Identification and Comparison of Peptides from Chickpea Protein Hydrolysates Using Either Bromelain or Gastrointestinal Enzymes and Their Relationship with Markers of Type 2 Diabetes and Bitterness

Exploring the Therapeutic Potential of Bromelain: Applications, Benefits, and Mechanisms

Bromelain is a mixture of proteolytic enzymes primarily extracted from the fruit and stem of the pineapple plant (Ananas comosus). It has a long history of traditional medicinal use in various cultures, particularly in Central and South America, where pineapple is native. This systematic review will delve into the history, structure, chemical properties, and medical indications of bromelain. Bromelain was first isolated and described in the late 19th century by researchers in Europe, who identified its proteolytic properties. Since then, bromelain has gained recognition in both traditional and modern medicine for its potential therapeutic effects.

A Review of Bioactive Compound Effects from Primary Legume Protein Sources in Human and Animal Health

The global demand for sustainable and nutritious food sources has catalyzed interest in legumes, known for their rich repertoire of health-promoting compounds. This review delves into the diverse array of bioactive peptides, protein subunits, isoflavones, antinutritional factors, and saponins found in the primary legume protein sources-soybeans, peas, chickpeas, and mung beans. The current state of research on these compounds is critically evaluated, with an emphasis on the potential health benefits, ranging from antioxidant and anticancer properties to the management of chronic diseases such as diabetes and hypertension. The extensively studied soybean is highlighted and the relatively unexplored potential of other legumes is also included, pointing to a significant, underutilized resource for developing health-enhancing foods. The review advocates for future interdisciplinary research to further unravel the mechanisms of action of these bioactive compounds and to explore their synergistic effects. The ultimate goal is to leverage the full spectrum of benefits offered by legumes, not only to advance human health but also to contribute to the sustainability of food systems. By providing a comprehensive overview of the nutraceutical potential of legumes, this manuscript sets a foundation for future investigations aimed at optimizing the use of legumes in the global pursuit of health and nutritional security.

Food bioactive peptides: functionality beyond bitterness

Bitter taste is an aversive taste because it is unconsciously associated with toxic compounds. However, a considerable variability in bitter sensitivity exists in those who have the genetic polymorphism for bitter taste receptors (TAS2Rs). Besides the oral cavity, TAS2Rs are present in many body tissues, including the gastrointestinal tract; therefore, they are crucial players both in the gustatory/hedonic system and in the homeostatic system, triggering numerous biological responses, including adipogenesis, carcinogenesis, or immunity. Bitter-tasting compounds are widely distributed in plant and animal foods and belong to many chemical classes. In this study, the evidence was reviewed on bitter peptides, considering the food sources, their formation in food under different processing and storage conditions and in the gastrointestinal tract during digestion, as well as their biological activities. Bitterness associated with peptides is due to the presence of hydrophobic amino acids in the C-terminus. The current literature mainly explores the enzymes and hydrolysis conditions, with the aim of reducing the formation of bitter peptides in hydrolysate preparation or food. Few studies highlight the bioactivity (namely, antihypertensive, antidiabetic, antioxidant, or immunity boosting), besides the bitterness. However, encapsulation of bitter peptides has been tentatively used to develop antihypertensive and antidiabetic supplements. In the era of personalized nutrition and precision medicine, the evidence available suggests the opportunity to use bitter bioactive peptides as functional ingredients in food. Such types of food may modulate a plethora of physiological mechanisms by targeting TAS2Rs in the gastrointestinal tract, thus modulating appetite sensations or gastrointestinal motility and discomfort according to individual nutritional needs and goals. More studies are needed to optimize the technological strategies to target TAS2Rs by bitter bioactive peptides, improve their stability in food, and validate the biological efficacy through well-designed in vivo studies.

