Obesity and lifespan health--importance of the fetal environment

Lactobacillus casei-derived postbiotics inhibited digestion of triglycerides, glycerol phospholipids and sterol lipids via allosteric regulation of BSSL, PTL and PLA2 to prevent obesity: perspectives on deep learning integrated multi-omics

The anti-obesity potential of probiotics has been widely reported, however their utilization in high-risk patients and potential adverse reactions have led researchers to focus their attention on postbiotics. Herein, pseudo-targeted lipidomics linked with deep learning-based metabolomics was utilized to dynamically characterize the postbiotic potential of heat-inactivated Lactobacillus casei JCM1134 supplementation after a high-fat diet in treating obesity. MG (ranged from 423.0 ± 1.4 mg L-1 to 331.45 ± 2.3 mg L-1), LPC (ranged from 13.1 ± 0.08 mg L-1 to 10.2 ± 0.1 mg L-1) and Cho (ranged from 9.0 ± 0.3 mg L-1 to 5.7 ± 0.2 mg L-1) in intestinal digestive products were significantly decreased, indicating that the digestion of lipid was inhibited. 8-C-glucosylorobol, from Lactobacillus casei, was confirmed from quantitative results and molecular simulation calculations to inhibit the transformation of TG, DG, and ChE through weakening hydrogen bonds between enzymes and substrates and reducing the binding energy. Pristimerin and 2,4-quinolinediol can effectively reduce the hydrogen bonding force between PC and phospholipase A2, which were related to the obstruction of phosphatidylcholine digestion. This research deepened the understanding of the mechanism underlying the inactivated probiotics affecting lipid digestion, establishing the critical groundwork for clinical application of probiotics in inhibiting obesity.

Translational Utility of the Nonhuman Primate Model

Nonhuman primates are essential for the study of human disease and to explore the safety of new diagnostics and therapies proposed for human use. They share similar genetic, physiologic, immunologic, reproductive, and developmental features with humans and thus have proven crucial for the study of embryonic/fetal development, organ system ontogeny, and the role of the maternal-placental-fetal interface in health and disease. The fetus may be exposed to a variety of inflammatory stimuli including infectious microbes as well as maternal inflammation, which can result from infections, obesity, or environmental exposures. Growing evidence supports that inflammation is a mediator of fetal programming and that the maternal immune system is tightly integrated with fetal-placental immune responses that may set a postnatal path for future health or disease. This review addresses some of the unique features of the nonhuman primate model system, specifically the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta), and importance of the species for studies focused on organ system ontogeny and the impact of viral teratogens in relation to development and congenital disorders.

Nonhuman Primates in Translational Research

Nonhuman primates are critically important animal models in which to study complex human diseases, understand biological functions, and address the safety of new diagnostics and therapies proposed for human use. They have genetic, physiologic, immunologic, and developmental similarities when compared to humans and therefore provide important preclinical models of human health and disease. This review highlights select research areas that demonstrate the importance of nonhuman primates in translational research. These include pregnancy and developmental disorders, infectious diseases, gene therapy, somatic cell genome editing, and applications of in vivo imaging. The power of the immune system and our increasing understanding of the role it plays in acute and chronic illnesses are being leveraged to produce new treatments for a range of medical conditions. Given the importance of the human immune system in health and disease, detailed study of the immune system of nonhuman primates is essential to advance preclinical translational research. The need for nonhuman primates continues to remain a high priority, which has been acutely evident during the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) global pandemic. Nonhuman primates will continue to address key questions and provide predictive models to identify the safety and efficiency of new diagnostics and therapies for human use across the lifespan.

Maternal Chronodisruption Throughout Pregnancy Impairs Glucose Homeostasis and Adipose Tissue Physiology in the Male Rat Offspring

