Immunomodulatory activity of red ginseng against influenza A virus infection

An in vitro antiviral evaluation of punicalagin toward influenza A virus

Objective

Influenza complications are mild to serious, and can cause death in some cases. A great deal of attention has been paid in recent years to the development and use of new antiviral compounds to overcome drug resistance in certain strains of the influenza virus and treat the clinical implications. This study aimed to investigate the antiviral effect of punicalagin and its associated mechanism against influenza A (H1N1) virus in vitro.

Materials and Methods

the ant-influenza activity of punicalagin was studied in Madin-Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cells using influenza virus A/Puerto Rico/8/34 (H1N1) (PR8) using Hemagglutinin assay (HA) and 50% tissue culture infective dose (TCID50). Then, the inhibition of haemagglutination, virucidal activity, inhibitory effect at different times, replication of viral RNA and expression of viral genes were investigated.

Results

Punicalagin could inhibit influenza virus infection with 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 3.98 μg/ml and selectivity index (SI) value of 6.1. Punicalagin decreased virus titers with an inhibitory effect on virus hemagglutination (p<0.05). Punicalagin also inhibited viral adsorption. The results of virus RNA replication and viral mRNA (NS1 and HA) expression after treatment with punicalagin showed significant suppression of viral mRNA expression but no effect on replication of viral RNA.

Conclusion

The results of the present study indicated that punicalagin was effective against influenza infection most probably via inhibition of haemagglutination activity and virus binding.

Red Ginseng Attenuates the Hepatic Cellular Senescence in Aged Mice

Cellular senescence is defined as an irreversible cell cycle arrest accompanied by morphological and physiological alterations during aging. Red ginseng (RG), processed from fresh ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) with a one-time steaming and drying process, is a well-known beneficial herbal medicine showing antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-aging properties. The current study aimed to investigate the benefits of RG in alleviating hepatic cellular senescence and its adverse effects in 19-month-old aged mice. We applied two different intervention methods and durations to compare RG's effects in a time-dependent manner: (1) oral gavage injection for 4 weeks and (2) ad libitum intervention for 14 weeks. We observed that 4-week RG administration was exerted to maintain insulin homeostasis against developing age-associated insulin insensitivity and suppressed cellular senescence pathway in the liver and primary hepatocytes. Moreover, with remarkable improvement of insulin homeostasis, 14-week RG supplementation downregulated the activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and its downstream transcriptional factor nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) in aged mice. Lastly, RG treatment significantly reduced the senescence-associated β-galactosidase (SA-β-gal)-positive cells in primary hepatocytes and ionizing radiation (IR)-exposed mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs). Taken together, we suggest that RG can be a promising candidate for a senolytic substance by preventing hepatic cellular senescence.

A Reappraisal of the Antiviral Properties of and Immune Regulation through Dietary Phytochemicals

In the present era of the COVID-19 pandemic, viral infections remain a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. In this day and age, viral infections are rampant and spreading rapidly. Among the most aggressive viral infections are ebola, AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome), influenza, and SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome). Even though there are few treatment options for viral diseases, most of the antiviral therapies are ineffective owing to frequent mutations, the development of more aggressive strains, drug resistance, and possible side effects. Traditionally, herbal remedies have been used by healers, including for dietary and medicinal purposes. Many clinical and scientific studies have demonstrated the therapeutic potential of plant-derived natural compounds. Because of unsafe practices like blood transfusions and organ transplants from infected patients, medical supply contamination. Our antiviral therapies cannot achieve sterile immunity, and we have yet to find a cure for these pernicious infections. Herbs have been shown to improve therapeutic efficacy against a wide variety of viral diseases because of their high concentration of immunomodulatory phytochemicals (both immunoinhibitory and anti-inflammatory). Combined with biotechnology, this folk medicine system can lead to the development of novel antiviral drugs and therapies. In this Review, we will summarize some selected bioactive compounds with probable mechanisms of their antiviral actions, focusing on the immunological axis of these compounds.

Korean Red Ginseng Relieves Inflammation and Modulates Immune Response Induced by Pseudo-Type SARS-CoV-2

Few studies have reported the therapeutic effects of Korean red ginseng (KRG) against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). However, the positive effects of KRG on other viruses have been reported and the effects of KRG on pulmonary inflammatory diseases have also been studied. Therefore, this study investigated the therapeutic effects of KRG-water extract (KRG-WE) in a pseudo-type SARS-CoV-2 (PSV)-induced lung injury model. Constructing the pseudovirus, human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (hACE2) transgenic mice were infected via intranasal injection that had been orally administered with KRG-WE for six weeks. After 7-days post infection (dpi), the antiviral effects of KRG-WE were confirmed, followed by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), western blot analysis, flow cytometric analysis, and an enzyme-linked immunoassay (ELISA). KRG-WE significantly inhibited an increase in immunoglobulin caused by PSV. Furthermore, KRG-WE effectively suppressed alveolar macrophages (AMs) inside the lungs and helped normalize the population of other immune cells. In addition, virus-induced gene expression and inflammatory signals such as nuclear factor-kappa B and other upstream molecules were downregulated. Moreover, KRG-WE also normalized gene expression and protein activity in the spleen. In conclusion, KRG-WE reduced AMs, normalized the immune response, and decreased the expression of inflammatory genes and activation of signaling pathway phosphorylation, thereby exhibiting anti-inflammatory effects and attenuating lung damage.