An Update on Dipeptidyl Peptidase-IV Inhibiting Peptides

Diabetes is a chronic metabolic disorder. According to the International Diabetes Federation, about 537 million people are living with diabetes. The two types of diabetes are type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), among which the population affected by T2DM is relatively higher. A major reason for T2DM is that insulin stimulation is hampered due to the inactivation of incretin hormones. Dipeptidyl peptidase-IV (DPP-IV) is a serine protease that is directly involved in the inactivation of incretin hormones, e.g., glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1). Therefore, the inhibition of DPP-IV can be a promising method for managing T2DM, in addition to other enzyme inhibition strategies, such as inhibition of α-amylase and α -glucosidase. Currently, about 12 different gliptin drugs are available in the market that inhibit DPP-IV in a dose-dependent manner. Instead of gliptins, 'peptides' can also be employed as an alternative and promising way to inhibit DPP-IV. Peptide inhibitors of DPP-IV have been identified from various plants and animals. Chemically synthesized peptides have also been experimented for inhibiting DPP-IV. Most peptides have been analysed by biochemical assays, whereas some in vitro assays have also been reported. Molecular docking analysis has been applied to comprehend the mechanism of inhibition. In this review, certain aspects of natural as well as synthetic peptides are described that have been proven to inhibit DPP-IV.

Peptides with biological and technofunctional properties produced by bromelain hydrolysis of proteins from different sources: A review

Bromelains are cysteine peptidases with endopeptidase action (a subfamily of papains), obtained from different parts of vegetable belonging to the Bromeliaceae family. They have some intrinsic medical activity, but this review is focused on their application (individually or mixed with other proteases) to produce bioactive peptides. When compared to other proteases, perhaps due to the fact that they are commercialized as an extract containing several proteases, the hydrolysates produced by this enzyme tends to have higher bioactivities than other common proteases. The peptides and the intensity of their final properties depend on the substrate protein and reaction conditions, being the degree of hydrolysis a determining parameter (but not always positive or negative). The produced peptides may have diverse activities such as antioxidant, antitumoral, antihypertensive or antimicrobial ones, among others or they may be utilized to improve the organoleptic properties of foods and feeds. Evolution of the use of this enzyme in this application is proposed to be based on a more intense direct application of Bromeliaceae extract, without the cost associated to enzyme purification, and the use of immobilized biocatalysts of the enzyme by simplifying the enzyme recovery and reuse, and also making the sequential hydrolysis using diverse proteases possible.

Nutritional composition, health benefits and bio-active compounds of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), an annual plant of the family Fabaceae is mainly grown in semiarid and temperate regions. Among pulses, cultivated worldwide chickpeas are considered an inexpensive and rich source of protein. Chickpea is a good source of protein and carbohydrate, fiber, and important source of essential minerals and vitamins. The quality of protein is better among other pulses. Consumption of chickpeas is related to beneficial health outcomes. Dietary peptides from the protein of chickpeas gaining more attention. Peptides can be obtained through acid, alkali, and enzymatic hydrolysis. Among all these, enzymatic hydrolysis is considered safe. Various enzymes are used for the production of peptides, i.e., flavorzyme, chymotrypsin, pepsin, alcalase, papain, and trypsin either alone or in combinations. Chickpea hydrolysate and peptides have various bioactivity including angiotensin 1-converting enzyme inhibition, digestive diseases, hypocholesterolemic, CVD, antioxidant activity, type 2 diabetes, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticarcinogenic activity. This review summarizes the nutritional composition and bioactivity of hydrolysate and peptides obtained from chickpea protein. The literature shows that chickpea peptides and hydrolysate have various functional activities. But due to the limited research and technology, the sequences of peptides are unknown, due to which it is difficult to conduct the mechanism studies that how these peptides interact. Therefore, emphasis must be given to the optimization of the production of chickpea bioactive peptides, in vivo studies of chickpea bioactivity, and conducting human study trials to check the bioactivity of these peptides and hydrolysate.

