In Vitro Release Study of the Polymeric Drug Nanoparticles: Development and Validation of a Novel Method

Synergistic induction of apoptosis in lung cancer cells through co-delivery of PLGA phytol/α-bisabolol nanoparticles

This study explored the potential of poly-(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) nanoparticles to enhance the effectiveness of anticancer treatments through combination therapy with phytol and α-bisabolol. The encapsulation efficiency of the nanoparticles was investigated, highlighting the role of ionic interactions between the drugs and the polymer. Characterization of PLGA-Phy+Bis nanoparticles was carried out using DLS with zeta potential and HR-TEM for size determination. Spectrophotometric measurements evaluated the encapsulation efficiency, loading efficiency, and in vitro drug release. FTIR analysis assessed the chemical interactions between PLGA and the drug actives, ensuring nanoparticle stability. GC-MS was employed to analyze the chemical composition of drug-loaded PLGA nanocarriers. Cytotoxicity was evaluated via the MTT assay, while Annexin V-FITC/PI staining and western blot analysis confirmed apoptotic cell death. Additionally, toxicity tests were performed on L-132 cells and in vivo zebrafish embryos. The study demonstrates high encapsulation efficiency of PLGA-Phy+Bis nanoparticles, which exhibit monodispersity and sizes of 189.3±5nm (DLS) and 268±54 nm (HR-TEM). Spectrophotometric analysis confirmed efficient drug encapsulation and release control. FTIR analysis revealed nanoparticle structural stability without chemical interactions. MTT assay results demonstrated the promising anticancer potential of all the three nanoparticle types (PLGA-Phy, PLGA-Bis, and PLGA-Phy+Bis) against lung cancer cells. Apoptosis was confirmed through Annexin V-FITC/PI staining and western blot analysis, which also revealed changes in Bax and Bcl-2 protein expression. Furthermore, the nanoparticles exhibited non-toxicity in L-132 cells and zebrafish embryo toxicity tests. PLGA-Phy+Bis nanoparticles exhibited efficient encapsulation, controlled release, and low toxicity. Apoptosis induction in A549 cells and non-toxicity in healthy cells highlight their clinical potential.

Effect of aluminium oxide nanoparticles on long-acting oleogels laden with Sc-PLA-chitosan nanoparticles for anti-HIV therapy

The development of a long-acting injectable drug delivery systems (DDS) of active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) holds great promise in addressing the challenges of treatment adherence, predominantly in HIV/AIDS. Polymers are inevitable carriers for the preparation of DDS, which are typically composed of polylactide (PLA), carbohydrates such as chitosan or cellulose derivatives. In this study, the tenofovir alafenamide (TAF) laden PLA-stereocomplex-chitosan nanoparticles (Sc-PLA-chitosan NPs) were developed through the spray-dried technique. These NPs had a mean particle size of 91 ± 8 nm and were incorporated into oleogels consisting of sesame oil and ethyl-cellulose. To enhance the syringeability of highly viscous oleogels, the commercially available aluminium oxide NPs were added with a size of 78 nm. The proposed DDS exhibits prolonged sustained release for up to 12 days in phosphate buffer pH 7.4. Noteworthy, the oleogels with Sc-PLA-chitosan NPs displayed extended tissue permeation properties indicating their potential long-acting in-vivo drug release. Collectively, this study recommends that the development of Sc-PLA-chitosan NPs-loaded oleogels represents a certainly adaptable long-acting injectables system for the delivery of APIs in the context of HIV/AIDS. This system is expected to contribute to improved and effective treatment adherence among patients infected with HIV and provide requisite therapeutic outcomes.

Development, characterization, and evaluation of withaferin-A and artesunate-loaded pH-responsive acetal-dextran polymeric nanoparticles for the management of malaria

Artemisinin and its derivatives have been commonly used to treat malaria. However, the emergence of resistance against artemisinin derivatives has posed a critical challenge in malaria management. In the present study, we have proposed a combinatorial approach, utilizing pH-responsive acetal-dextran nanoparticles (Ac-Dex NPs) as carriers for the delivery of withaferin-A (WS-3) and artesunate (Art) to improve treatment efficacy of malaria. The optimized WS-3 and Art Ac-Dex NPs demonstrated enhanced pH-responsive release profiles under parasitophorous mimetic conditions (pH 5.5). Computational molecular modeling reveals that Ac-Dex's polymeric backbone strongly interacts with merozoite surface protein-1 (MSP-1), preventing erythrocyte invasion. In-vitro antimalarial activity of drug-loaded Ac-Dex NPs reveals a 1-1.5-fold reduction in IC50 values compared to pure drug against the 3D7 strain of Plasmodium falciparum. Treatment with WS-3 Ac-Dex NPs (100 mg/kg) and Art Ac-Dex NPs (30 mg/kg) to Plasmodium berghei-infected mice resulted in 78.11 % and 100 % inhibition of parasitemia. Notably, the combination therapy comprised of Art and WS-3 Ac-Dex NPs achieved complete inhibition of parasitemia even at a half dose of Art, indicating the synergistic potential of the combinations. However, further investigations are necessary to confirm the safety and effectiveness of WS-3 and Art Ac-Dex NPs for their successful clinical implications.

