration and treatment. Most of the natural compounds overwhelm malignant cell propagation by apoptosis initiation of CRC cells and arresting of the cell cycle (especially at G, S, and G2/M phase) that result in inhibition of tumor growth.

OBJECTIVE

This mini-review aimed to focus on natural compounds (alkaloids, flavonoids, polysaccharides, polyphenols, terpenoids, lactones, quinones, etc.) that were identified to have anti- CRC activity in vitro on CRC cell lines and/or in vivo experiments on animal models.

CONCLUSION

Most of the studied active natural compounds possess anti-CRC activity via different mechanisms and pathways in vitro and in vivo that might be used as assistance by clinicians to support chemotherapy therapeutic strategy and treatment doses for cancer patients.

Topical Nanoemulgel for the Treatment of Skin Cancer: Proof-of-Technology

The present study is a mechanistic validation of ‘proof-of-technology’ for the effective topical delivery of chrysin nanoemulgel for localized, efficient treatment of melanoma-affected skin. Background: Currently available treatments for skin cancer are inefficient due to systemic side effects and poor transcutaneous permeation, thereby presenting a formidable challenge for the development of novel nanocarriers. Methods: We opted for a novel approach and formulated a nanocomplex system composed of hydrophobic chrysin dissolved in a lipid mix, which was further nanoemulsified in Pluronic^® F-127 gel to enhance physicochemical and biopharmaceutic characteristics. Chrysin, a flavone extracted from passion flowers, exhibits potential anti-cancer activities; however, it has limited applicability due to its poor solubility. Pseudo-ternary phase diagrams were constructed to identify the best self-nanoemulsifying region by varying the compositions of oil, Caproyl^® 90 surfactant, Tween^® 80, and co-solvent Transcutol^® HP. Chrysin-loaded nanoemulsifying compositions were characterized for various physicochemical properties. Results: This thermodynamically stable, self-emulsifying drug delivery system showed a mean droplet size of 156.9 nm, polydispersity index of 0.26, and viscosity of 9100 cps after dispersion in gel. Mechanical characterization using Texture Analyzer exhibited that the gel had a hardness of 487 g and adhesiveness of 500 g. Ex vivo permeation through rat abdominal skin revealed significant improvement in percutaneous absorption measured as flux, the apparent permeability coefficient, the steady-state diffusion coefficient, and drug deposition. In vitro cytotoxicity on A375 and SK-MEL-2 cell lines showed a significantly improved therapeutic effect, thus ensuring reduction in dose. The safety of the product was established through biocompatibility testing on the L929 cell line. Conclusion: Aqueous, gel-based, topical, nanoemulsified chrysin is a promising technology approach for effective localized transcutaneous delivery that will help reduce the frequency and overall dose usage and ultimately improve the therapeutic index.

The Evaluation of Drug Delivery Nanocarrier Development and Pharmacological Briefing for Metabolic-Associated Fatty Liver Disease (MAFLD): An Update

Current research indicates that the next silent epidemic will be linked to chronic liver diseases, specifically non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), which was renamed as metabolic-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) in 2020. Globally, MAFLD mortality is on the rise. The etiology of MAFLD is multifactorial and still incompletely understood, but includes the accumulation of intrahepatic lipids, alterations in energy metabolism, insulin resistance, and inflammatory processes. The available MAFLD treatment, therefore, relies on improving the patient's lifestyle and multidisciplinary pharmacotherapeutic options, whereas the option of surgery is useless without managing the comorbidities of the MAFLD. Nanotechnology is an emerging approach addressing MAFLD, where nanoformulations are suggested to improve the safety and physicochemical properties of conventional drugs/herbal medicines, physical, chemical, and physiological stability, and liver-targeting properties. A wide variety of liver nanosystems were constructed and delivered to the liver, only those that addressed the MAFLD were discussed in this review in terms of the nanocarrier classes, particle size, shape, zeta potential and offered dissolution rate(s), the suitable preparation method(s), excipients (with synergistic effects), and the suitable drug/compound for loading. The advantages and challenges of each nanocarrier and the focus on potential promising perspectives in the production of MAFLD nanomedicine were also highlighted.

Improved Pharmacodynamic Potential of Rosuvastatin by Self-Nanoemulsifying Drug Delivery System: An in vitro and in vivo Evaluation

PURPOSE

The purpose of this proposed research was to investigate a nano-formulation developed using self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) to improve the pharmacodynamic potential of rosuvastatin by assisting its transportation through lymphatic circulation.