Germinated chickpea protein ficin hydrolysate and its peptides inhibited glucose uptake and affected the bitter receptor signaling pathway in vitro

The objective of this study was to evaluate germinated chickpea protein hydrolysate (GCPH) in vitro for its effect on markers of type 2 diabetes (T2D) and bitter taste receptor expression in intestinal epithelial cells. Protein hydrolysate was obtained using ficin, and the resulting peptides were sequenced using LC-ESI-MS/MS. Caco-2 cells were used to determine glucose uptake and extra-oral bitter receptor activation. Three peptides, VVFW, GEAGR, and FDLPAL, were identified in legumin. FDLPAL was the most potent peptide in molecular docking studies with a DPP-IV energy of affinity of -9.8 kcal mol-1. GCPH significantly inhibited DPP-IV production by Caco-2 cells (IC50 = 2.1 mM). Glucose uptake was inhibited in a dose-dependent manner (IC25 = 2.0 mM). A negative correlation was found between glucose uptake and PLCβ2 expression in Caco-2 cells (R value, -0.62). Thus, GCPH has the potential to be commercialized as a functional ingredient.

Dipeptidyl Peptidase IV Inhibitory Peptides from Chickpea Proteins (Cicer arietinum L.): Pharmacokinetics, Molecular Interactions, and Multi-Bioactivities

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) peptides can inhibit dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP-IV), an important type 2 diabetes mellitus therapeutic target. The molecular interactions between the inhibitory peptides and the active site of DPP-IV have not been thoroughly examined, nor have their pharmacokinetic properties. Therefore, the predictions of legumin- and provicilin-derived DPP-IV inhibitory peptides, their molecular interactions with the active site of DPP-IV, and their pharmacokinetic properties were carried out. Ninety-two unique DPP-IV inhibitory peptides were identified. Papain and trypsin were the enzymes with the highest AE (0.0927) and lowest BE (6.8625 × 10-7) values, respectively. Peptide binding energy values ranged from -5.2 to -7.9 kcal/mol. HIS-PHE was the most potent DPP-IV inhibitory peptide and interacts with residues of the active sites S1 (TYR662) and S2 (GLU205/ARG125 (hydrogen bonds: <3.0 Å)), S2 (GLU205/GLU206 (electrostatic interactions: <3.0 Å)), and S2' pocket (PHE357 (hydrophobic interaction: 4.36 Å)). Most peptides showed optimal absorption (76.09%), bioavailability (89.13%), and were non-toxic (97.8%) stable for gastrointestinal digestion (73.9%). Some peptides (60.86%) could also inhibit ACE-I. Chickpea is a source of non-toxic and bioavailable DPP-IV-inhibitory peptides with dual bioactivity. Studies addressing the potential of chickpea peptides as therapeutic or adjunct agents for treating type 2 diabetes are warranted.

Strategies for oral delivery of bioactive peptides with focus on debittering and masking

Protein hydrolysis is a process used in the food industry to generate bioactive peptides of low molecular weight and with additional health benefits, such as antihypertensive, antidiabetic, and antioxidant properties that are often associated with their content on hydrophobic amino acids. This results in an increased bitterness of the products, making them less desirable for their use in food formulations. This review summarizes the main dietary sources of bitter bioactive peptides, including methods to determine their bitterness, such as the Q-values and electronic tongue; and the main factors and mechanisms underlying the bitterness of these compounds. The main strategies currently used to improve the taste and oral delivery of bioactive peptides are also discussed together with the main advantages and drawbacks of each technique. Debittering and masking techniques are reported in detail, including active carbon treatments, alcohol extraction, isoelectric precipitation, chromatographic methods, and additional hydrolytic processes. Other masking or blocking techniques, including the use of inhibitors, such as modified starch, taurine, glycine, and polyphosphates, as well as chemical modifications, such as amination, deamination, acetylation, or cross-linking were also discussed. The findings of this work highlight encapsulation as a highly effective method for masking the bitter taste and promoting the bioactivity of peptides compared to other traditional debittering and masking processes. In conclusion, the article suggests that advanced encapsulation technologies can serve as an effective means to mitigate the bitterness associated with bioactive peptides, while simultaneously preserving their biological activity, increasing their viability in the development of functional foods and pharmaceuticals.