Heat Treatment Enhances the Neuroprotective Effects of Crude Ginseng Saponin by Increasing Minor Ginsenosides

Ginsenoside is the primary active substance of ginseng and has many pharmacological effects, such as anti-cancer, immune, regulating sugar and lipid metabolism, and antioxidant effects. It also protects the nervous and cardiovascular systems. This study analyzes the effects of thermal processing on the bioactivities of crude ginseng saponin. Heat treatment increased the contents of minor ginsenosides in crude saponins, such as Rg3, and heat-treated crude ginseng saponin (HGS) had better neuroprotective effects than non-treated crude saponin (NGS). HGS reduced glutamate-induced apoptosis and reactive oxygen species generation in pheochromocytoma 12 (PC12) cells, significantly more than NGS. HGS protected PC12 cells against glutamate-induced oxidative stress by upregulating Nrf2-mediated antioxidant signaling and downregulating MAPK-mediated apoptotic signaling. HGS has the potential for the prevention and treatment of neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease.

Antiviral activities of ginseng and its potential and putative benefits against monkeypox virus: A mini review

Due to the Covid-19 pandemic more than 6 million people have died, and it has bought unprecedented challenges to our lives. The recent outbreak of monkeypox virus (MPXV) has brought out new tensions among the scientific community. Currently, there is no specific treatment protocol for MPXV. Several antivirals, vaccinia immune globulin (VIG) and smallpox vaccines have been used to treat MPXV. Ginseng, one of the more famous among traditional medicines, has been used for infectious disease for thousands of years. It has shown promising antiviral effects. Ginseng could be used as a potential adaptogenic agent to help prevent infection by MPXV along with other drugs and vaccines. In this mini review, we explore the possible use of ginseng in MPXV prevention based on its antiviral activity.

Genes and Regulatory Mechanisms for Ginsenoside Biosynthesis

Panax ginseng is a medicinal plant belonging to the Araliaceae family. Ginseng is known as the king of oriental medicine, which has been practiced since ancient times in East Asian countries and globally in the modern era. Ginseng is used as an adaptogen, and research shows that it has several pharmacological benefits for various ailments such as cancer, inflammation, diabetes, and neurological symptoms. The pharmacological benefits of ginseng are attributed to the triterpenoid saponin ginsenosides found throughout the Panax ginseng species, which are abundant in its root and are found exclusively in P. ginseng and Panax quinquefolius. Recently, with the completion of the entire ginseng genome sequencing and the construction of the ginseng genome database, it has become possible to access information about many genes newly predicted to be involved in ginsenoside biosynthesis. This review briefly summarizes the current progress in ginseng genome analysis and genes involved in ginsenoside biosynthesis, proposing directions for functional studies of the predicted genes related to ginsenoside production and its regulation.

Ginseng as a Key Immune Response Modulator in Chinese Medicine: From Antipandemic History to COVID-19 Management

The cytokine storm plays an indispensable role in the severe and critical illness and death of the COVID-19 vulnerable population. Thus, suppressing the cytokine storm is of great significance. Ginseng is a traditional Chinese herb originally used for improving physiological conditions and ameliorating disease. Common throughout the history of ancient Chinese medicine is utilizing ginseng as a major ingredient to successfully fight various pandemics, and the most famous decoction is Renshen Baidu powder. In recent years, ginseng has been observed to provide preventive and therapeutic benefits in the treatment of various conditions by suppressing hyper-inflammation, inhibiting virus intrusion, and balancing the host's immunity. This paper summarizes the ancient Chinese medicine books' recordings of, the clinical practice of, and the laboratory exploration of ginseng for the treatment of pandemics and COVID-19. Ginseng and its active ingredients were found to downregulate inflammatory cytokines, upregulate anti-inflammatory cytokines, stimulate the secretion of the antiviral cytokine IFN-[Formula: see text], prevent viral entry and replication, and improve viral clearance. Furthermore, ginseng modulates both natural and acquired immunity during viral infection. Collectively, we propose that ginseng can act as a key immune response modulator against the cytokine storm of COVID-19. This paper may provide a new approach to discover specific medications using ginseng to combat COVID-19.

In Vitro Evaluation of Anti-Lung Cancer and Anti-COVID-19 Effects using Fermented Black Color Ginseng Extract

Ginseng is known as the “king” of herbal plants and has been used widely in Asia for centuries. Ginseng contains active saponins, including protopanaxadiols, protopanaxatriols, and other compounds. There are many methods for processing ginseng, such as steaming, fermentation, expansion, and conversion of active compounds, which can improve its biological activity. In this study, we investigated the cytotoxic and oxidative effects of fermented black color ginseng (FBCG), black ginseng (BG), and white ginseng (WG) on a human lung carcinoma cell line (A549). Moreover, we found that treatment with FBCG induced oxidative stress in the A549 cell line and increases the apoptosis percentage; these effects were linked to the stimulation of the caspase 3/mitogen-activated protein kinase (caspase 3/MAPK) pathway. We also evaluated the anti-coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) effect of FBCG on a severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)-infected Vero E6 cell line. Our results suggest that FBCG not only inhibits the replication of this strain of virus in the cell but also reduces the number of viral RNA (vRNA) copies in the extracellular environment. Taken together, these data show that FBCG has both potential anti-lung cancer and anti-COVID-19 effects.

Pharmacological Efficacy of Ginseng against Respiratory Tract Infections

Respiratory tract infections are underestimated, as they are mild and generally not incapacitating. In clinical medicine, however, these infections are considered a prevalent problem. By 2030, the third most comprehensive reason for death worldwide will be chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), according to the World Health Organization. The current arsenal of anti-inflammatory drugs shows little or no benefits against COPD. For thousands of years, herbal drugs have been used to cure numerous illnesses; they exhibit promising results and enhance physical performance. Ginseng is one such herbal medicine, known to alleviate pro-inflammatory chemokines and cytokines (IL-2, IL-4, IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-5, IL-6, IL-8) formed by macrophages and epithelial cells. Furthermore, the mechanisms of action of ginsenoside are still not fully understood. Various clinical trials of ginseng have exhibited a reduction of repeated colds and the flu. In this review, ginseng’s structural features, the pathogenicity of microbial infections, and the immunomodulatory, antiviral, and anti-bacterial effects of ginseng were discussed. The focus was on the latest animal studies and human clinical trials that corroborate ginseng’s role as a therapy for treating respiratory tract infections. The article concluded with future directions and significant challenges. This review would be a valuable addition to the knowledge base for researchers in understanding the promising role of ginseng in treating respiratory tract infections. Further analysis needs to be re-focused on clinical trials to study ginseng’s efficacy and safety in treating pathogenic infections and in determining ginseng-drug interactions.