Design and evaluation of nanostructured lipid carrier of Bergenin isolated from Pentaclethra macrophylla for anti-inflammatory effect on lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory responses in macrophages

Herein, we report the properties of nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) prepared with a gradient concentration of Bergenin (BGN) isolated from Pentaclethra macrophylla stem bark powder. A gradient concentration of BGN (BGN 0, 50, 100, 150, and 200 mg) was prepared in a 5 % lipid matrix consisting of Transcutol HP (75 %), Phospholipon 90H (15 %), and Gelucire 43/01 (10 %) to which a surfactant aqueous phase consisting of Tween 80, sorbitol, and sorbic acid was dissolved. The NLCs were evaluated by size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), encapsulation efficiency, and in vitro drug release. The result shows polydispersed nanoparticles with high drug encapsulation (94.26-99.50 %). The nanoparticles were mostly spherical, but those from the 50 mg BGN batch were more cuboidal than spherical. The drug release was highest from the latter to the tune of 40 % compared to the pure BGN solution, which released about 15 % BGN. The anti-inflammatory activity of the BGN-NLC and total plant extract was studied on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-inflamed macrophages. The cell study showed that BGN and plant extract had low cytotoxicity on macrophages and exhibited a dose-dependent anti-inflammatory effect on the LPS-induced inflammatory process in macrophages.

Nanomaterial-Based Strategies for Attenuating T-Cell-Mediated Immunodepression in Stroke Patients: Advancing Research Perspectives

This review article discusses the potential of nanomaterials in targeted therapy and immunomodulation for stroke-induced immunosuppression. Although nanomaterials have been extensively studied in various biomedical applications, their specific use in studying and addressing immunosuppression after stroke remains limited. Stroke-induced neuroinflammation is characterized by T-cell-mediated immunodepression, which leads to increased morbidity and mortality. Key observations related to immunodepression after stroke, including lymphopenia, T-cell dysfunction, regulatory T-cell imbalance, and cytokine dysregulation, are discussed. Nanomaterials, such as liposomes, micelles, polymeric nanoparticles, and dendrimers, offer advantages in the precise delivery of drugs to T cells, enabling enhanced targeting and controlled release of immunomodulatory agents. These nanomaterials have the potential to modulate T-cell function, promote neuroregeneration, and restore immune responses, providing new avenues for stroke treatment. However, challenges related to biocompatibility, stability, scalability, and clinical translation need to be addressed. Future research efforts should focus on comprehensive studies to validate the efficacy and safety of nanomaterial-based interventions targeting T cells in stroke-induced immunosuppression. Collaborative interdisciplinary approaches are necessary to advance the field and translate these innovative strategies into clinical practice, ultimately improving stroke outcomes and patient care.

Improving the Antimicrobial Potency of Berberine for Endodontic Canal Irrigation Using Polymeric Nanoparticles

To address the challenges posed by biofilm presence and achieve a substantial reduction in bacterial load within root canals during endodontic treatment, various irrigants, including nanoparticle suspensions, have been recommended. Berberine (BBR), a natural alkaloid derived from various plants, has demonstrated potential applications in dentistry treatments due to its prominent antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. This study aimed to produce and characterize a novel polymeric nanoparticle of poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) loaded with berberine and evaluate its antimicrobial activity against relevant endodontic pathogens, Enterococcus faecalis, and Candida albicans. Additionally, its cytocompatibility using gingival fibroblasts was assessed. The polymeric nanoparticle was prepared by the nanoprecipitation method. Physicochemical characterization revealed spheric nanoparticles around 140 nm with ca, -6 mV of surface charge, which was unaffected by the presence of BBR. The alkaloid was successfully incorporated at an encapsulation efficiency of 77% and the designed nanoparticles were stable upon 20 weeks of storage at 4 °C and 25 °C. Free BBR reduced planktonic growth at ≥125 μg/mL. Upon incorporation into PLGA nanoparticles, 20 μg/mL of [BBR]-loaded nanoparticles lead to a significant reduction, after 1 h of contact, of both planktonic bacteria and yeast. Sessile cells within biofilms were also considered. At 30 and 40 μg/mL, [BBR]-loaded PLGA nanoparticles reduced the viability of the sessile endodontic bacteria, upon 24 h of exposure. The cytotoxicity of BBR-loaded nanoparticles to oral fibroblasts was negligible. The novel berberine-loaded polymeric nanoparticles hold potential as a promising supplementary approach in the treatment of endodontic infections.