Identification of Novel Dipeptidyl Peptidase-IV Inhibitory Peptides in Chickpea Protein Hydrolysates

Dipeptidyl peptidase-IV (DPP-IV) is one of the main targets for blood sugar control. Some food protein-derived peptides are thought to have DPP-IV inhibitory (DPP-IVi) activity. In this study, chickpea protein hydrolysates (CPHs) obtained through Neutrase hydrolysis for 60 min (CPHs-Pro-60) exhibited the highest DPP-IVi activity. DPP-IVi activity after simulated in vitro gastrointestinal digestion was maintained at >60%. Peptide libraries are established after the identification of peptide sequences. Molecular docking verified that the four screened peptides (AAWPGHPEF, LAFP, IAIPPGIPYW, and PPGIPYW) could bind to the active center of DPP-IV. Notably, IAIPPGIPYW exhibited the most potent DPP-IVi activity (half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀): 12.43 μM). Both IAIPPGIPYW and PPGIPYW exhibited excellent DPP-IVi activity in Caco-2 cells. These results indicated that chickpea could be used as a source of natural hypoglycemic peptides for food and nutritional applications.

Production of Food-Derived Bioactive Peptides with Potential Application in the Management of Diabetes and Obesity: A Review

The prevalence of diabetes mellitus and obesity is increasing worldwide. Bioactive peptides are naturally present in foods or in food-derived proteins. Recent research has shown that these bioactive peptides have an array of possible health benefits in the management of diabetes and obesity. First, this review will summarize the top-down and bottom-up production methods of the bioactive peptides from different protein sources. Second, the digestibility, bioavailability, and metabolic fate of the bioactive peptides are discussed. Last, the present review will discuss and explore the mechanisms by which these bioactive peptides help against obesity and diabetes based on in vitro and in vivo studies. Although several clinical studies have demonstrated that bioactive peptides are beneficial in alleviating diabetes and obesity, more double-blind randomized controlled trials are needed in the future. This review has provided novel insights into the potential of food-derived bioactive peptides as functional foods or nutraceuticals to manage obesity and diabetes.

Stability and bioactivity of peptides in food matrices based on processing conditions

Bioactive peptides (BPs) generated from food proteins can serve therapeutic purposes against degenerative and cardiovascular diseases such as inflammation, diabetes, and cancer. There are numerous reports on the in vitro, animal, and human studies of BPs, but not as much information on the stability and bioactivity of these peptides when incorporated in food matrices. The effects of heat and non-heat processing of the food products, and storage on the bioactivity of the BPs, are also lacking. To this end, we describe the production of BPs in this review, followed by the food processing conditions that affect their storage bioactivity in the food matrices. As this area of research is open for industrial innovation, we conclude that novel analytical methods targeting the interactions of BPs with other components in food matrices would be greatly significant while elucidating their overall bioactivity before, during and after processing.

Legume-Derived Bioactive Peptides in Type 2 Diabetes: Opportunities and Challenges

Diabetes mellitus is a complex disorder characterized by insufficient insulin production or insulin resistance, which results in a lifelong dependence on glucose-lowering drugs for almost all patients. During the fight with diabetes, researchers are always thinking about what characteristics the ideal hypoglycemic drugs should have. From the point of view of the drugs, they should maintain effective control of blood sugar, have a very low risk of hypoglycemia, not increase or decrease body weight, improve β-cell function, and delay disease progression. Recently, the advent of oral peptide drugs, such as semaglutide, brings exciting hope to patients with chronic diabetes. Legumes, as an excellent source of protein, peptides, and phytochemicals, have played significant roles in human health throughout human history. Some legume-derived peptides with encouraging anti-diabetic potential have been gradually reported over the last two decades. Their hypoglycemic mechanisms have also been clarified at some classic diabetes treatment targets, such as the insulin receptor signaling pathway or other related pathways involved in the progress of diabetes, and key enzymes including α-amylase, α-glucosidase, and dipeptidyl peptidase-IV (DPP-4). This review summarizes the anti-diabetic activities and mechanisms of peptides from legumes and discusses the prospects of these peptide-based drugs in type 2 diabetes (T2D) management.