Medicinal plants and their components for wound healing applications

Background

Wound is an anatomical and functional disruption of the skin following an injury. In response to the injury, wound healing is a complex process of tissue repair or remodeling. Historically, plants and plant-based constituents have been extensively used for the treatment and management of different types of wounds. In the current times, different types of biopolymers are being researched for developing economical, sustainable, stable, and effective delivery system for the treatment of wounds.

Main text

The present review article attempts to enlist medicinal plants which have been reported to be effective in the treatment of wounds. Plant constituent-based wound dressings have also been discussed systematically including patented formulations reported by different inventors.

Conclusion

The compiled data aims to update the researchers/scientists which will be helpful in providing them a directional view in understanding the role and importance of plant-based components for the treatment and management of wounds.

Corona-Cov-2 (COVID-19) and ginseng: Comparison of possible use in COVID-19 and influenza

In the 1918 influenza pandemic, more than 95% of mortalities were ascribed to bacterial pneumonia. After the primary influenza infection, the innate immune system is attenuated, and the susceptibility to bacteria is increased. Subsequent bacterial pneumonia exacerbates morbidity and increases the mortality rate. Similarly, COVID-19 infection attenuates innate immunity and results in pneumonia. In addition, the current pneumococcal conjugate vaccine may have limited defense against secondary pneumococcal infection after influenza infection. Therefore, until a fully protective vaccine is available, a method of increasing immunity may be helpful. Ginseng has been shown to increase the defense against influenza in clinical trials and animal experiments, as well as the defense against pneumococcal pneumonia in animal experiments. Based on these findings, ginseng is suspected to be helpful for providing immunity against COVID-19.

Effect of cultivation ages on anti-inflammatory activity of a new type of red ginseng

Ginseng has been widely applied in clinical practice, but the cultivation age cannot be ignored as it influences the quality of ginseng and its products. In this work, different cultivation ages of fresh ginseng (FG) from four to seven years were analysed by UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS. Principal component analysis and supervised orthogonal partial least squared discrimination analysis, which belong to the normal method of multivariate statistical analysis, were applied to discover the characteristic components of FG at different cultivation ages. The components of new type of red ginseng (NRG) derived from FG at different cultivation ages were compared by HPLC analysis. The pharmacological anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated by ELISA and qPCR. The result showed that the characteristic components of both 6- and 7-year-old ginseng were ginsenoside Rb1, mal-ginsenoside Rb1, ginsenoside Rc, mal-ginsenoside Rc, mal-ginsenoside Rb1 isomer, and mal-ginsenoside Rb2. Moreover, the characteristic components of both 4- and 5-year-old ginseng were ADP-glucose and 3-hydroxyhexanoyl CoA. In addition, 6-year-old NRG has higher rare ginsenosides than 4-year-old NRG, which possesses great anti-inflammatory activity in vitro. The results reveal the ginsenoside transformation law of NRG processing and suggest that the cultivation age of FG influences the content of ginsenosides in NRG. Therefore, 6-year-old ginseng is more suitable for red ginseng processing and clinical use.

Adaptogenic effects of Panax ginseng on modulation of immune functions

Traditional medicinal practices have used natural products such as adaptogens to treat inflammatory, autoimmune, neurodegenerative, bacterial, and viral diseases since the early days of civilization. Panax ginseng Myer is a common herb used in East Asian countries for millennia, especially in Korea, China, and Japan. Numerous studies indicate that ginseng can modulate the immune system and thereby prevent diseases. Although the human immune system comprises many different types of cells, multiple studies suggest that each type of immune cell can be controlled or stimulated by ginseng or its derivatives. Provisional lists of ginseng's potential for use against viruses, bacteria, and other microorganisms suggest it may prove to be a valuable pharmaceutical resource, particularly if higher-quality evidence can be found. Here, we reviewed the role of ginseng as an immune-modulating agent in attempt to provide a valuable starting point for future studies on the herb and the human immune system.

Evolution of the adaptogenic concept from traditional use to medical systems: Pharmacology of stress- and aging-related diseases

Adaptogens comprise a category of herbal medicinal and nutritional products promoting adaptability, resilience, and survival of living organisms in stress. The aim of this review was to summarize the growing knowledge about common adaptogenic plants used in various traditional medical systems (TMS) and conventional medicine and to provide a modern rationale for their use in the treatment of stress-induced and aging-related disorders. Adaptogens have pharmacologically pleiotropic effects on the neuroendocrine-immune system, which explain their traditional use for the treatment of a wide range of conditions. They exhibit a biphasic dose-effect response: at low doses they function as mild stress-mimetics, which activate the adaptive stress-response signaling pathways to cope with severe stress. That is in line with their traditional use for preventing premature aging and to maintain good health and vitality. However, the potential of adaptogens remains poorly explored. Treatment of stress and aging-related diseases require novel approaches. Some combinations of adaptogenic plants provide unique effects due to their synergistic interactions in organisms not obtainable by any ingredient independently. Further progress in this field needs to focus on discovering new combinations of adaptogens based on traditional medical concepts. Robust and rigorous approaches including network pharmacology and systems pharmacology could help in analyzing potential synergistic effects and, more broadly, future uses of adaptogens. In conclusion, the evolution of the adaptogenic concept has led back to basics of TMS and a new level of understanding of holistic approach. It provides a rationale for their use in stress-induced and aging-related diseases.

