1
|
Tandukar S, Sthapit N, Thakali O, Baral R, Tiwari A, Shakya J, Tuladhar R, Joshi DR, Sharma B, Shrestha BR, Sherchan SP. Long-term longitudinal monitoring of SARS CoV-2 in urban rivers and sewers of Nepal. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 951:175138. [PMID: 39089378 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.175138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2024] [Revised: 07/27/2024] [Accepted: 07/28/2024] [Indexed: 08/04/2024]
Abstract
In regions without adequate centralized wastewater treatment plants, sample collection from rivers and sewers can be an alternative sampling strategy for wastewater surveillance. This study aimed to assess the feasibility of alternative sampling strategies by testing samples collected from rivers (n = 246) and sewers (n = 244) in the Kathmandu Valley between March 2021 and February 2022. All samples were concentrated using the skimmed-milk flocculation method and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) RNA was quantified using the nucleocapsid (N) and envelope (E) genes qPCR assays. Of the total, 75 % (371/490) of the samples tested positive using at least one qPCR assay, with concentrations ranging from 3.0 to 8.3 log10 gene copies/L. No significant correlation between concentrations of SARS-CoV-2 from both sewers and river with the number of confirmed coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) cases in the Kathmandu valley was observed (p > 0.05). Despite the high concentration of SARS-CoV-2 in rivers and sewers, we hypothesize this finding to be a result of inaccurate number of clinical cases possibly due to inadequate clinical testing. This longitudinal study further supports the statement to consider sampling strategies from sewers and rivers for WBS in Nepal and other low and middle-income countries.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sarmila Tandukar
- Organization for Public Health and Environment Management, Lalitpur, Nepal
| | - Niva Sthapit
- Interdisciplinary Center for River Basin Environment, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8511, Japan
| | - Ocean Thakali
- Organization for Public Health and Environment Management, Lalitpur, Nepal
| | - Rakshya Baral
- Center of Research Excellence in Wastewater based Epidemiology, Morgan State University, Baltimore, MD, 21251, United States of America
| | - Ananda Tiwari
- Expert Microbiology Research Unit, Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, Kuopio 70701, Finland
| | - Jivan Shakya
- Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal
| | - Reshma Tuladhar
- Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal
| | - Dev Raj Joshi
- Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal
| | | | | | - Samendra P Sherchan
- Organization for Public Health and Environment Management, Lalitpur, Nepal; Center of Research Excellence in Wastewater based Epidemiology, Morgan State University, Baltimore, MD, 21251, United States of America; Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal; Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, 70112, United States of America.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Panizzolo M, Gea M, Carraro E, Gilli G, Bonetta S, Pignata C. Occurrence of human pathogenic viruses in drinking water and in its sources: A review. J Environ Sci (China) 2023; 132:145-161. [PMID: 37336605 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2022.07.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Revised: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/21/2023]
Abstract
Since many waterborne diseases are caused by human pathogenic viruses, virus monitoring of drinking water (DW) and DW sources is crucial for public health. Therefore, the aim of this review was to describe the occurrence of human pathogenic viruses in DW and DW sources; the occurrence of two viruses proposed as novel indicators of human faecal contamination (Pepper mild mottle virus and Tobacco mosaic virus) was also reported. This research was focused on articles that assessed viral occurrence using molecular methods in the surface water used for DW production (SW-D), groundwater used for DW production (GW-D), DW and bottled-DW (BW). A total of 1544 studies published in the last 10 years were analysed, and 79 were ultimately included. In considering the detection methods, filtration is the most common concentration technique, while quantitative polymerase chain reaction is the most common quantification technique. Regarding virus occurrence in SW-D, GW-D, and DW, high percentages of positive samples were reported for adenovirus, polyomavirus and Pepper mild mottle virus. Viral genomes were frequently detected in SW-D and rarely in GW-D, suggesting that GW-D may be a safe DW source. Viral genomes were also detected in DW, posing a possible threat to human health. The lowest percentages of positive samples were found in Europe, while the highest were found in Asia and South America. Only three articles assessed viral occurrence in BW. This review highlights the lack of method standardization and the need for legislation updates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marco Panizzolo
- Department of Public Health and Pediatrics, University of Torino, Piazza Polonia 94, 10126, Torino, Italy
| | - Marta Gea
- Department of Public Health and Pediatrics, University of Torino, Piazza Polonia 94, 10126, Torino, Italy.