Exploration of the Nutritional and Functional Properties of Underutilized Grains as an Alternative Source for the Research of Food-Derived Bioactive Peptides

The estimated increase in world population will lead to a deterioration in global food security, aggravated in developing countries by hidden hunger resulting from protein deficiency. To reduce or avoid this crisis, a dietary shift towards the consumption of sustainable, nutrient-rich, and calorically efficient food products has been recommended by the FAO and WHO. Plant proteins derived from grains and seeds provide nutritionally balanced diets, improve health status, reduce poverty, enhance food security, and contain several functional compounds. In this review, the current evidence on the nutritional and functional properties of underutilized grains is summarized, focusing on their incorporation into functional foods and the role of their proteins as novel source of bioactive peptides with health benefits.

Multifunctional bioactive properties of hydrolysates from colocynth (Citrullus colocynthis) seeds derived proteins: Characterization and biological properties

Citrullus colocynthis (Colocynth) has gained a great deal of interest in their applications as indigenous nutraceutical and as a functional food ingredient. The intact colocynth seed protein was enzymatically hydrolyzed using proteolytic enzymes (alcalase, bromelain, and chymotrypsin) at different time intervals of 3, 6, and 9 h. The highest degree of hydrolysis (87.82%) was observed in chymotrypsin derived colocynth seed protein hydrolysates (CSPH) for 9 h. The CSPHs was further investigated through in-vitro assay to explore its potential biological activity such as antioxidant, inhibition of enzymatic marker related to diabetes (DPP-IV, α-glucosidase and α-amylase) and hyperlipidaemia (cholesteryl esterase and pancreatic lipase). Chymotrypsin hydrolysate showed the strongest DPPH (65.7 mM TEAC) and ABTS (525.2 mM TEAC) radical scavenging activity after 6 h of hydrolysis. Moreover, chymotrypsin-treated CSPH for 6 h inhibited cholesteryl esterase (IC₅₀ = 13.68 μg/mL) and pancreatic lipase (IC₅₀ = 14.12 μg/mL) significantly when compared to native protein. Whereas, bromelain and alcalase treated hydrolysate for 6 h effectively inhibited α-glucosidase and α-amylase at an inhibitory concentration of IC₅₀ = 13.27 μg/mL and of IC₅₀ = 17 μg/mL. Overall, the findings indicated that protein hydrolysates exhibited superior biological activity than intact colocynth seed proteins isolate (CSPI) and could be a sustainable source of bioactive peptides.

Health Benefits of Cereal Grain- and Pulse-Derived Proteins

Pulses and whole grains are considered staple foods that provide a significant amount of calories, fibre and protein, making them key food sources in a nutritionally balanced diet. Additionally, pulses and whole grains contain many bioactive compounds such as dietary fibre, resistant starch, phenolic compounds and mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids that are known to combat chronic disease. Notably, recent research has demonstrated that protein derived from pulse and whole grain sources contains bioactive peptides that also possess disease-fighting properties. Mechanisms of action include inhibition or alteration of enzyme activities, vasodilatation, modulation of lipid metabolism and gut microbiome and oxidative stress reduction. Consumer demand for plant-based proteins has skyrocketed primarily based on the perceived health benefits and lower carbon footprint of consuming foods from plant sources versus animal. Therefore, more research should be invested in discovering the health-promoting effects that pulse and whole grain proteins have to offer.

A comprehensive review on the glucoregulatory properties of food-derived bioactive peptides

Diabetes mellitus, a group of metabolic disorders characterized by persistent hyperglycemia, affects millions of people worldwide and is on the rise. Dietary proteins, from a wide range of food sources, are rich in bioactive peptides with antidiabetic properties. Notable examples include AGFAGDDAPR, a black tea-derived peptide, VRIRLLQRFNKRS, a β-conglycinin-derived peptide, and milk-derived peptide VPP, which have shown antidiabetic effects in diabetic rodent models through variety of pathways including improving beta-cells function, suppression of alpha-cells proliferation, inhibiting food intake, increasing portal cholecystokinin concentration, enhancing insulin signaling and glucose uptake, and ameliorating adipose tissue inflammation. Despite the immense research on glucoregulatory properties of bioactive peptides, incorporation of these bioactive peptides in functional foods or nutraceuticals is widely limited due to the existence of several challenges in the field of peptide research and commercialization. Ongoing research in this field, however, is fundamental to pave the road for this purpose.