Enhancing Effector Jurkat Cell Activity and Increasing Cytotoxicity against A549 Cells Using Nivolumab as an Anti-PD-1 Agent Loaded on Gelatin Nanoparticles

The current research investigated the use of gelatin nanoparticles (GNPs) for enhancing the cytotoxic effects of nivolumab, an immune checkpoint inhibitor. The unique feature of GNPs is their biocompatibility and functionalization potential, improving the delivery and the efficacy of immunotherapeutic drugs with fewer side effects compared to traditional treatments. This exploration of GNPs represents an innovative direction in the advancement of nanomedicine in oncology. Nivolumab-loaded GNPs were prepared and characterized. The optimum formulation had a particle size of 191.9 ± 0.67 nm, a polydispersity index of 0.027 ± 0.02, and drug entrapment of 54.67 ± 3.51%. A co-culture experiment involving A549 target cells and effector Jurkat cells treated with free nivolumab solution, and nivolumab-loaded GNPs, demonstrated that the latter had significant improvements in inhibition rate by scoring 87.88 ± 2.47% for drug-loaded GNPs against 60.53 ± 3.96% for the free nivolumab solution. The nivolumab-loaded GNPs had a lower IC50 value, of 0.41 ± 0.01 µM, compared to free nivolumab solution (1.22 ± 0.37 µM) at 72 h. The results indicate that administering nivolumab-loaded GNPs augmented the cytotoxicity against A549 cells by enhancing effector Jurkat cell activity compared to nivolumab solution treatment.

A Novel Approach for Dermal Application of Pranoprofen-Loaded Lipid Nanoparticles for the Treatment of Post-Tattoo Inflammatory Reactions

Recently, the number of people acquiring tattoos has increased, with tattoos gaining significant popularity in people between 20 and 40 years old. Inflammation is a common reaction associated with tattooing. The purpose of this study was to evaluate a nanostructured lipid carrier loading pranoprofen (PRA-NLC) as a tattoo aftercare formulation to reduce the inflammation associated with tattooing. In this context, the in vitro drug release and the ex vivo permeation-through-human-skin tests using Franz cells were appraised. The tolerance of our formulation on the skin was evaluated by studying the skin's biomechanical properties. In addition, an in vivo anti-inflammatory study was conducted on mice skin to evaluate the efficacy of the formulation applied topically after tattooing the animals. PRA-NLC showed a sustained release up to 72 h, and the amount of pranoprofen retained in the skin was found to be 33.48 µg/g/cm2. The formulation proved to be well tolerated; it increased stratum corneum hydration, and no signs of skin irritation were observed. Furthermore, it was demonstrated to be non-cytotoxic since the cell viability was greater than 80%. Based on these results, we concluded that PRA-NLC represents a suitable drug delivery carrier for the transdermal delivery of pranoprofen to alleviate the local skin inflammation associated with tattooing.

Vitamin D loaded into lipid nanoparticles shows insulinotropic effect in INS-1E cells

Increasing evidence suggests a beneficial role of vitamin D (VitD) supplementation in addressing the widespread VitD deficiency, but currently used VitD3 formulations present low bioavailability and toxicity constrains. Hence, poly(L-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs), solid-lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) were investigated to circumvent these issues. PLGA NPs prepared by emulsification or nanoprecipitation presented 74 or 200 nm, and association efficiency (AE) of 68 % and 17 %, respectively, and a rapid burst release of VitD3. Both SLN and NLCs presented higher polydispersity and larger NPs size, around 500 nm, which could be reduced to around 200 nm by use of hot high-pressure homogenization in the case of NLCs. VitD3 was efficiently loaded in both SLNs and NLCs with an AE of 82 and 99 %, respectively. While SLNs showed burst release, NLCs allowed a sustained release of VitD3 for nearly one month. Furthermore, NLCs showed high stability with maintenance of VitD3 loading for up to one month at 4 °C and no cytotoxic effects on INS-1E cells up to 72 h. A trending increase (around 30 %) on glucose-dependent insulin secretion was observed by INS-1E cells pre-treated with VitD3. This effect was consistently observed in the free form and after loading on NLCs. Overall, this work contributed to further elucidation on a suitable delivery system for VitD3 and on the effects of this metabolite on β cell function.

Preparation and evaluation of antidiabetic activity of mangiferin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles

This study aimed to develop and optimize mangiferin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (MG-SLNs) using the microemulsion technique and ultrasonication. The MG-SLNs were composed of Labrafil M 2130 CS, MG, ethanol, Tween 80, and water. The optimized MG-SLNs exhibited a particle size of 138.37 ± 3.39 nm, polydispersity index of 0.247 ± 0.023, entrapment efficiency of 84.37 ± 2.43 %, and zeta potential of 18.87 ± 2.42 mV. Drug release studies showed a two-fold increase in the release of MG from SLNs compared to the solution. Confocal images indicated deeper permeation of MG-SLNs, highlighting their potential. Molecular docking confirmed mangiferin's inhibitory activity against α-amylase, consistent with previous findings. In vitro studies showed that MG-SLNs inhibited α-amylase activity by 55.43 ± 6.11 %, α-glucosidase activity by 68.76 ± 3.14 %, and exhibited promising antidiabetic activities. In a rat model, MG-SLNs significantly and sustainably reduced blood glucose levels for up to 12 h. Total cholesterol and triglycerides decreased, while high-density lipoprotein cholesterol increased. Both MG-SOL and MG-SLNs reduced SGOT and SGPT levels, with MG-SLNs showing a more significant reduction in SGOT compared to MG-SOL. Overall, the biochemical results indicated that both formulations improved diabetes-associated alterations. In conclusion, the study suggests that loading MG in SLNs using the newly developed approach could be an efficient oral treatment for diabetes, offering sustained blood glucose reduction and positive effects on lipid profiles and liver enzymes.