| | - Elisabetta Carraro
- Department of Public Health and Pediatrics, University of Torino, Piazza Polonia 94, 10126, Torino, Italy
| | - Giorgio Gilli
- Department of Public Health and Pediatrics, University of Torino, Piazza Polonia 94, 10126, Torino, Italy
| | - Silvia Bonetta
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, via Accademia Albertina 13, 10123, Torino, Italy
| | - Cristina Pignata
- Department of Public Health and Pediatrics, University of Torino, Piazza Polonia 94, 10126, Torino, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Eifan S, Maniah K, Nour I, Hanif A, Yassin MT, Al-Ashkar I, Abid I. Pepper Mild Mottle Virus as a Potential Indicator of Fecal Contamination in Influents of Wastewater Treatment Plants in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Microorganisms 2023; 11:1038. [PMID: 37110461 PMCID: PMC10144068 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11041038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Revised: 04/12/2023] [Accepted: 04/13/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Several indicators of fecal pollution in water resources are continuously monitored for their reliability and, of particular interest, their correlation to human enteric viruses-not justified by traditional bacterial indicators. Pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV) has recently been proposed as a successful viral surrogate of human waterborne viruses; however, in Saudi Arabia there are no available data in terms of its prevalence and concentration in water bodies. The concentration of PMMoV in three different wastewater treatment plants (King Saud University (KSU), Manfoha (MN), and Embassy (EMB) wastewater treatment plants (WWTP)) was measured using qRT-PCR during a one-year period and compared to the human adenovirus (HAdV), which is highly persistent and considered an indicator for viral-mediated fecal contamination. PMMoV was found in ~94% of the entire wastewater samples (91.6-100%), with concentrations ranging from 62 to 3.5 × 107 genome copies/l (GC/l). However, HAdV was detected in 75% of raw water samples (~67-83%). The HAdV concentration ranged between 1.29 × 103 GC/L and 1.26 × 107 GC/L. Higher positive correlation between PMMoV and HAdV concentrations was detected at MN-WWTP (r = 0.6148) than at EMB-WWTP (r = 0.207). Despite the lack of PMMoV and HAdV seasonality, a higher positive correlation (r = 0.918) of PMMoV to HAdV was recorded at KSU-WWTP in comparison to EMB-WWTP (r = 0.6401) around the different seasons. Furthermore, meteorological factors showed no significant influence on PMMoV concentrations (p > 0.05), thus supporting the use of PMMoV as a possible fecal indicator of wastewater contamination and associated public health issues, particularly at MN-WWTP. However, a continuous monitoring of the PMMoV distribution pattern and concentration in other aquatic environments, as well as its correlation to other significant human enteric viruses, is essential for ensuring its reliability and reproducibility as a fecal pollution indicator.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Saleh Eifan
- Botany and Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia (A.H.); (M.T.Y.); (I.A.)
| | - Khalid Maniah
- Botany and Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia (A.H.); (M.T.Y.); (I.A.)
| | - Islam Nour
- Botany and Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia (A.H.); (M.T.Y.); (I.A.)
| | - Atif Hanif
- Botany and Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia (A.H.); (M.T.Y.); (I.A.)
| | - Mohamed Taha Yassin
- Botany and Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia (A.H.); (M.T.Y.); (I.A.)
| | - Ibrahim Al-Ashkar
- Department of Plant Production, College of Food and Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Islem Abid
- Botany and Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia (A.H.); (M.T.Y.); (I.A.)
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Tandukar S, Sthapit N, Thakali O, Malla B, Sherchan SP, Shakya BM, Shrestha LP, Sherchand JB, Joshi DR, Lama B, Haramoto E. Detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in wastewater, river water, and hospital wastewater of Nepal. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 824:153816. [PMID: 35157870 PMCID: PMC8832950 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Revised: 01/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
The applicability of wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has been extensively studied throughout the world with remarkable findings. This study reports the presence and reduction of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) at two wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) of Nepal, along with river water, hospital wastewater (HWW), and wastewater from sewer lines collected between July 2020 and February 2021. SARS-CoV-2 RNA was detected in 50%, 54%, 100%, and 100% of water samples from WWTPs, river hospitals, and sewer lines, respectively, by at least one of four quantitative PCR assays tested (CDC-N1, CDC-N2, NIID_2019-nCOV_N, and N_Sarbeco). The CDC-N2 assay detected SARS-CoV-2 RNA in the highest number of raw influent samples of both WWTPs. The highest concentration was observed for an influent sample of WWTP A (5.5 ± 1.0 log10 genome copies/L) by the N_Sarbeco assay. SARS-CoV-2 was detected in 47% (16/34) of the total treated effluents of WWTPs, indicating that biological treatments installed at the tested WWTPs are not enough to eliminate SARS-CoV-2 RNA. One influent sample was positive for N501Y mutation using the mutation-specific qPCR, highlighting a need for further typing of water samples to detect Variants of Concern. Furthermore, crAssphage-normalized SARS-CoV-2 RNA concentrations in raw wastewater did not show any significant association with the number of new coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) cases in the whole district where the WWTPs were located, suggesting a need for further studies focusing on suitability of viral as well as biochemical markers as a population normalizing factor. Detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA before, after, and during the peaking in number of COVID-19 cases suggests that WBE is a useful tool for COVID-19 case estimation in developing countries.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sarmila Tandukar