Compelling evidence in rats support the idea that gestational chronodisruption induces major changes in maternal circadian rhythms and fetal development and that these changes impact adult life at many physiological levels. Using a model of chronic photoperiod shifting throughout gestation (CPS), in which pregnant female rats (Sprague-Dawley strain; n = 16 per group) were exposed to lighting schedule manipulation every 3-4 days reversing the photoperiod completely or light/dark photoperiod (12/12; LD), we explored in the adult rat male offspring body weight gain, glucose homeostasis, adipose tissue content, adipose tissue response to norepinephrine (NE), and adipose tissue proteomic in the basal condition with standard diet (SD) and in response to high-fat diet (HFD). In adult CPS male (100-200 days old; n = 8 per group), we found increasing body weight, under SD and adiposity. Also, we found an increased response to intraperitoneal glucose (IGTT). After 12 weeks of HFD, white adipose tissue depots in CPS offspring were increased further, and higher IGTT and lower intraperitoneal insulin tolerance response were found, despite the lack of changes in food intake. In in vitro experiments, we observed that adipose tissue (WAT and BAT) glycerol response to NE from CPS offspring was decreased, and it was completely abolished by HFD. At the proteomic level, in CPS adipose tissue, 275 proteins displayed differential expression, compared with LD animals fed with a standard diet. Interestingly, CPS offspring and LD fed with HFD showed 20 proteins in common (2 upregulated and 18 downregulated). Based on these common proteins, the IPA analysis found that two functional pathways were significantly altered by CPS: network 1 (AKT/ERK) and network 2 (TNF/IL4; data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD026315). The present data show that gestational chronodisruption induced deleterious effects in adipose tissue recruitment and function, supporting the idea that adipose tissue function was programmed in utero by gestational chronodisruption, inducing deficient metabolic responses that persist into adulthood.

Maternal food restriction-induced intrauterine growth restriction in a rat model leads to sex-specific adipogenic programming

Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) leads to offspring obesity. In a maternal food restriction (MFR) during pregnancy-related IUGR rat model, bone marrow stem cells showed enhanced adipogenic programming; however, the effect of IUGR on white adipose tissue (WAT) progenitors is unknown. Here, by mRNA and functional profiling, we determined sex-specific adipogenic programming of WAT progenitors isolated from pups on the postnatal day (PND) 1 and 21. On PND1, PPARγ and Pref-1 expression was significantly downregulated in preadipocytes of both MFR males and females; however, at PND21, preadipocytes of MFR males showed upregulation in these genes. Even following adipogenic induction, both male and female MFR adipocytes exhibited lower PPARγ, ADRP, and adiponectin levels at PND1; however, at PND21 MFR male adipocytes showed an upward trend in the expression of these genes. An adipogenesis-specific RT-PCR array showed that male MFR adipocytes were programmed to exhibit stronger adipogenic propensity than females. Last, serum sex hormone and adipocyte estrogen/testosterone receptor expression profiles provide preliminary insights into the possible mechanism underlying sex-specific adipogenic programming in the IUGR offspring. In summary, IUGR programs WAT preadipocytes to greater adipogenic potential in males. Although the altered adipogenic programming following MFR was detectable at PND1, the changes were more pronounced at PND21, suggesting a potential role of postnatal nutrition in facilitating the sex-specific adipogenic programming in the IUGR offspring.

The Impact of Neighbourhood Deprivation on Embryonic Growth Trajectories: Rotterdam Periconception Cohort

Background: Neighbourhood deprivation is a risk factor for impaired health and adverse pregnancy outcomes. We investigated whether living in a deprived neighbourhood is associated with embryonic growth. Methods: From the Predict cohort, we studied 566 women who underwent repeated first trimester ultrasound examinations. Crown rump length (CRL; n = 1707) and embryonic volume (EV; n = 1462) were measured using three-dimensional techniques. Neighbourhood deprivation was assessed using the neighbourhood status scores (NSS) of the Dutch Social Cultural Planning office. A high NSS represents a non-deprived neighbourhood. Associations between the NSS and embryonic growth were investigated using linear mixed models. Adjustment was performed for individual-level factors: maternal age, geographic origin, educational level, BMI, folic acid supplement use, fruit and vegetable intake, alcohol use and smoking habits. Results: The NSS was negatively associated with embryonic growth: a higher score (a less deprived neighbourhood) was associated with a smaller CRL and EV; adjusted β: −0.025 (95% CI −0.046, −0.003) and adjusted β: −0.015 (95% CI −0.026, −0.003). At 11 weeks of pregnancy, we observed a 0.55 cm³ smaller EV (7.65 cm³ vs. 7.10 cm³) and 1.08 mm smaller CRL (43.14 mm vs. 42.06 mm) in the highest compared to the lowest category. Conclusion: In deprived neighbourhoods, embryos are larger than in non-deprived neighbourhoods.