From Polymeric Nanoformulations to Polyphenols-Strategies for Enhancing the Efficacy and Drug Delivery of Gentamicin

Gentamicin is an essential broad-spectrum aminoglycoside antibiotic that is used in over 40 clinical conditions and has shown activity against a wide range of nosocomial, biofilm-forming, multi-drug resistant bacteria. Nevertheless, the low cellular penetration and serious side effects of gentamicin, as well as the fear of the development of antibacterial resistance, has led to a search for ways to circumvent these obstacles. This review provides an overview of the chemical and pharmacological properties of gentamicin and offers six different strategies (the isolation of specific types of gentamicin, encapsulation in polymeric nanoparticles, hydrophobization of the gentamicin molecule, and combinations of gentamicin with other antibiotics, polyphenols, and natural products) that aim to enhance the drug delivery and antibacterial activity of gentamicin. In addition, factors influencing the synthesis of gentamicin-loaded polymeric (poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) and chitosan) nanoparticles and the methods used in drug release studies are discussed. Potential research directions and future perspectives for gentamicin-loaded drug delivery systems are given.

Inhalable paclitaxel nanoagglomerate dry powders for lung cancer chemotherapy: Design of experiments-guided development, characterization and in vitro evaluation

Conventional intravenous chemotherapy for lung cancer frequently results in inefficient drug penetration into primary lung tumors and severe systemic toxicities. This study reports the development of inhalable paclitaxel (PTX) nanoagglomerate dry powders (PTX-NADP) for enhanced pulmonary delivery of PTX chemotherapy to lung tumors using full factorial Design of Experiments. PTX nanoparticles were fabricated by flash nanoprecipitation with the aid of N-polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and curcumin (CUR) as stabilizer and co-stabilizer respectively, and subsequently agglomerated into inhalable dry powders via co-spray drying with methylcellulose. The optimized PTX-NADP formulation exhibited acceptable aqueous redispersibility (redispersibility index = 1.17 ± 0.02) into ∼ 150 nm nanoparticles and superb in vitro aerosol performance [mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD) = 1.69 ± 0.05 µm and fine particle fraction (FPF) of 70.89 ± 1.72 %] when dispersed from a Breezhaler® at 90 L/min. Notably, adequate aerosolization (MMAD < 3.5 µm and FPF > 40 %) of the optimized formulation was maintained when dispersed at reduced inspiratory flow rates of 30 - 60 L/min. Redispersed PTX nanoparticles from PTX-NADP demonstrated enhanced in vitro antitumor efficacy and cellular uptake in A549 lung adenocarcinoma cells without compromising tolerability of BEAS-2B normal lung epithelial cells towards PTX chemotherapy. These findings highlight the potential of inhaled PTX-NADP therapy to improve therapeutic outcomes for lung cancer patients with varying levels of pulmonary function impairment.

Phthalocyanine-based glucose-responsive nanocochleates for dynamic prevention of β-cell damage in diabetes

Phthalocyanine is a blue-colored macrocyclic compound with excellent anti-oxidant and lipid-peroxidation abilities due to its intermolecular π-π stacking structure. Antioxidants inhibit intracellular reactive oxygen species formation and decrease oxidation defense ability of the enzymes in diabetes management. The present study aimed to fabricate concanavalin A conjugated phthalocyanine-loaded cochleates (Formulation PhConA) as a glucose-sensitive lipidic system and estimate its efficacy in streptozotocin-induced male Sprague Dawley diabetic rats for 28 days. Thin-film hydration and trapping methods were used in the preparation of liposomes and cochleates, respectively, whereas the surface was modified for concanavalin A conjugation using EDAC: NHS (1:1). Formulation PhConA with rod-shaped structures showed particle size of 415.7 ± 0.46 nm, PdI value of 0.435 ± 0.09, encapsulation efficiency of 85.64 ± 0.34%, and 84.55 ± 0.29% release of phthalocyanine for 56 h. The circular dichroism study displayed a slight deviation after the conjugation effect of concanavalin A to cochleates. The in-vivo studies of the formulation PhConA improved the blood glucose levels along with defensive effect on the liver to overcome the hyperlipidemic effect. The rigid structure of cochleates prolongs the drug elimination from systemic circulation and extends its effect for a longer duration by decreasing the blood glucose level. Thus, the glucose-sensitive formulation PhConA showed significant improvement in diabetic rats within the period of 28 days by improving the oxidative defense and protecting the pancreatic β-cells.