- Interdisciplinary Center for River Basin Environment, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8511, Japan; Policy Research Institute, Sano Gaucharan, Kathmandu, Nepal
| | - Niva Sthapit
- Department of Engineering, University of Yamanashi, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8511, Japan
| | - Ocean Thakali
- Department of Engineering, University of Yamanashi, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8511, Japan
| | - Bikash Malla
- Interdisciplinary Center for River Basin Environment, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8511, Japan
| | - Samendra P Sherchan
- Department of Global Environmental Health Sciences, Tulane University, 1440 Canal Street, Suite 2100, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA; Department of Biology, Morgan State University, 1700 East Cold Spring Lane, Baltimore, MD 21251, USA
| | - Bijay Man Shakya
- Interdisciplinary Center for River Basin Environment, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8511, Japan
| | - Laxman P Shrestha
- Institute of Medicine, Tribhuvan University, Maharajgunj, Kathmandu 1524, Nepal
| | - Jeevan B Sherchand
- Institute of Medicine, Tribhuvan University, Maharajgunj, Kathmandu 1524, Nepal
| | - Dev Raj Joshi
- Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal
| | - Bhupendra Lama
- Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal
| | - Eiji Haramoto
- Interdisciplinary Center for River Basin Environment, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8511, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Application of novel intuitionistic fuzzy BWAHP process for analysing the efficiency of water treatment plant. Neural Comput Appl 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s00521-021-06326-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
|
6
|
Sangkaew W, Kongprajug A, Chyerochana N, Ahmed W, Rattanakul S, Denpetkul T, Mongkolsuk S, Sirikanchana K. Performance of viral and bacterial genetic markers for sewage pollution tracking in tropical Thailand. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 190:116706. [PMID: 33310444 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.116706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Revised: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Identifying sewage contamination via microbial source tracking (MST) marker genes has proven useful for effective water quality management worldwide; however, performance evaluations for these marker genes in tropical areas are limited. Therefore, this research evaluated four human-associated MST marker genes (human polyomaviruses (JC and BK viruses [HPyVs]), bacteriophage crAssphage (CPQ_056), Lachnospiraceae Lachno3, and Bacteroides BacV6-21) for tracking sewage pollution in aquatic environments of Thailand. The viral marker genes, HPyV and crAssphage were highly sensitive and specific to sewage from onsite wastewater treatment plants (OWTPs; n = 19), with no cross-detection in 120 composite swine, cattle, chicken, duck, goat, sheep, and buffalo fecal samples. The bacterial marker genes, Lachno3 and BacV6-21, demonstrated high sensitivity but moderate specificity; however, using both markers could improve specificity to >0.80 (max value of 1.00). The most abundant markers in OWTP samples were Lachno3 and BacV6-21 (5.42-8.02 and nondetect-8.05 log10 copies/100 mL), crAssphage (5.28-7.38 log10 copies/100 mL), and HPyVs (3.66-6.53 log10 copies/100 mL), respectively. Due to their increased specificity, the abundance of viral markers were further investigated in environmental waters, in which HPyVs showed greater levels (up to 4.33 log10 copies/100 mL) and greater detection rates (92.7%) in two coastal beaches (n = 41) than crAssphage (up to 3.51 log10 copies/100 mL and 56.1%). HPyVs were also found at slightly lower levels (up to 5.10 log10 copies/100 mL), but at higher detection rates (92.6%), in a freshwater canal (n = 27) than crAssphage (up to 5.21 log10 copies/100 mL and 88.9%). HPyVs and crAssphage marker genes were identified as highly sensitive and specific for tracking sewage pollution in aquatic environments of Thailand. This study underlines the importance of characterizing and validating MST markers in host groups and environmental waters before including them in a water quality management toolbox.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Watsawan Sangkaew
- Research Laboratory of Biotechnology, Chulabhorn Research Institute, 54 Kampangpetch 6 Road, Laksi, Bangkok, 10210, Thailand
| | - Akechai Kongprajug
- Research Laboratory of Biotechnology, Chulabhorn Research Institute, 54 Kampangpetch 6 Road, Laksi, Bangkok, 10210, Thailand
| | - Natcha Chyerochana
- Research Laboratory of Biotechnology, Chulabhorn Research Institute, 54 Kampangpetch 6 Road, Laksi, Bangkok, 10210, Thailand
| | - Warish Ahmed
- CSIRO Land and Water, Ecosciences Precinct, 41 Boggo Road, Qld 4102, Australia