The relationship between maternal obesity and diabetes during pregnancy on offspring kidney structure and function in humans: a systematic review

Evidence from animal models indicates that exposure to an obesogenic or hyperglycemic intrauterine environment adversely impacts offspring kidney development and renal function. However, evidence from human studies has not been evaluated systematically. Therefore, the aim of this systematic review was to synthesize current research in humans that has examined the relationship between gestational obesity and/or diabetes and offspring kidney structure and function. Systematic electronic database searches were conducted of five relevant databases (CINAHL, Cochrane, EMBASE, MEDLINE and Scopus). Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis guidelines were followed, and articles screened by two independent reviewers generated nine eligible papers for inclusion. Six studies were assessed as being of 'neutral' quality, two of 'negative' and one 'positive' quality. Observational studies suggest that offspring exposed to a hyperglycemic intrauterine environment are more likely to display markers of renal dysfunction and are at higher risk of end-stage renal disease. There was limited and inconsistent evidence for a link between exposure to an obesogenic intrauterine environment and offspring renal outcomes. Offspring renal outcome measures across studies were diverse, with a large variation in offspring age at follow-up, limiting comparability across studies. The collective current body of evidence suggests that intrauterine exposure to maternal obesity and/or diabetes adversely impacts renal programming in offspring, with an increased risk of kidney disease in adulthood. Further high-quality, longitudinal, prospective cohort studies that measure indicators of offspring renal development and function, including fetal kidney volume and albuminuria, at standardized follow-up time points, are warranted.

Accelerated fetal growth in early pregnancy and risk of severe large-for-gestational-age and macrosomic infant: a cohort study in a low-risk population

INTRODUCTION

Our objective was to examine the association between fetal growth in early pregnancy and risk of severe large-for-gestational-age (LGA) and macrosomia at birth in a low-risk population.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Cohort study that included 68 771 women with non-anomalous singleton pregnancies, without history of diabetes or hypertension, based on an electronic database on pregnancies and deliveries in Stockholm-Gotland Region, Sweden, 2008-2014. We performed multivariable logistic regression to estimate the association between accelerated fetal growth occurring in the first through early second trimester as measured by ultrasound and LGA and macrosomia at birth. Restricted analyses were performed in the groups without gestational diabetes and with normal body mass index (18.5-24.9 kg/m² ).

RESULTS

When adjusting for confounders, the odds of having a severely LGA or macrosomic infant were elevated in mothers with fetuses that were at least 7 days larger than expected as compared with mothers without age discrepancy at the second-trimester scan (adjusted odds ratio 1.80; 95% CI 1.23-2.64 and adjusted odds ratio 2.15; 95% CI 1.55-2.98, respectively). Additionally, mothers without gestational diabetes and mothers with normal weight had an elevated risk of having a severely LGA or macrosomic infant when the age discrepancy by second-trimester ultrasound was at least 7 days.

CONCLUSIONS

In a low-risk population, ultrasound-estimated accelerated fetal growth in early pregnancy was associated with an increased risk of having a severely LGA or macrosomic infant.

Effects of maternal omega-3 fatty acids supplementation during pregnancy/lactation on body composition of the offspring: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND & AIMS

The effect of maternal omega-3 fatty acids intake on the body composition of the offspring is unclear. The aim of this study was to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis to confirm the effects of omega-3 fatty acids supplementation during pregnancy and/or lactation on body weight, body length, body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, fat mass and sum of skinfold thicknesses of offspring.

METHODS

Human intervention studies were selected by a systematic search of PubMed, Web of Science, the Cochrane Library and references of related reviews and studies. Randomized controlled trials of maternal omega-3 fatty acids intake during pregnancy or lactation for offspring's growth were included. The data were analyzed with RevMan 5.3 and Stata 12.0. Effect sizes were presented as weighted mean differences (WMD) or standardized mean difference (SMD) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI).