Bile salt-enriched vs. non-enriched nanoparticles: comparison of their physicochemical characteristics and release pattern

Bile salts were first used in the preparation of nanoparticles due to their stabilizing effects. As time went by, they attracted much attention and were increasingly employed in fabricating nanoparticles. It is well accepted that the physicochemical properties of nanoparticles are influential factors in their permeation, distribution, elimination and degree of effectiveness as well as toxicity. The review of articles shows that the use of bile salts in the structure of nanocarriers may cause significant changes in their physicochemical properties. Hence, having information about the effect of bile salts on the properties of nanoparticles could be valuable in the design of optimal carriers. Herein, we review studies in which bile salts were used in preparing liposomes, niosomes and other nanocarriers. Furthermore, the effects of bile salts on entrapment efficiency, particle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, release profile and stability of nanoparticles are pointed out. Finally, we debate how to take advantage of bile salts potential for preparing desirable nanocarriers.

3D printing of dolutegravir-loaded polylactide filaments as a long-acting implantable system for HIV treatment

3D printing was used to prepare implantable systems or tablets loaded with dolutegravir to explore their potential as long-acting implantables (LAIs). Our strategy relies on preparing a polylactide (PLA) filament loaded with the anti-HIV drug. Subsequently, 3D printing was performed under conditions that allowed the PLA to be simultaneously melted and the drug encapsulated within the printed strand. The dolutegravir release profiles indicated its sustained release for 47 days. Furthermore, neat and drug-loaded tablets were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), while their morphology was assessed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Finally, their biocompatibility was proved by MTT assay against ISO standards recommended L929 mouse and human Hs68 skin fibroblast cells. All the results indicated that the 3D printing of PLA-based tablets could produce customized medications with potential applications against HIV.

Assessment of In Vitro Release Testing Methods for Colloidal Drug Carriers: The Lack of Standardized Protocols

Although colloidal carriers have been in the pipeline for nearly four decades, standardized methods for testing their drug-release properties remain to be established in pharmacopeias. The in vitro assessment of drug release from these colloidal carriers is one of the most important parameters in the development and quality control of drug-loaded nano- and microcarriers. This lack of standardized protocols occurs due to the difficulties encountered in separating the released drug from the encapsulated one. This review aims to compare the most frequent types of release testing methods (i.e., membrane diffusion techniques, sample and separate methods and in situ detection techniques) in terms of the advantages and disadvantages of each one and of the key parameters that influence drug release in each case.

Zerumbone-incorporated liquid crystalline nanoparticles inhibit proliferation and migration of non-small-cell lung cancer in vitro

Lung cancer is the second most prevalent type of cancer and is responsible for the highest number of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) makes up the majority of lung cancer cases. Zerumbone (ZER) is natural compound commonly found in the roots of Zingiber zerumbet which has recently demonstrated anti-cancer activity in both in vitro and in vivo studies. Despite their medical benefits, ZER has low aqueous solubility, poor GI absorption and oral bioavailability that hinders its effectiveness. Liquid crystalline nanoparticles (LCNs) are novel drug delivery carrier that have tuneable characteristics to enhance and ease the delivery of bioactive compounds. This study aimed to formulate ZER-loaded LCNs and investigate their effectiveness against NSCLC in vitro using A549 lung cancer cells. ZER-LCNs, prepared in the study, inhibited the proliferation and migration of A549 cells. These inhibitory effects were superior to the effects of ZER alone at a concentration 10 times lower than that of free ZER, demonstrating a potent anti-cancer activity of ZER-LCNs. The underlying mechanisms of the anti-cancer effects by ZER-LCNs were associated with the transcriptional regulation of tumor suppressor genes P53 and PTEN, and metastasis-associated gene KRT18. The protein array data showed downregulation of several proliferation associated proteins such as AXL, HER1, PGRN, and BIRC5 and metastasis-associated proteins such as DKK1, CAPG, CTSS, CTSB, CTSD, and PLAU. This study provides evidence of potential for increasing the potency and effectiveness of ZER with LCN formulation and developing ZER-LCNs as a treatment strategy for mitigation and treatment of NSCLC.