| | - Surapong Rattanakul
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi, 126 Pracha Uthit Rd., Bang Mod, Thung Khru, Bangkok 10140, Thailand
| | - Thammanitchpol Denpetkul
- Department of Social and Environmental Medicine, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, 420/6 Ratchawithi Road, Ratchathewi, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Skorn Mongkolsuk
- Research Laboratory of Biotechnology, Chulabhorn Research Institute, 54 Kampangpetch 6 Road, Laksi, Bangkok, 10210, Thailand; Center of Excellence on Environmental Health and Toxicology, CHE, Ministry of Education, 272 Rama 6 Road, Ratchathevi, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Kwanrawee Sirikanchana
- Research Laboratory of Biotechnology, Chulabhorn Research Institute, 54 Kampangpetch 6 Road, Laksi, Bangkok, 10210, Thailand; Center of Excellence on Environmental Health and Toxicology, CHE, Ministry of Education, 272 Rama 6 Road, Ratchathevi, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Shi D, Ma H, Miao J, Liu W, Yang D, Qiu Z, Shen Z, Yin J, Yang Z, Wang H, Li H, Chen Z, Li J, Jin M. Levels of human Rotaviruses and Noroviruses GII in urban rivers running through the city mirror their infection prevalence in populations. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 754:142203. [PMID: 32920413 PMCID: PMC7470703 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Revised: 09/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Enteric viruses exposed to water pose a huge threat to global public health and can lead to waterborne disease outbreaks. A sudden increase in enteric viruses in some water matrices also underpins the prevalence of corresponding waterborne diseases in communities over the same time period. However, few efforts have been focused on water matrices whose viral pollution may best reflect the clinical prevalence in communities. Here, a one-year surveillance of human enteric viruses including Enteroviruses (EnVs), Rotaviruses (HRVs), Astroviruses (AstVs), Noroviruses GII (HuNoVsGII) and Mastadenoviruses (HAdVs) in four representative water matrices: an urban river (UR) running through city, effluent from Wastewater Treatment Plant (EW), raw water for Urban Water Treatment Plant (RW), and tap water (TW) were performed by qPCR. The relationship between the virus detection frequency at each site and their prevalence in clinical PCR assay was further analyzed. We found that the detection frequencies of HRVs, HuNoVsGII, and AstVs in stools peaked in winter, while EnVs peaked in autumn. No EnVs occurred in EW, RW, or TW, but HuNoVsGII and AstVs occurred intensively in winter. For UR, all types of enteric viruses could be detected and the levels of acute gastroenteritis viruses (HRVs, HuNoVsGII, AstVs, and HAdVs) were highest in autumn or winter, whereas EnVs peaked in summer. In terms of correlation analyses, only HRVs and HuNoVsGII levels in UR showed a strong positive correlation with their prevalence in clinical stool samples. This study indicated that HRVs and HuNoVsGII levels in URs may mirror the local virus prevalence, thereby implying the possibility of revealing their local epidemiology by monitoring them in the URs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Danyang Shi
- Key Laboratory of Risk Assessment and Control for Environment & Food Safety, Tianjin Institute of Environmental & Operational Medicine, No.1, Dali Road, Tianjin 300050, China
| | - Hui Ma
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Tianjin Children's Hospital, No. 238, Longyan Road, Tianjin 300134, China
| | - Jing Miao
- Department of Public Health, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xianyang 712046, China
| | - Weili Liu
- Key Laboratory of Risk Assessment and Control for Environment & Food Safety, Tianjin Institute of Environmental & Operational Medicine, No.1, Dali Road, Tianjin 300050, China
| | - Dong Yang
- Key Laboratory of Risk Assessment and Control for Environment & Food Safety, Tianjin Institute of Environmental & Operational Medicine, No.1, Dali Road, Tianjin 300050, China
| | - Zhigang Qiu
- Key Laboratory of Risk Assessment and Control for Environment & Food Safety, Tianjin Institute of Environmental & Operational Medicine, No.1, Dali Road, Tianjin 300050, China
| | - Zhiqiang Shen
- Key Laboratory of Risk Assessment and Control for Environment & Food Safety, Tianjin Institute of Environmental & Operational Medicine, No.1, Dali Road, Tianjin 300050, China
| | - Jing Yin
- Key Laboratory of Risk Assessment and Control for Environment & Food Safety, Tianjin Institute of Environmental & Operational Medicine, No.1, Dali Road, Tianjin 300050, China
| | - Zhongwei Yang
- Key Laboratory of Risk Assessment and Control for Environment & Food Safety, Tianjin Institute of Environmental & Operational Medicine, No.1, Dali Road, Tianjin 300050, China
| | - Huaran Wang
- Key Laboratory of Risk Assessment and Control for Environment & Food Safety, Tianjin Institute of Environmental & Operational Medicine, No.1, Dali Road, Tianjin 300050, China
| | - Haibei Li
- Key Laboratory of Risk Assessment and Control for Environment & Food Safety, Tianjin Institute of Environmental & Operational Medicine, No.1, Dali Road, Tianjin 300050, China
| | - Zhengshan Chen
- Key Laboratory of Risk Assessment and Control for Environment & Food Safety, Tianjin Institute of Environmental & Operational Medicine, No.1, Dali Road, Tianjin 300050, China
| | - Junwen Li
- Key Laboratory of Risk Assessment and Control for Environment & Food Safety, Tianjin Institute of Environmental & Operational Medicine, No.1, Dali Road, Tianjin 300050, China.