Immuno-enhancement effects of Korean Red Ginseng in healthy adults: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

Background

Most clinical studies of immune responses activated by Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) have been conducted exclusively in patients. However, there is still a lack of clinical research on immune-boosting benefits of KRG for healthy persons. This study aims to confirm how KRG boosts the immune system of healthy subjects.

Methods

A total of 100 healthy adult subjects were randomly divided into two groups that took either a 2 g KRG tablet or a placebo per day for 8 weeks. The primary efficacy evaluation variables included changes in T cells, B cells, and white blood cells (WBCs) before and after eight weeks of KRG ingestion. Cytokines (TNF-α, INF-γ, IL-2 and IL-4), WBC differential count, and incidence of colds were measured in the secondary efficacy evaluation variables. Safety evaluation variables were used to identify changes in laboratory test results that incorporated adverse reactions, vital signs, hematological tests, blood chemistry tests, and urinalysis.

Results

Compared to the placebo group, the KRG intake group showed a significant increase in the number of T cells (CD3) and its subtypes (CD4 and CD8), B cells, and the WBC count before and after eight weeks of the intake. There were no clinically significant adverse reactions or other notable results in the safety evaluation factors observed.

Conclusion

This study has proven through its eight-week intake test and subsequent analysis that KRG boosts the immune system through an increase in T cells, B cells, and WBCs, and that it is safe according to the study's safety evaluation.

The Role of Adaptogens in Prophylaxis and Treatment of Viral Respiratory Infections

The aim of our review is to demonstrate the potential of herbal preparations, specifically adaptogens for prevention and treatment of respiratory infections, as well as convalescence, specifically through supporting a challenged immune system, increasing resistance to viral infection, inhibiting severe inflammatory progression, and driving effective recovery. The evidence from pre-clinical and clinical studies with Andrographis paniculata, Eleutherococcus senticosus, Glycyrrhiza spp., Panax spp., Rhodiola rosea, Schisandra chinensis, Withania somnifera, their combination products and melatonin suggests that adaptogens can be useful in prophylaxis and treatment of viral infections at all stages of progression of inflammation as well as in aiding recovery of the organism by (i) modulating innate and adaptive immunity, (ii) anti-inflammatory activity, (iii) detoxification and repair of oxidative stress-induced damage in compromised cells, (iv) direct antiviral effects of inhibiting viral docking or replication, and (v) improving quality of life during convalescence.

New and known phenylpropanoid glycosides from mountain cultivated ginseng

Two new phenylpropanoid glycosides elucidated as 2,6-dimethoxyphenyl-4-propylene-1-O-β-D-apiofuranosyl-(1-6)-β-D-glucopyranoside (1) and 2-methoxyphenyl-4-propylene-1-O-β-D-apiofuranosyl-(1-6)-β-D-glucopyranoside (2), along with three known phenylpropanoid glycosides (3-5) were isolated from Mountain Cultivated Ginseng. The structures of compounds 1-5 were elucidated on the basis of comprehensive spectroscopic data including 1D, 2D NMR spectra, and MS. In addition, in vitro cytotoxicity of all the isolated compounds was evaluated against HELA cell.

Ginseng alleviates microbial infections of the respiratory tract: a review

The detrimental impact of air pollution as a result of frequent exposure to fine particles posed a global public health risk mainly to the pulmonary disorders in pediatric and geriatric population. Here, we reviewed the current literature regarding the role of ginseng and/or its components as antimicrobials, especially against pathogens that cause respiratory infections in animal and in vitro models. Some of the possible mechanisms for ginseng-mediated viral inhibition suggested are improvements in systemic and mucosa-specific antibody responses, serum hemagglutinin inhibition, lymphocyte proliferation, cell survival rate, and viral clearance in the lungs. In addition, ginseng reduces the expression levels of proinflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-8) and chemokines produced by airway epithelial cells and macrophages, thus preventing weight loss. In case of bacterial infections, ginseng acts by alleviating inflammatory cytokine production, increasing survival rates, and activating phagocytes and natural killer cells. In addition, ginseng inhibits biofilm formation and induces the dispersion and dissolution of mature biofilms. Most clinical trials revealed that ginseng, at various dosages, is a safe and effective method of seasonal prophylaxis, relieving the symptoms and reducing the risk and duration of colds and flu. Taken together, these findings support the efficacy of ginseng as a therapeutic and prophylactic agent for respiratory infections.

Wound Healing and the Use of Medicinal Plants

Cutaneous wound healing is the process by which skin repairs itself. It is generally accepted that cutaneous wound healing can be divided into 4 phases: haemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodelling. In humans, keratinocytes re-form a functional epidermis (reepithelialization) as rapidly as possible, closing the wound and reestablishing tissue homeostasis. Dermal fibroblasts migrate into the wound bed and proliferate, creating “granulation tissue” rich in extracellular matrix proteins and supporting the growth of new blood vessels. Ultimately, this is remodelled over an extended period, returning the injured tissue to a state similar to that before injury. Dysregulation in any phase of the wound healing cascade delays healing and may result in various skin pathologies, including nonhealing, or chronic ulceration. Indigenous and traditional medicines make extensive use of natural products and derivatives of natural products and provide more than half of all medicines consumed today throughout the world. Recognising the important role traditional medicine continues to play, we have undertaken an extensive survey of literature reporting the use of medical plants and plant-based products for cutaneous wounds. We describe the active ingredients, bioactivities, clinical uses, formulations, methods of preparation, and clinical value of 36 medical plant species. Several species stand out, including Centella asiatica, Curcuma longa, and Paeonia suffruticosa, which are popular wound healing products used by several cultures and ethnic groups. The popularity and evidence of continued use clearly indicates that there are still lessons to be learned from traditional practices. Hidden in the myriad of natural products and derivatives from natural products are undescribed reagents, unexplored combinations, and adjunct compounds that could have a place in the contemporary therapeutic inventory.