METHODS

The utilized lipids, surfactants, and co-surfactants for SNEDDS were selected on the basis of solubility studies. The SNEDDS formulation was optimized by implementing a D-optimal mixture design, wherein the effect of concentration of Capmul MCM EP (X1), Tween 20 (X2) and Transcutol P (X3) as independent variables was studied on droplet size (Y1), % cumulative drug release (Y2) and self-emulsification time (Y3) as dependent variables. The optimized formulation was evaluated via in vitro parameters and in vivo pharmacodynamic potential in Wistar rats.

RESULTS

The D-optimal mixture design and subsequent ANOVA application resulted in the assortment of the optimized SNEDDS formulation that exhibited a droplet size of nano range (14.91nm), in vitro drug release of >90% within 30 minutes, and self-emulsification time of 16 seconds. The in vivo pharmacodynamic study carried out using Wistar rats confirmed the better antihyperlipidemic potential of developed formulation in normalizing the lipidic level of serum in contrast to pure drug and marketed tablets.

CONCLUSION

This research reports the application of D-optimal mixture design for successful and systematic development of rosuvastatin-loaded SNEDDS with distinctly enhanced in vitro and in vivo performance in comparison to marketed formulation. Eventually, improved anti-hyperlipidemic efficacy was envisaged which might be attributed to increased drug solubility and absorption. Overall, this study shows the utility of SNEDDS for improving the dissolution rate and bioavailability of poor aqueous-soluble drugs. The present SNEDDS formulation could be a promising approach and alternative to conventional dosage form.

Self-Nanoemulsion Loaded with a Combination of Isotretinoin, an Anti-Acne Drug, and Quercetin: Preparation, Optimization, and In Vivo Assessment

Acne vulgaris is a common skin disease that affects everybody at least once in their lives. The treatment is challenging because the stratum corneum contains rigid corneocytes surrounded by intercellular lamellae that are difficult to bypass. In the present study, we intended to formulate an effective nanoemulsion that could deliver isotretinoin (ITT) with enhanced solubility, permeability, and bioavailability across the skin. ITT can have a serious hepatotoxic effect if given too frequently or erratically. Therefore, to overcome the aforesaid limitation, quercetin (QRS), a hepatoprotective agent, was incorporated into the formulation. Initially, the ITT solubility was determined in various surfactants and cosurfactants to select the essential ingredients to be used in the formulation and to optimize a nanoemulsion that could enhance the solubility and permeability of ITT and its antimicrobial activity against Staphyloccocus aureus, which is the main microorganism responsible for acne vulgaris. The mixture design was applied to study the interactions and optimize the independent variables that could match the prerequisites of selected dependent responses. A formulation containing 0.25 g of rosehip oil, 0.45 g of surfactant (Lauroglycol-90), and 0.3 g of cosurfactant (propylene glycol) was chosen as an optimized desirable formulation. The optimized batch was loaded with QRS and evaluated for in vitro and ex vivo permeation. The in vivo hepatotoxicity was assessed through topical administration. Permeability studies confirmed the enhanced permeation percentage of ITT (52.11 ± 2.85%) and QRS (25.44 ± 3.18%) of the optimized formulation, with an enhanced steady-state flux (Jss). The in vivo studies conducted on experimental animals demonstrated superior hepatoprotective activity of the prepared optimized formulation compared with other formulations of drugs and commercially marketed products. We anticipate that this optimized ITT formulation, followed up with good clinical evaluations, can be a breakthrough in the safe treatment of acne vulgaris.

Design and optimization of candesartan loaded self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system for improving its dissolution rate and pharmacodynamic potential

During the last decades, much attention has been focused on SNEDDS approach to resolve concerns of BCS II class drugs with accentuation on upgrading the solubility and bioavailability. The present hypothesis confirms the theory that SNEDDS can reduce the impact of food on Candesartan solubilization, thereby offering the potential for improved oral delivery without co-administration with meals. The present studies describe quality-by-design-based development and characterization of Candesartan loaded SNEDDS for improving its pharmacodynamic potential. D-optimal mixture design was used for systematic optimization of SNEDDS, which showed globule size of 13.91 nm, more rapid drug release rate of >90% in 30 min and 16 s for self-emulsification. The optimized formulations were extensively evaluated, where an in vitro drug release study indicated up to 1.99- and 1.10-fold enhancement in dissolution rate from SNEDDS over pure drug and marketed tablet. In vivo pharmacodynamic investigation also showed superior antihypertensive potential of SNEDDS in normalizing serum lipid levels as compared to pure drug and marketed tablet that was executed on male Wistar rats. Overall, this paper reports successful systematic development of candesartan-loaded SNEDDS with distinctly improved biopharmaceutical performance. This research work interpreted a major role of SNEDDS for enhancing the rate of dissolution and bioavailability of poorly water soluble drugs.

Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic evaluation of Solid self-nanoemulsifying delivery system (SSNEDDS) loaded with curcumin and duloxetine in attenuation of neuropathic pain in rats

The present investigation is focused on improving oral bioavailability of poorly soluble and lipophilic drugs, curcumin (CRM) and duloxetine (DXH), through the solid self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (S-SNEDDS) and identifying their potential against attenuation of NP in chronic constriction injury (CCI)-induced rats through the solid self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (S-SNEDDS). The optimized batch of S-SNEDDS reported was containing CRM and DXH (30 mg each), castor oil (20% w/w), tween-80 (40% w/w), transcutol-P (40% w/w), and syloid 244 FP (1 g). The high dose of each of naïve CRM (NCH), naïve DXH (NDH), physical mixture of DXH and CRM (C-NCM-DXH), S-SNEDDS-CRM (SCH), S-SNEDDS-DXH (SDH), and S-SNEDDS-CRM-DXH (C-SCH-SDH) was subjected for MTT assay. The developed formulations were subjected to pharmacokinetic studies and results showed about 8 to 11.06 and 2-fold improvement in oral bioavailability of CRM and DXH through S-SNEDDS. Furthermore, CCI-induced male Wistar rats were treated with SSNEDDS containing CRM and DXH, S-SNEDDS containing individual drug, individual naïve forms, and their combination from the day of surgery for 14 days and evaluated for behavioral at pre-determined time intervals. On the terminal day, animals were sacrificed to assess tissue myeloperoxidase, superoxide anion, protein, tumor necrosis factor-α, total calcium levels, and histopathological changes. Pronounced effect was observed in rats treated with S-SNEDDS containing both drugs with respect to rats receiving any of other treatments owing to enhanced oral bioavailability through S-SNEDDS. Therefore, it can be concluded that S-SNEDDS of both drugs and their coadministration can accelerate the prevention of NP.

Improved hepatoprotective activity of Beta vulgaris L. leaf extract loaded self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS): in vitro and in vivo evaluation

OBJECTIVE

Beta vulgaris L. (beetroot) is a vegetable plant rich in phytochemical compounds such as phenolic acids, carotenoids and flavonoids. The objective of the current study is the development and optimization of self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems (SNEDDSs) to enhance the hepatoprotective activity of beet leaf (BL) extract.

METHODS

Total flavonoids content was estimated in the BL extract and its solubility was evaluated in various vehicles to select proper component combinations. Pseudo-ternary phase diagrams were constructed employing olive, linseed, castor and sesame oils (oil phase), Tween^® 20 (Tw20) and Tween^® 80 (Tw80) (surfactants (SAs)) as well as dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and propylene glycol (PG) (co-surfactants (Co-SAs)). Optimization of formulations from the phase diagrams took place through testing their thermodynamic stability, dispersibility and robustness to dilution.

RESULTS

Four optimized BL-SNEDDS formulations, comprising linseed oil or olive oil, Tw80 and DMSO at two SA/Co-SA ratios (2:1 or 3:1) were chosen. They exhibited high cloud point and percentage transmittance values with spherical morphology of mean droplet sizes ranging from 14.67 to 16.06 nm and monodisperse distribution with negatively charged zeta potential < -9.51 mV. The in vitro release profiles of the optimized formulations in pH 1.2 and 6.8 were nearly similar, with a non-Fickian release mechanism. In vivo evaluation of BL-SNEDDSs hepatoprotective activity in a thioacetamide-induced hepatotoxicity rat model depicted promoted liver functions, inflammatory markers and histopathological findings, most prominently in the group treated by F7.

CONCLUSION

The results indicate that SNEDDS, as a nanocarrier system, has potential to improve the hepatoprotective activity of the BL extract.