RESULTS

Twenty-six studies comprising 10,970 participants were included. Significant increases were found in birth weight (WMD = 42.55 g, 95% CI: 21.25, 63.85) and waist circumference (WMD = 0.35 cm, 95% CI: 0.04, 0.67) in the omega-3 fatty acids group. There were no effects on birth length (WMD = 0.09 cm, 95% CI: -0.03, 0.21), postnatal length (WMD = 0.13 cm, 95% CI: -0.11, 0.36), postnatal weight (WMD = 0.04 kg, 95% CI: -0.07, 0.14), BMI (WMD = 0.09, 95% CI: -0.05, 0.23), the sum of skinfold thicknesses (WMD = 0.45 mm, 95% CI: -0.30, 1.20), fat mass (WMD = 0.05 kg, 95% CI: -0.01, 0.11) and the percentage of body fat (WMD = 0.04%, 95% CI: -0.38, 0.46).

CONCLUSIONS

This meta-analysis showed that maternal omega-3 fatty acids supplementation can increase offspring's birth weight and postnatal waist circumference. However, it did not appear to influence children's birth length, postnatal weight/length, BMI, sum of skinfold thicknesses, fat mass and the percentage of body fat during postnatal period. Larger, well-designed studies are recommended to confirm this conclusion.

Association of maternal weight with FADS and ELOVL genetic variants and fatty acid levels- The PREOBE follow-up

Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the genes encoding the fatty acid desaturase (FADS) and elongase (ELOVL) enzymes affect long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (LC-PUFA) production. We aimed to determine if these SNPs are associated with body mass index (BMI) or affect fatty acids (FAs) in pregnant women. Participants (n = 180) from the PREOBE cohort were grouped according to pre-pregnancy BMI: normal-weight (BMI = 18.5–24.9, n = 88) and overweight/obese (BMI≥25, n = 92). Plasma samples were analyzed at 24 weeks of gestation to measure FA levels in the phospholipid fraction. Selected SNPs were genotyped (7 in FADS1, 5 in FADS2, 3 in ELOVL2 and 2 in ELOVL5). Minor allele carriers of rs174545, rs174546, rs174548 and rs174553 (FADS1), and rs1535 and rs174583 (FADS2) were nominally associated with an increased risk of having a BMI≥25. Only for the normal-weight group, minor allele carriers of rs174537, rs174545, rs174546, and rs174553 (FADS1) were negatively associated with AA:DGLA index. Normal-weight women who were minor allele carriers of FADS SNPs had lower levels of AA, AA:DGLA and AA:LA indexes, and higher levels of DGLA, compared to major homozygotes. Among minor allele carriers of FADS2 and ELOVL2 SNPs, overweight/obese women showed higher DHA:EPA index than the normal-weight group; however, they did not present higher DHA concentrations than the normal-weight women. In conclusion, minor allele carriers of FADS SNPs have an increased risk of obesity. Maternal weight changes the effect of genotype on FA levels. Only in the normal-weight group, minor allele carriers of FADS SNPs displayed reduced enzymatic activity and FA levels. This suggests that women with a BMI≥25 are less affected by FADS genetic variants in this regard. In the presence of FADS2 and ELOVL2 SNPs, overweight/obese women showed higher n-3 LC-PUFA production indexes than women with normal weight, but this was not enough to obtain a higher n-3 LC-PUFA concentration.

Measuring Adherence to a Nutrition and Exercise Lifestyle Intervention: Is Program Adherence Related to Excessive Gestational Weight Gain?

To identify adherence required to achieve target health outcome(s) in nutrition and/or exercise interventions, a measurement tool that tracks objective and self-reported measures of adherence is necessary. The purpose of this study was to design an adherence measurement tool and test it retrospectively on the Nutrition and Exercise Lifestyle Intervention Program (NELIP; Ruchat et al., Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 44(8), 1419-1426, 2012; Mottola et al., Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 42(2), 265-272, 2010), designed to prevent excessive gestational weight gain (EGWG). The tool was based on the goals of the NELIP and included a grading system for each behavior (exercise and nutrition). It was used to determine whether adherence scores could differentiate excessive versus acceptable weight gain during pregnancy across pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) categories. Results showed irrespective of pre-pregnancy BMI, women with acceptable weight gain had significantly higher adherence (p < 0.05) than women with excessive weight gain. It is recommended that this adherence tool be included in future prospective lifestyle intervention studies.