Greater Efficacy of Black Ginseng (CJ EnerG) over Red Ginseng against Lethal Influenza A Virus Infection

Black ginseng (BG, CJ EnerG), prepared via nine repeated cycles of steaming and drying of fresh ginseng, contains more accessible acid polysaccharides and smaller and less polar ginsenosides than red ginseng (RG) processed only once. Because RG exhibits the ability to increase host protection against viral respiratory infections, we investigated the antiviral effects of BG. Mice were orally administered either BG or RG extract at 10 mg/kg bw daily for two weeks. Mice were then infected with a A(H1N1) pdm09 (A/California/04/2009) virus and fed extracts for an additional week. Untreated, infected mice were assigned to either the negative control, without treatments, or the positive control, treated with Tamiflu. Infected mice were monitored for 14 days to determine the survival rate. Lung tissues were evaluated for virus titer and by histological analyses. Cytokine levels were measured in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Mice treated with BG displayed a 100% survival rate against infection, while mice treated with RG had a 50% survival rate. Further, mice treated with BG had fewer accumulated inflammatory cells in bronchioles following viral infection than did mice treated with RG. BG also enhanced the levels of GM-CSF and IL-10 during the early and late stages of infection, respectively, compared to RG. Thus, BG may be useful as an alternative antiviral adjuvant to modulate immune responses to influenza A virus.

Pharmacological effects of ginseng on infectious diseases

Ginseng has been traditionally used as an herbal nutritional supplement in Asian countries, including Korea, China, Japan, and Vietnam for several millennia. Most studies have focused on the role of ginseng on anti-oxidative stress, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer activities. Recently, modulator activities of ginseng on the immune responses during pathogenic bacterial and viral infections and beneficial effects of ginseng in infectious diseases have been elucidated. In vivo and in vitro studies revealed the potential of ginseng extracts and ginsenosides Rg1, Rg3, Rb1, Rb2, Rb3, compound K, Re, Rd, Rh2 for treatment of several infectious diseases. The molecular mechanisms of these effects mainly involve inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, IFN-γ, IL-10), apoptotic pathway (bcl-2, bcl-xL), PI3K/Akt pathway, MAPKs pathway, JAK2/STAT5, NF-κB pathway, and the inflammasome. In this review, we will summarize the current knowledge on the effects of ginseng in the immune responses during the infections and its bioactivities on the prevention of infectious diseases as well as its underlying mechanisms. Moreover, the therapeutic potential of ginseng as an anti-bacterial and anti-viral medication and vaccine adjuvant will be discussed as well.

E-pharmacophore hypothesis strategy to discover potent inhibitor for influenza treatment

The surface protein of Influenza virus, Neuraminidase (NA), is believed to play a critical role in the release of new viral particle and thus spreads infection. It has been recognized as a valid drug target for anti-influenza therapy. Despite the number of available approved drugs for the influenza infection treatment, the emergence of resistant variants with novel mutations are the foremost challenges for the currently used NA inhibitors. Thus, the current investigation was carried out to ascertain potent inhibitors using computational strategies such as e-pharmacophore based virtual screening and docking approach. A three-dimensional e-pharmacophore hypothesis was generated based on the chemical features of complexes of the drugs and NA protein using PHASE module of Schrödinger suite. The generated hypothesis consisted of one hydrogen bond acceptor (A), two hydrogen bond donors (D), one negatively charged group (N) and one aromatic ring (R), ADDNR. The hypothesis was further evaluated for its integrity using enrichment analysis and used to filter out molecules with similar pharmacophoric features from approved, investigational and experimental subsets of DrugBank and ZINC database. In addition, ligand filtration was performed to curb down the molecules to an efficient collection of hit molecules by using Lipinski “rule of five and ADME analysis by using Qikprop module. Overall, the results from our analysis suggest that compound lisinopril and formoterol could serve as potent antiviral compounds for the treatment of influenza A virus infection. It is worth mentioning that the results correlate well with literature evidences.

Ginseng: A Qualitative Review of Benefits for Palliative Clinicians

Ginseng has been used for centuries to treat various diseases and has been commercially developed and cultivated in the past 300 years. Ginseng products may be fresh, dried (white), or dried and steamed (red). Extracts may be made using water or alcohol. There are over 50 different ginsenosides identified by chromatography. We did an informal systematic qualitative review that centered on fatigue, cancer, dementia, respiratory diseases, and heart failure, and we review 113 studies in 6 tables. There are multiple potential benefits to ginseng in cancer. Ginseng, in certain circumstances, has been shown to improve dementia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and heart failure through randomized trials. Most trials had biases or unknown biases and so most evidence is of low quality. We review the gaps in the evidence and make some recommendations regarding future studies.

Antiviral Activity of Fermented Ginseng Extracts against a Broad Range of Influenza Viruses

Ginseng products used as herb nutritional supplements are orally consumed and fermented to ginsenoside compounds by the intestinal microbes. In this study, we investigated antiviral protective effects of fermented ginseng extracts against different strains of influenza viruses in genetically diverse mouse models. Intranasal coinoculation of mice with fermented ginseng extract and influenza virus improved survival rates and conferred protection against H1N1, H3N2, H5N1, and H7N9 strains, with the efficacy dependent on the dose of ginseng samples. Antiviral protection by fermented ginseng extract was observed in different genetic backgrounds of mice and in the deficient conditions of key adaptive immune components (CD4, CD8, B cell, MHCII). The mice that survived primary virus inoculation with fermented ginseng extract developed immunity against the secondary infection with homologous and heterosubtypic viruses. In vitro cell culture experiments showed moderate virus neutralizing activity by fermented ginseng extract, probably by inhibiting hemagglutination and neuraminidase activity. This study suggests that fermented ginseng extracts might provide a means to treat influenza disease regardless of virus strains.