Intracellular Trafficking of Size-Tuned Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery

Polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) are widely used as drug delivery systems in nanomedicine. Despite their widespread application, a comprehensive understanding of their intracellular trafficking remains elusive. In the present study, we focused on exploring the impact of a 20 nm difference in size on NP performance, including drug delivery capabilities and intracellular trafficking. For that, poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether-block-poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA-PEG) NPs with sizes of 50 and 70 nm were precisely tailored. To assess their prowess in encapsulating and releasing therapeutic agents, we have employed doxorubicin (Dox), a well-established anticancer drug widely utilized in clinical settings, as a model drug. Then, the beneficial effect of the developed nanoformulations was evaluated in breast cancer cells. Finally, we performed a semiquantitative analysis of both NPs' uptake and intracellular localization by immunostaining lysosomes, early endosomes, and recycling endosomes. The results show that the smaller NPs (50 nm) were able to reduce the metabolic activity of cancer cells more efficiently than NPs of 70 nm, in a time and concentration-dependent manner. These findings are corroborated by intracellular trafficking studies that reveal an earlier and higher uptake of NPs, with 50 nm compared to the 70 nm ones, by the breast cancer cells. Consequently, this study demonstrates that NP size, even in small increments, has an important impact on their therapeutic effect.

Impact of miconazole nitrate ferrying cationic and anionic nanoemulsion and gels on permeation profiles of across EpiDerm, artificial membrane, and skin: Instrumental evidences

Based on our previous report, the study was extended to investigate the impact of miconazole nitrate (MCN) loaded cationic/anionic nanoemulsions and nanoemulsion gels on permeation behaviour across artificial-membrane, EpiDerm, and rat skin. Nanoemulsions and gels were evaluated for size, charge, viscosity, size-distribution, pH, and percent entrapment efficiency (%EE). In vitro drug diffusion across artificial membrane and EpiDerm were conducted to get diffusion coefficients. Permeation profiles were studied using rat skin to investigate mechanistic insight of formulated mediated permeation followed by CLSM (confocal laser scanning microscopy), SEM (scanning electron microscopy), AFM (atomic force microscopy), and irritation studies. Results showed that MCNE11-Rh (probed cationic nanoemulsion at pH ∼ 7.2) and MNE11-Rh (probed anionic nanoemulsion at pH ∼ 7.2) showed size values of 158 nm and 145 nm, respectively whereas MCNE11-GR (probed cationic nanoemulsion gel at pH ∼ 6.8) and MNE11-GR (probed anionic nanoemulsion gel at pH ∼ 6.8) exhibited size values 257 nm and 243 nm, respectively. The %EE values were found to be as 91.5 % and 89.6 % for MCNE11-Rh and MNE11-Rh, respectively. The gels (∼6000 cP) elicited relatively high viscosity than nanoemulsions (∼3300 - 3500 cP). MCNE11-GR showed the highest values of permeation flux, diffusion rate, diffusion coefficient (D), and permeation coefficient (P) across artificial membrane, EpiDerm, and rat skin which may be attributed to three potential factors (cationic charge, composition, and hydration by the hydrophilic gel) working in tandem. Transepidermal water loss (TEWL) by the MCNE11-GR was maximum (14.4 g/m2h) than control (6.1 g/m2h) indicating augmented interaction of MCNE11-Rh with skin components. Conclusively, cationic nanoemulsion gel was promising carrier for enhanced permeation and the drug access to the dermal region to treat deep seated fungal infections.

Novel Nanotherapeutic Systems Based on PEGylated Squalene Micelles for Enhanced In Vitro Activity of Methotrexate and Cytarabine

Nanomedicine has garnered significant attention due to the advantages it offers in the treatment of cancer-related disorders, some of the deadliest diseases affecting human lives. Conventional medication formulations often encounter issues of instability or insolubility in biological environments, resulting in low bioavailability. Nanocarriers play a crucial role in transporting and safeguarding drugs at specific sites of action, enabling gradual release under particular conditions. This study focuses on methotrexate (MTx) and cytarabine (Cyt), essential antitumoral drugs, loaded into PEGylated squalene micellar structures to enhance therapeutic effectiveness and minimize drawbacks. The micelles were prepared using ultrasound-assisted methods in both water and phosphate buffer saline solutions. Evaluation of drug-loaded micelles encompassed parameters such as particle size, colloidal stability, surface charge, morphology, encapsulation efficiency, drug loading capacity, and in vitro release profiles under simulated physiological and tumoral conditions. In vitro cell inhibition studies conducted on MCF-7 and HeLa cell lines demonstrated higher antitumoral activity for the drug-encapsulated micelles compared to free drugs. The encapsulation effectively addressed the burst effect, providing sustained release for at least 48 h while enhancing the drug's protection under physiological conditions.