Paediatric obesity and cardiovascular risk factors - A life course approach

Childhood obesity is increasingly prevalent worldwide, and Portugal presents one of the highest prevalence of obesity and overweight among the European countries. Since childhood obesity is a risk factor for obesity in adulthood, the high prevalence of overweight and obesity in paediatric age currently experienced is expected to lead to even higher prevalence of obesity in adulthood in future decades. It is well known that the prenatal period and infancy are critical or sensitive periods for obesity development, but a growing body of evidence also suggests a relevant role of childhood and adolescence. The exposure to some factors during these periods or specific time frames within these periods may confer additional risk for obesity development. Paediatric obesity is associated with cardiovascular risk factors both in the short or medium-term, but also in the long term, conferring additional risk for future adult health. However, it is not clear whether the relation between paediatric obesity and adult health is independent of adult adiposity. There is a moderate to high tracking of obesity from paediatric age into adulthood, which may partially explain the association with adult outcomes. Therefore, there has been increasing interest on life course frameworks to study the effect of the dynamics of adiposity across paediatric age on adult outcomes, namely on the cardiovascular disease risk. The use of this approach to study determinants and consequences of obesity raises methodological challenges to summarize the exposure to adiposity/obesity across the life span, being the identification of growth trajectories and the quantification of the duration of obesity among the most used methods. However, further investigation is still needed to explore the best methods to summarize exposure to adiposity and its variation across time.

Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells of the intrauterine growth-restricted rat offspring exhibit enhanced adipogenic phenotype

OBJECTIVE

Although intrauterine nutritional stress is known to result in offspring obesity and the metabolic phenotype, the underlying cellular/molecular mechanisms remain incompletely understood. We tested the hypothesis that compared with the controls, the bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) of the intrauterine growth-restricted (IUGR) offspring exhibit a more adipogenic phenotype.

METHODS

A well-established rat model of maternal food restriction (MFR), that is, 50% global caloric restriction during the later-half of pregnancy and ad libitum diet following birth that is known to result in an obese offspring with a metabolic phenotype was used. BMSCs at 3 weeks of age were isolated, and then molecularly and functionally profiled.

RESULTS

BMSCs of the intrauterine nutritionally-restricted offspring demonstrated an increased proliferation and an enhanced adipogenic molecular profile at miRNA, mRNA and protein levels, with an overall up-regulated PPARγ (miR-30d, miR-103, PPARγ, C/EPBα, ADRP, LPL, SREBP1), but down-regulated Wnt (LRP5, LEF-1, β-catenin, ZNF521 and RUNX2) signaling profile. Following adipogenic induction, compared with the control BMSCs, the already up-regulated adipogenic profile of the MFR BMSCs, showed a further increased adipogenic response.

CONCLUSIONS

Markedly enhanced adipogenic molecular profile and increased cell proliferation of MFR BMSCs suggest a possible novel cellular/mechanistic link between the intrauterine nutritional stress and offspring metabolic phenotype. This provides new potential predictive and therapeutic targets against these conditions in the IUGR offspring.

A critical review: early life nutrition and prenatal programming for adult disease

AIM AND OBJECTIVE

To present the evidence in relation to early life nutrition and foetal programming for adult disease.

BACKGROUND

Epigenetics is a new and growing area of study investigating the impact of the intrauterine environment on the lifelong health of individuals.

DESIGN

Discursive paper.

METHOD

Searches were conducted in a range of electronic health databases. Hand searches located additional articles for review. Maternal search terms included: pregnancy; nutrition; diet; obesity; over nutrition; under nutrition. Offspring related search terms included: macrosomia; intrauterine growth restriction; epigenetics; foetal programming; childhood obesity; adolescent obesity; adolescent type 2 diabetes.

DISCUSSION

Results indicate that foetal programming for adult disease occurs in response to particular insults during vulnerable developmental periods. Four main areas of foetal exposure were identified in this review: (1) under nutrition; (2) over nutrition; (3) gestational diabetes mellitus; and (4) infant catch-up growth. Numerous studies also described the trans-generational nature of foetal programming.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, foetal exposure to excess or insufficient nutrition during vulnerable developmental periods appears to result in a lifelong predisposition to obesity and adult disease, such as type 2 diabetes and cardiac disease. For the infant who has been undernourished during early life, a predisposition to renal disease also occurs.

RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE

Pregnancy is a time when women are engaged in health systems and are receptive to health messages. These factors suggest that pregnancy may be an optimal time for dietary education and intervention. There is a particular need for education on healthy diet and for interventions which aim to limit over consumption of calories.

Understanding the role of maternal diet on kidney development; an opportunity to improve cardiovascular and renal health for future generations

The leading causes of mortality and morbidity worldwide are cardiovascular disease (high blood pressure, high cholesterol and renal disease), cancer and diabetes. It is increasingly obvious that the development of these diseases encompasses complex interactions between adult lifestyle and genetic predisposition. Maternal malnutrition can influence the fetal and early life environment and pose a risk factor for the future development of adult diseases, most likely due to impaired organogenesis in the developing offspring. This then predisposes these offspring to cardiovascular disease and renal dysfunction in adulthood. Studies in experimental animals have further illustrated the significant impact maternal diet has on offspring health. Many studies report changes in kidney structure (a reduction in the number of nephrons in the kidney) in offspring of protein-deprived dams. Although the early studies suggested that increased blood pressure was also present in offspring of protein-restricted dams, this is not a universal finding and requires clarification. Importantly, to date, the literature offers little to no understanding of when in development these changes in kidney development occur, nor are the cellular and molecular mechanisms that drive these changes well characterised. Moreover, the mechanisms linking maternal nutrition and a suboptimal renal phenotype in offspring are yet to be discerned—one potential mechanism involves epigenetics. This review will focus on recent information on potential mechanisms by which maternal nutrition (focusing on malnutrition due to protein restriction, micronutrient restriction and excessive fat intake) influences kidney development and thereby function in later life.

Early-life nutritional effects on the female reproductive system

There is now considerable epidemiological and experimental evidence indicating that early-life environmental conditions, including nutrition, affect subsequent development in later life. These conditions induce highly integrated responses in endocrine-related homeostasis, resulting in persistent changes in the developmental trajectory producing an altered adult phenotype. Early-life events trigger processes that prepare the individual for particular circumstances that are anticipated in the postnatal environment. However, where the intrauterine and postnatal environments differ markedly, such modifications to the developmental trajectory may prove maladaptive in later life. Reproductive maturation and function are similarly influenced by early-life events. This should not be surprising, because the primordial follicle pool is established early in life and is thus vulnerable to early-life events. Results of clinical and experimental studies have indicated that early-life adversity is associated with a decline in ovarian follicular reserve, changes in ovulation rates, and altered age at onset of puberty. However, the underlying mechanisms regulating the relationship between the early-life developmental environment and postnatal reproductive development and function are unclear. This review examines the evidence linking early-life nutrition and effects on the female reproductive system, bringing together clinical observations in humans and experimental data from targeted animal models.

The Intricate Network of Adipokines and Stroke

Cerebrovascular disorders, particularly ischemic stroke, are one of the most common neurological disorders. High rates of overweight and obesity support an interest in the role of adipose tissue and adipose tissue releasing cytokines in inducing associated comorbidities. Adipokines can serve as a key messenger to central energy homeostasis and metabolic homeostasis. They can contribute to the crosstalk between adipose tissue and brain. However recent research has offered ambiguous data on the network of adipose tissue, adipokines, and vascular disorders. In our paper we provide a critical insight into the role of adipokines in evolution of ischemic stroke.

Early-Life Toxic Insults and Onset of Sporadic Neurodegenerative Diseases-an Overview of Experimental Studies

The developmental origin of health and disease hypothesis states that adverse fetal and early childhood exposures can predispose to obesity, cardiovascular, and neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) in adult life. Early exposure to environmental chemicals interferes with developmental programming and induces subclinical alterations that may hesitate in pathophysiology and behavioral deficits at a later life stage. The mechanisms by which perinatal insults lead to altered programming and to disease later in life are still undefined. The long latency between exposure and onset of disease, the difficulty of reconstructing early exposures, and the wealth of factors which the individual is exposed to during the life course make extremely difficult to prove the developmental origin of NDDs in clinical and epidemiological studies. An overview of animal studies assessing the long-term effects of perinatal exposure to different chemicals (heavy metals and pesticides) supports the link between exposure and hallmarks of neurodegeneration at the adult stage. Furthermore, models of maternal immune activation show that brain inflammation in early life may enhance adult vulnerability to environmental toxins, thus supporting the multiple hit hypothesis for NDDs' etiology. The study of prospective animal cohorts may help to unraveling the complex pathophysiology of sporadic NDDs. In vivo models could be a powerful tool to clarify the mechanisms through which different kinds of insults predispose to cell loss in the adult age, to establish a cause-effect relationship between "omic" signatures and disease/dysfunction later in life, and to identify peripheral biomarkers of exposure, effects, and susceptibility, for translation to prospective epidemiological studies.