Sensory descriptors for pulses and pulse-derived ingredients: Toward a standardized lexicon and sensory wheel

The organoleptic quality of pulses and their derived ingredients is fundamental in human utilization and evolution of food. However, the widespread use of pulses is hindered by their inherent sensorial aspects, which are regarded as atypical by the consumers who are unfamiliar to them. In most studies involving sensory assessment of pulses and pulse-ingredients using classical descriptive analysis methods, assessors establish their own lexica. This review is a synthesis of descriptive terms by which sensations emanating from pea, chickpea, lentil, faba bean, dry bean, bambara groundnut, lupin, pigeon pea and cowpea, and their derived ingredients have been described in the literature. Studies involving sensory assessment of processed whole seeds, slurries of raw flour, slurries of protein extracted from raw flour, and food products containing components of pulses were considered. The terms are categorized into those denoting basic taste, aroma, flavor, and trigeminal sensations. Bitterness is the most widely perceived basic taste. Beany, which is broad and complex with subcharacter notes, is predominantly used to describe aroma and flavor. The frequency of use of the collated terms in the reviewed studies was used to establish a sensory wheel. Inconsistency in the use of descriptive terms in the literature necessitates establishment of a standard lexicon that can be applied in both classical and increasingly popular rapid descriptive methods (e.g., check-all-that-apply) throughout the pulse value chain. This review is timely considering the dominance of pulses in plant-based foods and their increasing appeal to the food industry.

Optimization, identification, and comparison of peptides from germinated chickpea (Cicer arietinum) protein hydrolysates using either papain or ficin and their relationship with markers of type 2 diabetes

The objective was to optimize and compare the production of antidiabetic peptides from germinated chickpea isolated protein using either papain or ficin. Kabuli chickpeas were germinated for 2, 4 and 6 days. Proteins were isolated, and peptides were produced based on a central composite design selecting human dipeptidyl peptidase (DPP-IV) inhibition as a response. Peptide sequencing was performed to identify and evaluate the physiochemical, biochemical and bitterness properties. DPP-IV inhibition using papain was 84.66 ± 8.72%, with ficin being 72.05 ± 1.20%. The optimum hydrolysate conditions were 6 days germination, 1:10 E/S, and 30 min ficin hydrolysis; SPGAGKG, GLAR, and STSA were identified. Pure SPGAGKG had relatively high affinity for DPP-IV (-7.2 kcal/mol) and α-glucosidase inhibition (-5.9 kcal/mol), with an IC₅₀ of 0.27 mg/mL for DPP-IV inhibition. Peptides in the chickpea hydrolysate inhibited markers of T2D, indicating that the optimal conditions could be used to prepare a functional food ingredient.

Bioactive Peptides as Potential Nutraceuticals for Diabetes Therapy: A Comprehensive Review

Diabetes mellitus is a major public health concern associated with high mortality and reduced life expectancy. The alarming rise in the prevalence of diabetes is linked to several factors including sedentary lifestyle and unhealthy diet. Nutritional intervention and increased physical activity could significantly contribute to bringing this under control. Food-derived bioactive peptides and protein hydrolysates have been associated with a number health benefits. Several peptides with antidiabetic potential have been identified that could decrease blood glucose level, improve insulin uptake and inhibit key enzymes involved in the development and progression of diabetes. Dietary proteins, from a wide range of food, are rich sources of antidiabetic peptides. Thus, there are a number of benefits in studying peptides obtained from food sources to develop nutraceuticals. A deeper understanding of the underlying molecular mechanisms of these peptides will assist in the development of new peptide-based therapeutics. Despite this, a comprehensive analysis of the antidiabetic properties of bioactive peptides derived from various food sources is still lacking. Here, we review the recent literature on food-derived bioactive peptides possessing antidiabetic activity. The focus is on the effectiveness of these peptides as evidenced by in vitro and in vivo studies. Finally, we discuss future prospects of peptide-based drugs for the treatment of diabetes.