Date Palm Extract (Phoenix dactylifera) Encapsulated into Palm Oil Nanolipid Carrier for Prospective Antibacterial Influence

It is worthwhile to note that using natural products today has shown to be an effective strategy for attaining the therapeutic goal with the highest impact and the fewest drawbacks. In Saudi Arabia, date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) is considered the principal fruit owing to its abundance and incredible nutritional benefits in fighting various diseases. The main objective of the study is to exploit the natural products as well as the nanotechnology approach to obtain great benefits in managing disorders. The present investigation focused on using the powder form of date palm extract (DPE) of Khalas cultivar and incorporates it into a nanolipid formulation such as a nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) prepared with palm oil. Using the quality by design (QbD) methodology, the most optimized formula was chosen based on the number of assigned parameters. For more appropriate topical application, the optimized DP-NLC was combined with a pre-formulated hydrogel base forming the DP-NLC-hydrogel. The developed DP-NLC-hydrogel was evaluated for various physical properties including pH, viscosity, spreadability, and extrudability. Additionally, the in vitro release of the formulation as well as its stability upon storage under two different conditions of room temperature and refrigerator were investigated. Eventually, different bacterial strains were utilized to test the antibacterial efficacy of the developed formulation. The optimized DP-NLC showed proper particle size (266.9 nm) and in vitro release 77.9%. The prepared DP-NLC-hydrogel showed acceptable physical properties for topical formulation, mainly, pH 6.05, viscosity 9410 cP, spreadability 57.6 mm, extrudability 84.5 (g/cm2), and in vitro release 42.4%. Following three months storage under two distinct conditions, the formula exhibited good stability. Finally, the antibacterial activity of the developed DP-NLC-hydrogel was evaluated and proved to be efficient against various bacterial strains.

Integrated continuous manufacturing of inhalable remdesivir nanoagglomerate dry powders: Design, optimization and therapeutic potential for respiratory viral infections

While inhalable nanoparticle-based dry powders have demonstrated promising potential as next-generation respiratory medicines, erratic particle redispersibility and poor manufacturing reproducibility remain major hurdles hindering their translation from bench to bedside. We developed a one-step continuous process for fabricating inhalable remdesivir (RDV) nanoagglomerate dry powder formulations by integrating flash nanoprecipitation and spray drying. The nanosuspension formulation was optimized using a three-factor Box-Behnken design with a z-average particle size of 233.3 ± 2.3 nm and < 20% size change within six hours. The optimized inhalable nanoagglomerate dry powder formulation produced by spray drying showed adequate aqueous redispersibility (Sf/Si = 1.20 ± 0.01) and in vitro aerosol performance (mass median aerodynamic diameter of 3.80 ± 0.58 µm and fine particle fraction of 39.85 ± 10.16%). In A549 cells, RDV nanoparticles redispersed from the inhalable nanoagglomerate powders displayed enhanced and accelerated RDV cell uptake and negligible cytotoxicity at therapeutic RDV concentrations. No statistically significant differences were observed in the critical quality attributes of the inhalable nanoagglomerate powders produced from the continuous manufacturing and standalone batch modes. This work demonstrates the feasibility of large-scale continuous manufacturing of inhalable nanoagglomerate dry powder formulations, which pave the way for their clinical translation.

Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory activity of fisetin-loaded nanoparticles in an in vitro model of osteoarthritis

Cartilage lesions, especially osteoarthritis (OA), are a common health problem, causing pain and disability in various age groups, principally in older adults and athletes. One of the main challenges to be considered in cartilage tissue repair is the regeneration of cartilage tissue in an active inflammatory environment. Fisetin has various biological effects including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, apoptotic, and antiproliferative activities. The only disadvantages of fisetin in the pharmaceutical field are its instability and low solubility in aqueous media. This study is aimed at preparing chitosan (CS)-based nanoparticles to yield fisetin with improved bioavailability features. Then, the effect of fisetin-loaded nanoparticles (FNPs) on inflammatory responses in interleukin-1β (IL-1β) pretreated human chondrocytes has also been investigated. FNPs presented an average size of 363.1 ± 17.2 nm and a zeta potential of + 17.7 ± 0.1 mV with encapsulation efficiency (EE) and loading capacity (LC) of 78.79 ± 7.7% and 37.46 ± 6.6%, respectively. The viability of human chondrocytes was not affected by blank nanoparticles (BNPs) up to a concentration of 2000 μg/mL. In addition, the hemolysis results clearly showed that FNPs did not damage the red blood cells (RBCs) and had good hemocompatibility within the range investigated. FNPs, similar to fisetin, were able to inhibit the inflammatory responses induced by IL-1β such as the expression of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) while increasing the production of an anti-inflammatory cytokine such as interleukin-10 (IL-10). Overall, the in vitro evaluation results of the anti-inflammatory activity showed that FNPs can serve as delivery systems to transfer fisetin to treat inflammation in OA.