Emerging signals modulating potential of ginseng and its active compounds focusing on neurodegenerative diseases

Common features of neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) include progressive dysfunctions and neuronal injuries leading to deterioration in normal brain functions. At present, ginseng is one of the most frequently used natural products. Its use has a long history as a cure for various diseases because its extracts and active compounds exhibit several pharmacological properties against several disorders. However, the pathophysiology of NDDs is not fully clear, but researchers have found that various ion channels and specific signaling pathways might have contributed to the disease pathogenesis. Apart from the different pharmacological potentials, ginseng and its active compounds modulate various ion channels and specific molecular signaling pathways related to the nervous system. Here, we discuss the signal modulating potential of ginseng and its active compounds mainly focusing on those relevant to NDDs.

The immune-enhancing activity of Cervus nippon mantchuricus extract (NGE) in RAW264.7 macrophage cells and immunosuppressed mice

Chemotherapeutics are often used to inhibit the proliferation of cancer cells. However, they can also harm healthy cells and cause side effects such as immunosuppression. Especially traditional oriental medicines long used in Asia, may be beneficial candidates for the alleviation of immune diseases. Cervus nippon mantchuricus extract (NGE) is currently sold in the market as coffee and health drinks. However, NGE was not widely investigated and efficacy remain unclear and essentially nothing is known about their potential immune-regulatory properties. As a result, NGE induced the differentiation of RAW264.7 macrophage cells. NGE-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophage cells elevated cytokines levels and NO production. NGE-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophage cells activated MAPKs and NF-κB signaling pathways. NGE encouraged the immuno-enhancing effects in immunosuppressed short-term treated with NGE mice model. NGE or Red ginseng encouraged the immuno-enhancing effects in immunosuppressed long-term treated with NGE mice model. Our data clearly show that NGE contains immune-enhancing activity and can be used to treat immunodeficiency.

Chemical Comparison of Two Drying Methods of Mountain Cultivated Ginseng by UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS and Multivariate Statistical Analysis

In traditional Chinese medicine practice, drying method is an essential factor to influence the components of Chinese medicinal herbs. In this study, an ultra-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS)-based approach was used to compare the content of chemical compounds of mountain cultivated ginseng that had been natural air dried (LX-P) and vacuum freeze-dried (LX-L). Multivariate statistical analysis such as principal component analysis (PCA) and supervised orthogonal partial least squared discrimination analysis (OPLS-DA) were used to select the influential components of different samples. There were 41 ginsenosides unambiguously identified and tentatively assigned in both LX-L and LX-P. The results showed that the characteristic components in LX-P were ginsenoside Rb1, ginsenoside Rc, ginsenoside Rg6, dendrolasin, and ginsenoside Rb2. The characteristic components in LX-L were malonyl-ginsenoside Re, malonyl-ginsenoside Rb1, malonyl-ginsenoside Rc, malonyl-ginsenoside Rb1 isomer, malonyl-ginsenoside Rb2, malonyl-ginsenoside Rb3, malonyl-ginsenoside Rd isomer, gypenoside XVII, and notoginsenoside Fe. This is the first time that the differences between LX-L and LX-P have been observed systematically at the chemistry level. It was indicated that vacuum freeze-drying method can improve the content of malonyl-ginsensides in mountain cultivated ginseng.

A literature update elucidating production of Panax ginsenosides with a special focus on strategies enriching the anti-neoplastic minor ginsenosides in ginseng preparations

Ginseng, an oriental gift to the world of healthcare and preventive medicine, is among the top ten medicinal herbs globally. The constitutive triterpene saponins, ginsenosides, or panaxosides are attributed to ginseng's miraculous efficacy towards anti-aging, rejuvenating, and immune-potentiating benefits. The major ginsenosides such as Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd., Re, and Rg1, formed after extensive glycosylations of the aglycone "dammaranediol," dominate the chemical profile of this genus in vivo and in vitro. Elicitations have successfully led to appreciable enhancements in the production of these major ginsenosides. However, current research on ginseng biotechnology has been focusing on the enrichment or production of the minor ginsenosides (the less glycosylated precursors of the major ginsenosides) in ginseng preparations, which are either absent or are produced in very low amounts in nature or via cell cultures. The minor ginsenosides under current scientific scrutiny include diol ginsenosides such as Rg3, Rh2, compound K, and triol ginsenosides Rg2 and Rh1, which are being touted as the next "anti-neoplastic pharmacophores," with better bioavailability and potency as compared to the major ginsenosides. This review aims at describing the strategies for ginsenoside production with special attention towards production of the minor ginsenosides from the major ginsenosides via microbial biotransformation, elicitations, and from heterologous expression systems.