| | - Min Jin
- Key Laboratory of Risk Assessment and Control for Environment & Food Safety, Tianjin Institute of Environmental & Operational Medicine, No.1, Dali Road, Tianjin 300050, China.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Tandukar S, Sherchan SP, Haramoto E. Reduction of Pathogenic and Indicator Viruses at a Drinking Water Treatment Plant in Southern Louisiana, USA. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2020; 12:269-273. [PMID: 32666473 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-020-09436-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2020] [Accepted: 07/03/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Monthly sampling was conducted at a drinking water treatment plant (DWTP) in Southern Louisiana, USA from March 2017 to February 2018 to determine the prevalence and reduction efficiency of pathogenic and indicator viruses. Water samples were collected from the DWTP at three different treatment stages (raw, secondary-treated, and chlorinated drinking water) and subjected to quantification of seven pathogenic viruses and three indicator viruses [pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV), tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), and crAssphage] based on quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Among the seven pathogenic viruses tested, only Aichi virus 1 (AiV-1) (7/12, 58%) and noroviruses of genogroup II (NoVs-GII) (2/12, 17%) were detected in the raw water samples. CrAssphage had the highest positive ratio at 78% (28/36), and its concentrations were significantly higher than those of the other indicator viruses for all three water types (P < 0.05). The reduction ratios of AiV-1 (0.7 ± 0.5 log10; n = 7) during the whole treatment process were the lowest among the tested viruses, followed by crAssphage (1.1 ± 1.9 log10; n = 9), TMV (1.3 ± 0.9 log10; n = 8), PMMoV (1.7 ± 0.8 log10; n = 12), and NoVs-GII (3.1 ± 0.1 log10; n = 2). Considering the high abundance and relatively low reduction, crAssphage was judged to be an appropriate process indicator during drinking water treatment. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to assess the reduction of crAssphage and TMV during drinking water treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sarmila Tandukar
- Interdisciplinary Center for River Basin Environment, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi, 400-8511, Japan
| | - Samendra P Sherchan
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Tulane University, 1440 Canal Street, Suite 2100, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA
| | - Eiji Haramoto
- Interdisciplinary Center for River Basin Environment, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi, 400-8511, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Farkas K, Walker DI, Adriaenssens EM, McDonald JE, Hillary LS, Malham SK, Jones DL. Viral indicators for tracking domestic wastewater contamination in the aquatic environment. WATER RESEARCH 2020; 181:115926. [PMID: 32417460 PMCID: PMC7211501 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.115926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2019] [Revised: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 05/08/2020] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Waterborne enteric viruses are an emerging cause of disease outbreaks and represent a major threat to global public health. Enteric viruses may originate from human wastewater and can undergo rapid transport through aquatic environments with minimal decay. Surveillance and source apportionment of enteric viruses in environmental waters is therefore essential for accurate risk management. However, individual monitoring of the >100 enteric viral strains that have been identified as aquatic contaminants is unfeasible. Instead, viral indicators are often used for quantitative assessments of wastewater contamination, viral decay and transport in water. An ideal indicator for tracking wastewater contamination should be (i) easy to detect and quantify, (ii) source-specific, (iii) resistant to wastewater treatment processes, and (iv) persistent in the aquatic environment, with similar behaviour to viral pathogens. Here, we conducted a comprehensive review of 127 peer-reviewed publications, to critically evaluate the effectiveness of several viral indicators of wastewater pollution, including common enteric viruses (mastadenoviruses, polyomaviruses, and Aichi viruses), the pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV), and gut-associated bacteriophages (Type II/III FRNA phages and phages infecting human Bacteroides species, including crAssphage). Our analysis suggests that overall, human mastadenoviruses have the greatest potential to indicate contamination by domestic wastewater due to their easy detection, culturability, and high prevalence in wastewater and in the polluted environment. Aichi virus, crAssphage and PMMoV are also widely detected in wastewater and in the environment, and may be used as molecular markers for human-derived contamination. We conclude that viral indicators are suitable for the long-term monitoring of viral contamination in freshwater and marine environments and that these should be implemented within monitoring programmes to provide a holistic assessment of microbiological water quality and wastewater-based epidemiology, improve current risk management strategies and protect global human health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kata Farkas
- School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Deiniol Road, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2UW, UK; School of Ocean Sciences, Bangor University, Menai Bridge, Anglesey, LL59 5AB, UK.
| | - David I Walker
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, UK
| | | | - James E McDonald
- School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Deiniol Road, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2UW, UK
| | - Luke S Hillary
- School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Deiniol Road, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2UW, UK
| | - Shelagh K Malham
- School of Ocean Sciences, Bangor University, Menai Bridge, Anglesey, LL59 5AB, UK
| | - Davey L Jones
- School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Deiniol Road, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2UW, UK; UWA School of Agriculture and Environment, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, 6009, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Applicability of crAssphage, pepper mild mottle virus, and tobacco mosaic virus as indicators of reduction of enteric viruses during wastewater treatment. Sci Rep 2020; 10:3616. [PMID: 32107444 PMCID: PMC7046655 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-60547-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
This study was conducted to evaluate the applicability of crAssphage, pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV), and tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) as indicators of the reduction of human enteric viruses during wastewater treatment. Thirty-nine samples were collected from three steps at a wastewater treatment plant (raw sewage, secondary-treated sewage, and final effluent) monthly for a 13-month period. In addition to the three indicator viruses, eight human enteric viruses [human adenoviruses, JC and BK polyomaviruses, Aichi virus 1 (AiV-1), enteroviruses, and noroviruses of genogroups I, II, and IV] were tested by quantitative PCR. Indicator viruses were consistently detected in the tested samples, except for a few final effluents for crAssphage and TMV. The mean concentrations of crAssphage were significantly higher than those of most tested viruses. The concentrations of crAssphage in raw sewage were positively correlated with the concentrations of all tested human enteric viruses (p <0.05), suggesting the applicability of crAssphage as a suitable indicator to estimate the concentrations of human enteric viruses in raw sewage. The reduction ratios of AiV-1 (1.8 ± 0.7 log10) were the lowest among the tested viruses, followed by TMV (2.0 ± 0.3 log10) and PMMoV (2.0 ± 0.4 log10). Our findings suggested that the use of not only AiV-1 and PMMoV but also TMV as indicators of reductions in viral levels can be applicable during wastewater treatment.