Quality by Design for the Development and Analysis of Enhanced In-Situ Forming Vesicles for the Improvement of the Bioavailability of Fexofenadine HCl in Vitro and in Vivo

Drug absorption from the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) is one of the major problems affecting the bioavailability of orally absorbed drugs. This work aims to enhance Fexofenadine HCl oral bioavailability in vivo, the drug used for allergic rhinitis. In this study, novel spray-dried lactose-based enhanced in situ forming vesicles were prepared using different absorption enhancer by the slurry method. Full factorial design was used to obtain an optimized formulation, while central composite design was used to develop economic, environment-friendly analysis method of Fexofenadine HCl in plasma of rabbits. The optimized formulation containing Capryol 90 as absorption enhancer has a mean particle size 202.6 ± 3.9 nm and zeta potential -31.6 ± 0.9 mV. It achieved high entrapment efficiency of the drug 73.7 ± 1.7% and rapid Q3h release reaches 71.5 ± 2.7%. The design-optimized HPLC assay method in rabbit plasma could separate Fexofenadine HCl from endogenous plasma compounds in less than 3.7 min. The pharmacokinetic study and the pharmacological effect of the fexofenadine-loaded optimized formulation showed a significant increase in blood concentration and significantly higher activity against compound 48/80 induced systemic anaphylaxis-like reactions in mice. Therefore, enhanced in situ forming vesicles were effective nanocarriers for the entrapment and delivery of Fexofenadine HCl.

A Review of Nanotechnology for Targeted Anti-schistosomal Therapy

Schistosomiasis is one of the major parasitic diseases and second most prevalent among the group of neglected diseases. The prevalence of schistosomiasis may be due to environmental and socio-economic factors, as well as the unavailability of vaccines for schistosomiasis. To date, current treatment; mainly the drug praziquantel (PZQ), has not been effective in treating the early forms of schistosome species. The development of drug resistance has been documented in several regions globally, due to the overuse of PZQ, rate of parasitic mutation, poor treatment compliance, co-infection with different strains of schistosomes and the overall parasite load. Hence, exploring the schistosome tegument may be a potential focus for the design and development of targeted anti-schistosomal therapy, with higher bioavailability as molecular targets using nanotechnology. This review aims to provide a concise incursion on the use of various advance approaches to achieve targeted anti-schistosomal therapy, mainly through the use of nano-enabled drug delivery systems. It also assimilates the molecular structure and function of the schistosome tegument and highlights the potential molecular targets found on the tegument, for effective specific interaction with receptors for more efficacious anti-schistosomal therapy.

Targets and pathways involved in the antitumor activity of citral and its stereo-isomers

This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the anticancer potential of the natural product citral (CIT) found in many plants and essential oils, and extensively used in the food and cosmetic industry. CIT is composed of two stereoisomers, the trans-isomer geranial being a more potent anticancer compound than the cis-isomer neral. CIT inhibits cancer cell proliferation and induces cancer cell apoptosis. Its pluri-factorial mechanism of anticancer activity is essentially based on three pillars: (i) a drug-induced accumulation of reactive oxygen species in cancer cells leading to an oxidative burst and DNA damages, (ii) a colchicine-like inhibition of tubulin polymerization and promotion of microtubule depolymerization, associated with an inhibition of the microtubule affinity-regulating kinase MARK4, and (iii) a potent inhibition of the aldehyde dehydrogenase isoform ALDH1A3 which is associated with cancer stem cell proliferation and chemoresistance. This unique combination of targets and pathways confers a significant anticancer potential. However, the intrinsic potency of CIT is limited, mainly because the drug is not very stable and has a low bioavailability and it does not present a high selectivity for cancer cells versus non-tumor cells. Stable formulations of CIT, using cyclodextrins, biodegradable polymers, or various nano-structured particles have been designed to enhance the bioavailability, to increase the effective doses window and to promote the anticancer activity. The lack of tumor cell selectivity is more problematic and limits the use of the drug in cancer therapy. Nevertheless, CIT offers interesting perspectives to design more potent analogues and drug combinations with a reinforced antitumor potential.

Characterization and Cellular Internalization of Spherical Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNC) into Normal and Cancerous Fibroblasts

The aim was to isolate cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) from commercialized oil palm empty fruit bunch cellulose nanofibre (CNF) through sulphuric acid hydrolysis and explore its safeness as a potential nanocarrier. Successful extraction of CNC was confirmed through a field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) and attenuated total reflection Fourier transmission infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectrometry analysis. For subsequent cellular uptake study, the spherical CNC was covalently tagged with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC), resulting in negative charged FITC-CNC nanospheres with a dispersity (Ð) of 0.371. MTT assay revealed low degree cytotoxicity for both CNC and FITC-CNC against C6 rat glioma and NIH3T3 normal fibroblasts up to 50 µg/mL. FITC conjugation had no contribution to the particle's toxicity. Through confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM), synthesized FITC-CNC manifested negligible cellular accumulation, indicating a poor non-selective adsorptive endocytosis into studied cells. Overall, an untargeted CNC-based nanosphere with less cytotoxicity that posed poor selectivity against normal and cancerous cells was successfully synthesized. It can be considered safe and suitable to be developed into targeted nanocarrier.