Comparison of five chickpea varieties, optimization of hydrolysates production and evaluation of biomarkers for type 2 diabetes

The objective was to compare five varieties of chickpea (Cicer arietinum), sequence the peptides obtained with pepsin-pancreatin digestion, and evaluate their potential as modulators of biochemical markers for type-2 diabetes. In addition, to produce a functional ingredient, by the optimization in the production of hydrolysates using bromelain. Proteins of ground raw, precooked and cooked chickpea, were extracted, isolated, and characterized using SDS-PAGE gel electrophoresis. Hydrolysates were obtained by simulated digestion with pepsin-pancreatin, and resulting peptides were sequenced with LC-MSMS. Response surface methodology was used to optimize the production of hydrolysates with dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPPIV) inhibition using bromelain. Protein profiles showed fractions of convicilin (>70 kDa), 7S vicilin (43-53 kDa), 11S legumin (35 kDa) and lectins (30-32 kDa) in raw varieties. Albumin fractions 2S (20-26 kDa) were still present in most varieties after 2 h of heat treatment. DPPIV IC₅₀ values from digestive enzymes were better (0.17-2.21 mg/mL) in raw chickpea than in cooked chickpea. α-Glucosidase inhibition at 10 mg protein/mL was highest (32-66%) in precooked chickpea hydrolysates. Hydrolysis with bromelain showed a DPPIV inhibition of 94% for Sierra variety cooked for 15 min with 1:10 E/S ratio and hydrolysis time of 60 min. Peptides with DPPIV inhibition were present from albumin fractions (EVLSEVSF) with 908.44 Da and high hydrophobicity; and from legumin (VVFW, FDLPAL) with 549.29 and 674.36 Da, respectively. In conclusion, high DDPIV inhibition can be obtained from chickpea bromelain hydrolysates, with potential as ingredients in different food applications.

Fortification of Maize Tortilla with an Optimized Chickpea Hydrolysate and Its Effect on DPPIV Inhibition Capacity and Physicochemical Characteristics

Chickpea hydrolysates have shown bioactivity towards type 2 diabetes by inhibiting dipeptidyl peptidase (DPPIV) activity. The objective was to compare the effect of adding different levels of an optimized bromelain hydrolysate from chickpea isolated protein on DPPIV inhibition capacity and physicochemical properties of maize tortilla. White and blue maize tortillas, with no added chickpea hydrolysates were compared with fortified tortillas at the levels of 5%, 10%, and 15% w/w. Changes in color (L* a* b*, hue angle, and ΔE), texture (hardness, cohesiveness, and puncture force), and moisture were tested. Soluble protein determination and SDS-PAGE electrophoresis were used to characterize the protein profiles, and LC-MS-MS was used to sequence the peptides. DPPIV inhibition was evaluated before and after simulated gastrointestinal digestion. Peptides in the hydrolysates had high hydrophobicity (7.97–27.05 kcal * mol ⁻¹) and pI (5.18–11.13). Molecular docking of peptides showed interaction with DPPIV with an energy of affinity of –5.8 kcal/mol for FDLPAL in comparison with vildagliptin (−6.2 kcal/mol). The lowest fortification level increased soluble protein in 105% (8 g/100 g tortilla). DPPIV inhibition of white maize tortilla increased from 11% (fresh control) to 91% (15% fortification), and for blue tortilla from 26% to 95%. After simulated digestion, there was not a difference between blue or maize tortillas for DPPIV inhibition. Fortification of maize tortilla with chickpea hydrolysate inhibits DPPIV and can potentially be used in the prevention and management of type 2 diabetes. However, due to observed physicochemical changes of the fortified tortilla, sensory properties and consumer acceptance need to be evaluated.