Mechanistic perspective of the oxido-immunopathologic resolution property of kolaviron in mice influenza pneumonitis

Implicated in influenza-associated pathology are innate defence overzealousness and unabated secretion of oxidative tissue-sensitive antimicrobial agents. At different time points, mice were pre-treated with kolaviron (400 mg/kg), a natural antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent, and subsequently challenged with 2 LD₅₀ influenza A/H3N2/Perth/16/09 virus. After euthanasia at day 6, blood, lungs, liver and spleen were collected and processed for biochemical, immunohistochemical and flow cytometric assessment of redo-inflammatory imbalance, cytokine storm indices and T helper 1 host response. Previously kolaviron was reported to delay mortality onset, improve morbidity and attenuate myeloperoxidase activity and nitric oxide production with minimal impact on viral clearance. This study additionally confirmed nitric oxide, but not hydrogen peroxide, as the major culprit implicated in influenza virus-induced oxido-pathology. Systemic effect of the sustained inflammation and nitrosative stress was more prominent in the spleen and lung than in the liver of mice infected with A/H3N2/Perth/16/09. Influential to immunopathology was heightened pulmonary expression of IL-1β, RANTES, IL-10, MCP-1, NF-κB, iNOS and COX-2. However, kolaviron combated the influenza-established nitrative stress, reversed the elicited cytokine storm and restored the oxidized environment to a reductive milieu. Our data also suggest that kolaviron administration early in infection may foster CD4⁺ response. These data indicate that kolaviron may confer disease-dwindling properties during acute influenza infection via a system-wide protective approach involving multiple targets especially at the early stage of the infection.

Combined virus-like particle and fusion protein-encoding DNA vaccination of cotton rats induces protection against respiratory syncytial virus without causing vaccine-enhanced disease

A safe and effective vaccine against respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) should confer protection without causing vaccine-enhanced disease. Here, using a cotton rat model, we investigated the protective efficacy and safety of an RSV combination vaccine composed of F-encoding plasmid DNA and virus-like particles containing RSV fusion (F) and attachment (G) glycoproteins (FFG-VLP). Cotton rats with FFG-VLP vaccination controlled lung viral replication below the detection limit, and effectively induced neutralizing activity and antibody-secreting cell responses. In comparison with formalin inactivated RSV (FI-RSV) causing severe RSV disease after challenge, FFG-VLP vaccination did not cause weight loss, airway hyper-responsiveness, IL-4 cytokines, histopathology, and infiltrates of proinflammatory cells such as eosinophils. FFG-VLP was even more effective in preventing RSV-induced pulmonary inflammation than live RSV infections. This study provides evidence that FFG-VLP can be developed into a safe and effective RSV vaccine candidate.

Red ginseng and vitamin C increase immune cell activity and decrease lung inflammation induced by influenza A virus/H1N1 infection

Objectives

Because red ginseng and vitamin C have immunomodulatory function and anti-viral effect, we investigated whether red ginseng and vitamin C synergistically regulate immune cell function and suppress viral infection.

Methods

Red ginseng and vitamin C were treated to human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) or sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV)-infected BCBL-1, and administrated to Gulo(−/−) mice, which are incapable of synthesizing vitamin C, with or without influenza A virus/H1N1 infection.

Key findings

Red ginseng and vitamin C increased the expression of CD25 and CD69 of PBMCs and natural killer (NK) cells. Co-treatment of them decreased cell viability and lytic gene expression in BCBL-1. In Gulo(−/−) mice, red ginseng and vitamin C increased the expression of NKp46, a natural cytotoxic receptor of NK cells and interferon (IFN)-γ production. Influenza infection decreased the survival rate, and increased inflammation and viral plaque accumulation in the lungs of vitamin C-depleted Gulo(−/−) mice, which were remarkably reduced by red ginseng and vitamin C supplementation.

Conclusions

Administration of red ginseng and vitamin C enhanced the activation of immune cells like T and NK cells, and repressed the progress of viral lytic cycle. It also reduced lung inflammation caused by viral infection, which consequently increased the survival rate.

The antimicrobial properties of ginseng and ginseng extracts

Ginseng is commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine as a tonic and an adaptogen to reduce fatigue and boost the immune system. In recent years, ginseng extracts are shown to have both bacteriostatic and bactericidal actions and seem to exert their effects by several mechanisms, including disruption of biofilms, inhibition of quorum-sensing and virulence factors, and altering motility. Also, ginseng extracts are shown to have antifungal properties as demonstrated by their ability to inhibit the growth of several mold and yeast species. Extracts from ginseng root have a strong antiviral activity against the RNA viruses in cell cultures and animal models. In addition to the antimicrobial activities, ginseng extracts are shown to possess immunomodulatory properties involved in the amelioration of infections. The present paper describes the antimicrobial effects of ginseng and its extracts.

Panax ginseng aqueous extract prevents pneumococcal sepsis in vivo by potentiating cell survival and diminishing inflammation

BACKGROUND

More than 50% of sepsis cases are caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, and hospital mortality related to sepsis comprises 52% of all hospital deaths. Therefore, sepsis is a medical emergency, and any treatment against the agent that produces it, is welcome.

PURPOSE

The role of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer (Araliaceae) aqueous extract in bacterial infection in vivo is not well understood. Here, the protective effect of Korean red ginseng (KRG) extract against pneumococcal infection and sepsis was elucidated.

STUDY DESIGN

In this study, mice were administrated KRG (25, 50, 100 mg/kg) for 15 days, and then infected with a lethal S. pneumoniae strain. Survival rate, body weight, and colonization were determined.

METHODS

The RAW 264.7 macrophage cells were infected with S. pneumoniae and cell viability was assessed using a 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Inflammation was examined using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and hematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining while gene expression was determined using western blotting.

RESULTS

KRG-pre-treated mice (100 mg/kg of KRG) had significantly higher survival rates and body weights than those of the non-treated controls; KRG-pre-treated mice had lower bacterial number and morbidity than those of the non-treated controls. 100 mg/kg of KRG administration decreased cytokine levels including tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α (897 and 623 pg/ml, control and KRG groups, respectively, P < 0.05) and interleukin (IL)-1β (175 and 127 pg/ml, control and KRG groups, respectively, P = 0.051), nitric oxide level (149 and 81 nM, control and KRG groups, respectively, P < 0.05), and neutrophil infiltration 48 h post-infection, in vivo. In pneumococcal infection, KRG pre-treatment downregulated toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 and TNF-ɑ expressions in RAW 264.7 macrophage cells and increased cell survival by activating phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT signaling.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, 100 mg/kg of KRG appeared to protect host cells from lethal pneumococcal sepsis by inhibiting inflammation as well as by enhancing bacterial clearance thereby reinforcing cell survival against pneumococcal infection.