Adipose tissue dysregulation and metabolic consequences in childhood and adolescent obesity: potential impact of dietary fat quality

Evidence suggests that at a population level, childhood and adolescent obesity increase the long-term risk of chronic diseases such as type 2 diabetes and CVD. At an individual level, however, the metabolic consequences of obesity in youth vary immensely. Despite comparable BMI, some adolescents develop impaired glucose tolerance while others maintain normal glucose homeostasis. It has been proposed that the variation in the capacity to store lipid in the subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) may partially discriminate metabolically healthy from unhealthy obesity. In positive energy balance, a decreased capacity to expand SAT may drive lipid accumulation to visceral adipose tissue, liver and skeletal muscle. This state of lipotoxicity is associated with chronic low-grade inflammation, insulin resistance and dyslipidaemia. The present review examines the differential adipose tissue development and function in children and adolescents who exhibit metabolic dysregulation compared with those who are protected. Additionally, the role of manipulating dietary fat quality to potentially prevent and treat metabolic dysfunction in obesity will be discussed. The findings of the present review highlight the need for further randomised controlled trials to establish the effect of dietary n-3 PUFA on the metabolic phenotype of obese children and adolescents. Furthermore, using a personalised nutrition approach to target interventions to those at risk of, or those with established metabolic dysregulation may optimise the efficacy of modifying dietary fat quality.

Epigenetic programming by early-life stress: Evidence from human populations

BACKGROUND

A substantial body of experimental and epidemiological evidence has been accumulated suggesting that stressful events in early life including acute perinatal stress, maternal deprivation or separation, and variation in maternal care may lead to neuroendocrine perturbations thereby affecting reproductive performance, cognitive functions, and stress responses as well as the risk for infectious, cardio-metabolic and psychiatric diseases in later life.

RESULTS

Findings from recent studies based on both genome-wide and candidate gene approaches highlighted the importance of mechanisms that are involved in epigenetic regulation of gene expression, such as DNA methylation, histone modifications, and non-coding RNAs, in the long-term effects of exposure to stress in early life.

CONCLUSIONS

This review is focused on the findings from human studies indicating the role of epigenetic mechanisms in the causal link between early-life stress and later-life health outcomes.

Myeloid-lymphoid ontogeny in the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta)

Establishment of a functional immune system has important implications for health and disease, yet questions remain regarding the mechanism, location, and timing of development of myeloid and lymphoid cell compartments. The goal of this study was to characterize the ontogeny of the myeloid-lymphoid system in rhesus monkeys to enhance current knowledge of the developmental sequence of B-cell (CD20, CD79), T-cell (CD3, CD4, CD8, FoxP3), dendritic cell (CD205), and macrophage (CD68) lineages in the fetus and infant. Immunohistochemical assessments addressed the temporal and spatial expression of select phenotypic markers in the developing liver, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT), and bone marrow with antibodies known to cross-react with rhesus cells. CD3 was the earliest lymphoid marker identified in the first trimester thymus and, to a lesser extent, in the spleen. T-cell markers were also expressed midgestation on cells of the liver, spleen, thymus, and in Peyer's patches of the small and large intestine, and where CCR5 expression was noted. A myeloid marker, CD68, was found on hepatic cells near blood islands in the late first trimester. B-cell markers were observed mid-second trimester in the liver, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, bone marrow spaces, and occasionally in GALT. By the late third trimester and postnatally, secondary follicles with germinal centers were present in the thymus, spleen, and lymph nodes. These results suggest that immune ontogeny in monkeys is similar in temporal and anatomical sequence when compared to humans, providing important insights for translational studies.