Collapse
|
11
|
Abstract
Urban rivers affected by anthropogenic activities can act as reservoirs of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). This study aimed to describe the occurrence of selected ARGs (blaTEM, ermF, mecA, and tetA) and a class 1 integron (intI1) in an urban river in Nepal. A total of 18 water samples were collected periodically from upstream, midstream, and downstream sites along the Bagmati River over a 1-year period. All ARGs except mecA and intI1 were consistently detected by a quantitative polymerase chain reaction in the midstream and downstream sites, with concentrations ranging from 3.1 to 7.8 log copies/mL. ARG abundance was significantly lower at the upstream site (p < 0.05), reflecting the impact of anthropogenic activities on increasing concentrations of ARGs at midstream and downstream sites. Our findings demonstrate the presence of clinically relevant ARGs in the urban river water of Nepal, suggesting a need for mitigating strategies to prevent the spread of antibiotic resistance in the environment.
Collapse
|
12
|
Wen X, Zheng H, Yuan F, Zhu H, Kuang D, Shen Z, Lu Y, Yuan Z. Comparative Study of Two Methods of Enteric Virus Detection and Enteric Virus Relationship with Bacterial Indicator in Poyang Lake, Jiangxi, China. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 16:ijerph16183384. [PMID: 31547457 PMCID: PMC6765907 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16183384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2019] [Revised: 08/28/2019] [Accepted: 09/02/2019] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Currently, water contaminated with fecal matter poses a threat to public health and safety. Thus, enteric viruses are tested for as a part of water quality indicator assays; however, enteric viruses have not yet been listed in the criteria. Effective and sensitive methods for detecting enteric viruses are required in order to increase water safety. This study utilized enteric viruses as possible alternative indicators of water quality to examine fresh water in six sites in Poyang Lake, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. The presence of norovirus geno-groups II (NoV GII), enteroviruses (EoV) and adenoviruses (AdV) were determined using Tianjin's protocol and Hawaii's protocol during a six month period from 2016-2017. The former used an electropositive material method for viral concentration and Taqman-q reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) to detect enteric viruses; while the latter used a filtration-based method for viral concentration and RT-PCR for enteric virus detection. There is a statistically significant difference between Tianjin's method and Hawaii's method for the detection of enteric viruses, such as NoV GII, EoV, and AdV (n = 36, p < 0.001). The enteric viruses showed no significant positive correlation with bacteria indicators (n = 36, p > 0.05). These data stress the need for additional indicators when establishing water quality systems, and the possibility of using enteric viruses as water quality indicators. It has become essential to improve shortcomings in order to search for an adequate method to detect enteric viruses in water and to implement such method in water quality monitoring.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaotong Wen
- School of Public Health, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Preventive Medicine, Nanchang 330006, China.
| | - Huilie Zheng
- School of Public Health, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Preventive Medicine, Nanchang 330006, China.
| | - Fang Yuan
- Office of Public Health Studies, University of Hawaii at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA.
| | - Hui Zhu
- School of Public Health, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Preventive Medicine, Nanchang 330006, China.
| | - Duyi Kuang
- Office of Public Health Studies, University of Hawaii at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA.
| | - Zhiqiang Shen
- Tianjin Institute of Health and Environmental Medicine, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Risk Assessment and Control Technology for Environment and Food Safety, Tianjin 300050, China.
| | - Yuanan Lu
- School of Public Health, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Preventive Medicine, Nanchang 330006, China.
- Office of Public Health Studies, University of Hawaii at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA.
| | - Zhaokang Yuan
- School of Public Health, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Preventive Medicine, Nanchang 330006, China.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Malla B, Ghaju Shrestha R, Tandukar S, Sherchand JB, Haramoto E. Performance Evaluation of Human-Specific Viral Markers and Application of Pepper Mild Mottle Virus and CrAssphage to Environmental Water Samples as Fecal Pollution Markers in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2019; 11:274-287. [PMID: 31087275 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-019-09389-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Monitoring of environmental water is crucial to protecting humans and animals from possible health risks. Although numerous human-specific viral markers have been designed to track the presence of human fecal contamination in water, they lack adequate sensitivity and specificity in different geographical regions. We evaluated the performances of six human-specific viral markers [Aichi virus 1 (AiV-1), human adenoviruses (HAdVs), BK and JC polyomaviruses (BKPyVs and JCPyVs), pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV), and crAssphage] using 122 fecal-source samples collected from humans and five animal hosts in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. PMMoV and crAssphage showed high sensitivity (90-100%) with concentrations of 4.5-9.1 and 6.2-7.0 log10 copies/g wet feces (n = 10), respectively, whereas BKPyVs, JCPyVs, HAdVs, and AiV-1 showed poor performances with sensitivities of 30-40%. PMMoV and crAssphage were detected in 40-100% and 8-90%, respectively, of all types of animal fecal sources and showed no significantly different concentrations among most of the fecal sources (Kruskal-Wallis test, P > 0.05), suggesting their applicability as general fecal pollution markers. Furthermore, a total of 115 environmental water samples were tested for PMMoV and crAssphage to identify fecal pollution. PMMoV and crAssphage were successfully detected in 62% (71/115) and 73% (84/115) of water samples, respectively. The greater abundance and higher mean concentration of crAssphage (4.1 ± 0.9 log10 copies/L) compared with PMMoV (3.3 ± 1.4 log10 copies/L) indicated greater chance of detection of crAssphage in water samples, suggesting that crAssphage could be preferred to PMMoV as a marker of fecal pollution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bikash Malla
- Department of Natural, Biotic and Social Environment Engineering, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi, 400-8511, Japan
| | - Rajani Ghaju Shrestha
- Interdisciplinary Center for River Basin Environment, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi, 400-8511, Japan
| | - Sarmila Tandukar
- Department of Natural, Biotic and Social Environment Engineering, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi, 400-8511, Japan
| | - Jeevan B Sherchand
- Institute of Medicine, Tribhuvan University, Maharajgunj, Kathmandu, Nepal
| | - Eiji Haramoto
- Interdisciplinary Center for River Basin Environment, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi, 400-8511, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Ghaju Shrestha R, Tanaka Y, Sherchand JB, Haramoto E. Identification of 16S rRNA and Virulence-Associated Genes of Arcobacter in Water Samples in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Pathogens 2019; 8:pathogens8030110. [PMID: 31357473 PMCID: PMC6789466 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens8030110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Revised: 07/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to determine the prevalence of Arcobacter and five associated virulence genes (cadF, ciaB, mviN, pldA, and tlyA) in water samples in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. A total of 286 samples were collected from deep tube wells (n = 30), rivers (n = 14), a pond (n = 1), shallow dug wells (n = 166), shallow tube wells (n = 33), springs (n = 21), and stone spouts (n = 21) in February and March (dry season) and August (wet season), 2016. Bacterial DNA was extracted from the water samples and subjected to SYBR Green-based quantitative PCR for 16S rRNA and virulence genes of Arcobacter. The 16S rRNA gene of Arcobacter was detected in 36% (40/112) of samples collected in the dry season, at concentrations ranging from 5.7 to 10.2 log copies/100 mL, and 34% (59/174) of samples collected in the wet season, at concentrations of 5.4–10.8 log copies/100 mL. No significant difference in Arcobacter 16S rRNA gene-positive results was observed between samples collected in the two seasons (p > 0.05). Seventeen (17%), 84 (84%), 19 (19%), 23 (23%), and 17 (17%) of the 99 Arcobacter 16S rRNA gene-positive samples were also positive for cadF, ciaB, mviN, pldA, and tlyA, respectively. At least one virulence gene was detected in 87 (88%) of the 99 Arcobacter 16S rRNA gene-positive samples. The presence of Arcobacter and the virulence genes in these samples illustrates the persistence of pathogenic bacteria in the environment and highlights the importance of regular monitoring of water for pathogens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rajani Ghaju Shrestha
- Division of Sustainable Energy and Environmental Engineering, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
- Interdisciplinary Center for River Basin Environment, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8511, Japan
| | - Yasuhiro Tanaka
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Yamanashi, 4-4-37 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8510, Japan
| | - Jeevan B Sherchand
- Institute of Medicine, Tribhuvan University Teaching Hospital, Kathmandu 1524, Nepal
| | - Eiji Haramoto
- Interdisciplinary Center for River Basin Environment, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8511, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Abstract
This study aims to determine the diversity of pathogenic bacteria in the Bagmati River, Nepal, during a one-year period. A total of 18 river water samples were collected from three sites (n = 6 per site) along the river. Bacterial DNA, which were extracted from the water samples, were analyzed for bacterial 16S rRNA genes by next-generation sequencing for 13 of 18 samples, and by quantitative PCR targeting Arcobacter for all 18 samples. The 16S rRNA sequencing identified an average of 97,412 ± 35,909 sequences/sample, which were then categorized into 28 phyla, 61 classes, and 709 bacterial genera. Eighteen (16%) genera of 111 potential pathogenic bacteria were detected with abundance ratios of >1%; Arcobacter, Acinetobacter, and Prevotella were the dominant genera. The Arcobacter abundance ratios were 28.6% (n = 1), 31.3 ± 15.8% (n = 6), and 31.8 ± 17.2% (n = 6) at the upstream, midstream, and downstream sites, respectively. Arcobacter was detected in 14 (78%) of 18 samples tested, with concentrations ranging from 6.7 to 10.7 log10 copies/100 mL, based on quantitative PCR. Our results demonstrate the poor bacterial quality of the Bagmati River water, suggesting a need for implementing more measures to reduce fecal contamination in the river water.