Drug Carriers Based on Graphene Oxide and Hydrogel: Opportunities and Challenges in Infection Control Tested by Amoxicillin Release

Graphene oxide (GO) was proposed as an efficient carrier of antibiotics. The model drug, amoxicillin (AMOX), was attached to GO using a peptide linker (Leu-Leu-Gly). GO-AMOX was dispersed in a hydrogel to which the enzyme responsible for releasing AMOX from GO was also added. The drug molecules were released by enzymatic hydrolysis of the peptide bond in the linker. As the selected enzyme, bromelain, a plant enzyme, was used. The antibacterial nature of the carrier was determined by its ability to inhibit the growth of the Enterococcus faecalis strain, which is one of the bacterial species responsible for periodontal and root canal diseases. The prepared carrier contained only biocompatible substances, and the confirmation of its lack of cytotoxicity was verified based on the mouse fibrosarcoma cell line WEHI 164. The proposed type of preparation, as a universal carrier of many different antibiotic molecules, can be considered as a suitable solution in the treatment of inflammation in dentistry.

Characterization of peptides with antioxidant activity and antidiabetic potential obtained from chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) protein hydrolyzates

Alcalase hydrolyzates were prepared from the albumin (AH) and globulin (GH) fractions of eight chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) genotypes from Mexico and 10 from other countries. Protein content, antioxidant activity (AA) (ABTS, DPPH), and degree of hydrolysis were evaluated and the best genotype was selected by principal component analysis. The hydrolyzates of the chosen genotype were analyzed for its antidiabetic potential measured as inhibition of α-amylase, α-glucosidase, and dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4). Peptide profiles were obtained by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-DAD-MS), and the most active peptides were analyzed by molecular docking. The average antioxidant activity of albumin hydrolyzates was higher than that of globulin hydrolyzates. ICC3761 was the selected genotype and peptides purified from the albumin hydrolyzate showed the best antioxidant activity and antidiabetic potential (FEI, FEL, FIE, FKN, FGKG, and MEE). FEI, FEL, and FIE were in the same chromatographic peak and this mixture showed the best ABTS scavenging (78.25%) and DPP4 inhibition (IC₅₀  = 4.20 µg/ml). MEE showed the best DPPH scavenging (47%). FGKG showed the best inhibition of α-amylase (54%) and α-glucosidase (56%) and may be a competitive inhibitor based on in silico-predicted interactions with catalytic amino acids in the active site of both enzymes. These peptides could be used as nutraceutical supplements against diseases related to oxidative stress and diabetes. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This study showed that chickpea protein hydrolyzates are good sources of peptides with antidiabetic potential, showing high antioxidant activity and inhibition of enzymes related to carbohydrate metabolism and type 2 diabetes. These hydrolyzates could be formulated in functional foods for diabetes.

Technological properties of chickpea (Cicer arietinum): Production of snacks and health benefits related to type-2 diabetes

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) is one of the most consumed pulses worldwide (over 2.3 million tons enter the world market annually). Some chickpea components have shown, in preclinical and clinical studies, several health benefits, including antioxidant capacity, and antifungal, antibacterial, analgesic, anticancer, antiinflammatory, and hypocholesterolemic properties, as well as angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibition. In the United States, chickpea is consumed mostly in the form of hummus. However, the development of new products with value-added bioactivity is creating new opportunities for research and food applications. Information about bioactive compounds and functional properties of chickpea ingredients in the development of new products is needed. The objective of this review was to summarize available scientific information, from the last 15 years, on chickpea production, consumption trends, applications in the food industry in the elaboration of plant-based snacks, and on its bioactive compounds related to type 2 diabetes (T2D). Areas of opportunity for future research and new applications of specific bioactive compounds as novel food ingredients are highlighted. Research is key to overcome the main processing obstacles and sensory challenges for the application of chickpea as ingredient in snack preparations. The use of chickpea bioactive compounds as ingredient in food products is also a promising area for accessibility of their health benefits, such as the management of T2D.