Ginseng, the natural effectual antiviral: Protective effects of Korean Red Ginseng against viral infection

Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) is a heat-processed ginseng developed by the repeated steaming and air-drying of fresh ginseng. Compared with fresh ginseng, KRG has been shown to possess greater pharmacological activities and stability because of changes that occur in its chemical constituents during the steaming process. In addition to anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and immune-modulatory activities, KRG and its purified components have also been shown to possess protective effects against microbial infections. Here, we summarize the current knowledge on the properties of KRG and its components on infections with human pathogenic viruses such as respiratory syncytial virus, rhinovirus, influenza virus, human immunodeficiency virus, human herpes virus, hepatitis virus, norovirus, rotavirus, enterovirus, and coxsackievirus. Additionally, the therapeutic potential of KRG as an antiviral and vaccine adjuvant is discussed.

Influenza infection induces host DNA damage and dynamic DNA damage responses during tissue regeneration

Influenza viruses account for significant morbidity worldwide. Inflammatory responses, including excessive generation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS), mediate lung injury in severe influenza infections. However, the molecular basis of inflammation-induced lung damage is not fully understood. Here, we studied influenza H1N1 infected cells in vitro, as well as H1N1 infected mice, and we monitored molecular and cellular responses over the course of 2 weeks in vivo. We show that influenza induces DNA damage to both, when cells are directly exposed to virus in vitro (measured using the comet assay) and also when cells are exposed to virus in vivo (estimated via γH2AX foci). We show that DNA damage, as well as responses to DNA damage persist in vivo until long after virus has been cleared, at times when there are inflammation associated RONS (measured by xanthine oxidase activity and oxidative products). The frequency of lung epithelial and immune cells with increased γH2AX foci is elevated in vivo, especially for dividing cells (Ki-67-positive) exposed to oxidative stress during tissue regeneration. Additionally, we observed a significant increase in apoptotic cells as well as increased levels of DNA double strand break (DSB) repair proteins Ku70, Ku86 and Rad51 during the regenerative phase. In conclusion, results show that influenza induces DNA damage both in vitro and in vivo, and that DNA damage responses are activated, raising the possibility that DNA repair capacity may be a determining factor for tissue recovery and disease outcome.

Dietary lactosucrose suppresses influenza A (H1N1) virus infection in mice

This study examined the effects of lactosucrose (4^G-β-D-galactosylsucrose) on influenza A virus infections in mice. First, the effects of lactosucrose on fermentation in the cecum and on immune function were investigated. In female BALB/c mice, lactosucrose supplementation for 6 weeks promoted cecal fermentation and increased both secretory IgA (SIgA) levels in feces and total IgA and IgG2a concentrations in serum. Both the percentage of CD4⁺ T cells in Peyer’s patches and the cytotoxic activity of splenic natural killer (NK) cells increased significantly in response to lactosucrose. Next, we examined the effects of lactosucrose on low-dose influenza A virus infection in mice. After 2 weeks of dietary supplementation with lactosucrose, the mice were infected with low-dose influenza A virus. At 7 days post infection, a comparison with control mice showed that weight loss was suppressed, as were viral titers in the lungs. In the spleens of lactosucrose-fed mice, there was an increase in the percentage of NK cells. Lastly, mice fed lactosucrose were challenged with a lethal dose of influenza A virus. The survival rate of these mice was significantly higher than that of mice fed a control diet. These results suggested that lactosucrose supplementation suppresses influenza A virus infection by augmenting innate immune responses and enhancing cellular and mucosal immunity.

A flood of health functional foods: what is to be recommended?

Health functional food is referred to a food prepared or processed from specific components or ingredients for functionality beneficial to the body through extraction, concentration, purification, blending and other methods. The demand for health functional foods is steadily increasing, and red ginseng is the most demanded food among women in the 50s, followed by multivitamin, omega-3, glucosamine and aloe. To date, there is insufficient evidence on the effect of red ginseng on exercise capacity, somatic symptom and cognitive performance in healthy individuals. Moreover, evidence is insufficient that a nutritional dose of vitamin or mineral reduces the incidence of cardiovascular disease and cancer, or mortality rate. A steady intake of oily fish is recommended to prevent the incidence of cardiovascular disease for postmenopausal women. Consumption of omega-3 fatty acids is expected to prevent cardiovascular disease in postmenopausal women with almost no intake of oily fish and those not taking statins. It still remains controversial whether glucosamine is effective in the treatment of osteoarthritis. Hence, physicians should fully inform patients with all controversial information about the effectiveness of glucosamine when prescribing glucosamine for patients with osteoarthritis.

Natural products for chronic cough: Text mining the East Asian historical literature for future therapeutics

Chronic cough is a significant health burden. Patients experience variable benefits from over the counter and prescribed products, but there is an unmet need to provide more effective treatments. Natural products have been used to treat cough and some plant compounds such as pseudoephedrine from ephedra and codeine from opium poppy have been developed into drugs. Text mining historical literature may offer new insight for future therapeutic development. We identified natural products used in the East Asian historical literature to treat chronic cough. Evaluation of the historical literature revealed 331 natural products used to treat chronic cough. Products included plants, minerals and animal substances. These natural products were found in 75 different books published between AD 363 and 1911. Of the 331 products, the 10 most frequently and continually used products were examined, taking into consideration findings from contemporary experimental studies. The natural products identified are promising and offer new directions in therapeutic development for treating chronic cough.