Collapse
|
16
|
Detection of Pathogenic Viruses, Pathogen Indicators, and Fecal-Source Markers within Tanker Water and Their Sources in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Pathogens 2019; 8:pathogens8020081. [PMID: 31248180 PMCID: PMC6630610 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens8020081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Revised: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 06/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Tanker water is used extensively for drinking as well as domestic purposes in the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal. This study aimed to investigate water quality in terms of microbial contamination and determine sources of fecal pollution within these waters. Thirty-one samples from 17 tanker filling stations (TFSs) and 30 water tanker (WT) samples were collected during the dry and wet seasons of 2016. Escherichia coli was detected in 52% of the 31 TFS samples and even more frequently in WT samples. Of the six pathogenic viruses tested, enteroviruses, noroviruses of genogroup II (NoVs-GII), human adenoviruses (HAdVs), and group A rotaviruses were detected using quantitative PCR (qPCR) at 10, five, four, and two TFSs, respectively, whereas Aichi virus 1 and NoVs-GI were not detected at any sites. Index viruses, such as pepper mild mottle virus and tobacco mosaic virus, were detected using qPCR in 77% and 95% out of 22 samples, respectively, all of which were positive for at least one of the tested pathogenic viruses. At least one of the four human-associated markers tested (i.e., BacHum, HAdVs, and JC and BK polyomaviruses) was detected using qPCR in 39% of TFS samples. Ruminant-associated markers were detected at three stations, and pig- and chicken-associated markers were found at one station each of the suburbs. These findings indicate that water supplied by TFSs is generally of poor quality and should be improved, and proper management of WTs should be implemented.
Collapse
|
17
|
Co-Infection by Waterborne Enteric Viruses in Children with Gastroenteritis in Nepal. Healthcare (Basel) 2019; 7:healthcare7010009. [PMID: 30642113 PMCID: PMC6473710 DOI: 10.3390/healthcare7010009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2018] [Revised: 12/22/2018] [Accepted: 01/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Enteric viruses are highly contagious and a major cause of waterborne gastroenteritis in children younger than five years of age in developing world. This study examined the prevalence of enteric virus infection in children with gastroenteritis to identify risk factors for co-infections. In total, 107 stool samples were collected from patients with acute gastroenteritis along with samples of their household drinking water and other possible contamination sources, such as food and hand. The presence of major gastroenteritis-causing enteric virus species (group A rotaviruses, enteroviruses, adenoviruses, and noroviruses of genogroup I) in stool and water samples was examined using quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Among the 107 stool samples tested, 103 (96%) samples contained at least one of the four tested enteric viruses, and the combination of group A rotaviruses and enteroviruses was the most common co-infection (52%, n = 54/103). At least one viral agent was detected in 16 (16%) of 103 drinking water samples. Identical enteric viruses were detected in both the stool and water samples taken from the same patients in 13% of cases (n = 13/103). Group A rotaviruses were most frequently found in children suffering from acute diarrhea. No socio-demographic and clinical factors were associated with the risk of co-infection compared with mono-infection. These less commonly diagnosed viral etiological agents in hospitals are highly prevalent in patients with acute gastroenteritis.
Collapse
|
18
|
Symonds EM, Nguyen KH, Harwood VJ, Breitbart M. Pepper mild mottle virus: A plant pathogen with a greater purpose in (waste)water treatment development and public health management. WATER RESEARCH 2018; 144:1-12. [PMID: 30005176 PMCID: PMC6162155 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.06.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2018] [Revised: 06/26/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
An enteric virus surrogate and reliable domestic wastewater tracer is needed to manage microbial quality of food and water as (waste)water reuse becomes more prevalent in response to population growth, urbanization, and climate change. Pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV), a plant pathogen found at high concentrations in domestic wastewater, is a promising surrogate for enteric viruses that has been incorporated into over 29 water- and food-related microbial quality and technology investigations around the world. This review consolidates the available literature from across disciplines to provide guidance on the utility of PMMoV as either an enteric virus surrogate and/or domestic wastewater marker in various situations. Synthesis of the available research supports PMMoV as a useful enteric virus process indicator since its high concentrations in source water allow for identifying the extent of virus log-reductions in field, pilot, and full-scale (waste)water treatment systems. PMMoV reduction levels during many forms of wastewater treatment were less than or equal to the reduction of other viruses, suggesting this virus can serve as an enteric virus surrogate when evaluating new treatment technologies. PMMoV excels as an index virus for enteric viruses in environmental waters exposed to untreated domestic wastewater because it was detected more frequently and in higher concentrations than other human viruses in groundwater (72.2%) and surface waters (freshwater, 94.5% and coastal, 72.2%), with pathogen co-detection rates as high as 72.3%. Additionally, PMMoV is an important microbial source tracking marker, most appropriately associated with untreated domestic wastewater, where its pooled-specificity is 90% and pooled-sensitivity is 100%, as opposed to human feces where its pooled-sensitivity is only 11.3%. A limited number of studies have also suggested that PMMoV may be a useful index virus for enteric viruses in monitoring the microbial quality of fresh produce and shellfish, but further research is needed on these topics. Finally, future work is needed to fill in knowledge gaps regarding PMMoV's global specificity and sensitivity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E M Symonds
- University of South Florida, College of Marine Science, 140 7th Avenue South, St. Petersburg, FL, USA.
| | - Karena H Nguyen
- University of South Florida, Department of Integrative Biology, 4202 E. Fowler Avenue, Tampa, FL, USA.
| | - V J Harwood
- University of South Florida, Department of Integrative Biology, 4202 E. Fowler Avenue, Tampa, FL, USA.
| | - M Breitbart
- University of South Florida, College of Marine Science, 140 7th Avenue South, St. Petersburg, FL, USA.
| |
Collapse
|