Nanogel-Based Delivery System for Lemongrass Essential Oil: A Promising Approach to Overcome Antibiotic Resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infections

The emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) presents a substantial obstacle in medical environments. To effectively tackle this problem, we suggest an innovative approach: employing a delivery system based on nanogels to administer lemongrass essential oil (LGO). Developed PVA and PLGA nanoparticle formulation efficiently encapsulates LGO with 56.23% encapsulation efficiency by solvent extraction technique, preserving stability and bioactivity. Nanogel: 116 nm size, low polydispersity (0.229), -9 mV zeta potential. The nanogel's controlled release facilitated targeted LGO delivery via pH-controlled dissolution. Pure LGO had the highest release rate, while LGO-NP and LGO-NP-CG exhibited slower rates. In 15 h, LGO-NP released 50.65%, and LGO-NP-CG released 63.58%, releasing 61.31% and 63.58% within 24 h. LGO-NP-CG demonstrated superior antioxidant activity, a lower MIC against P. aeruginosa, and the most potent bactericidal effect compared to other formulations. This underscores the versatile efficacy of LGO, suggesting its potential to combat antibiotic resistance and enhance treatment effectiveness. Moreover, employing a nanogel-based delivery approach for LGO offers an efficient solution to combat drug resistance in P. aeruginosa infections. By employing strategies such as nanogel encapsulation and controlled release, we can enhance the effectiveness of LGO against antibiotic-resistant strains. This study establishes a robust foundation for exploring innovative approaches to treating P. aeruginosa infections using nanomedicine and paves the way for investigating novel methods of delivering antimicrobial drugs. These efforts contribute to the ongoing battle against antibiotic resistance.

Nanoencapsulation and characterisation of Hypericum perforatum for the treatment of neuropathic pain

AIM

This work aimed to encapsulate Hypericum perforatum extract (HPE) into nanophytosomes (NPs) and assess the therapeutic efficacy of this nanocarrier in neuropathic pain induced by partial sciatic nerve ligation (PSNL).

METHODS

Hydroalcoholic extract of Hypericum perforatum was prepared and encapsulated into NPs by thin layer hydration method. Particle size, zeta potential, TEM, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), entrapment efficiency (%EE), and loading capacity (LC) of NPs were reported. The biochemical and histopathological examinations were measured in the sciatic nerve.

RESULTS

Particle size, zeta potential, %EE, and LC were 104.7 ± 1.529 nm, -8.93 ± 1.71 mV, 87.23 ± 1.3%, and 53.12 ± 1.7%, respectively. TEM revealed well-formed and distinct vesicles. NPHPE (NPs of HPE) was significantly more effective than HPE in reducing PSNL-inducing pain. Antioxidant levels and sciatic nerve histology were reversed to normal with NPHPE.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates that encapsulating HPE with phytosomes is an effective therapeutic approach for neuropathic pain.

Enhancement of ocular anti-glaucomic activity of agomelatine through fabrication of hyaluronic acid modified-elastosomes: formulation, statistical optimisation, in vitro characterisation, histopathological study, and in vivo assessment

AIM

The aim of this manuscript was to fabricate agomelatine (AGM) loaded elastosomes to improve its corneal permeation and ocular bioavailability. AGM is a biopharmaceutical classification system (BCS) class II with low water solubility and high membrane permeability. It has a potent agonistic action on melatonin receptors, so it is used for glaucoma treatment.

METHODS

Elastosomes were made using modified ethanol injection technique according to a 22 × 41 full factorial design. The chosen factors were: edge activators (EAs) type, surfactant percent (SAA %w/w), and cholesterol:surfactant ratio (CH:SAA ratio). The studied responses were encapsulation efficiency percent (EE%), mean diameter, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential (ZP), percentage of drug released after two hours (Q2h%), and 24 hours (Q24h%).

RESULTS

The optimum formula with the desirability of 0.752 was composed of Brij98 as EA type, 15%w/w SAA%, and 1:1 CH:SAA ratio. It revealed EE% of 73.22%w/v and mean diameter, PDI, ZP, Q2h%, and Q24h% values of 484.25 nm, 0.31, -30.75 mV, 32.7%w/v, and 75.6%w/v, respectively. It demonstrated acceptable stability for three months and superior elasticity than its conventional liposome. The histopathological study ensured the tolerability of its ophthalmic application. Also, it was proven to be safe from the results of the pH and refractive index tests. The in vivo pharmacodynamic parameters of the optimum formula revealed dominance in a maximum % decrease in intraocular pressure (IOP), the area under the IOP response curve, and mean residence time with the value of 82.73%w/v, 820.69%h, and 13.98 h compared to that of the AGM solution (35.92%w/v, 181.30%h, and 7.52 h).

CONCLUSIONS

Elastosomes can be a promising option to improve AGM ocular bioavailability.

Role of Particle Size in Translational Research of Nanomedicines for Successful Drug Delivery: Discrepancies and Inadequacies

Despite significant research progress in substantiating the therapeutic merits of nanomedicines and the emergence of sophisticated nanotechnologies, the translation of this knowledge into new therapeutic modalities has been sluggish, indicating the need for a more comprehensive understanding of how the unique physicochemical properties of nanoparticles affect their clinical applications. Particle size is a critical quality attribute that impacts the bio-fate of nanoparticles, yet precise knowledge of its effect remains elusive with discrepancies among literature reports. This review aims to address this scientific knowledge gap from a drug development perspective by highlighting potential inadequacies during the evaluation of particle size effects. We begin with a discussion on the major issues in particle size characterization along with the corresponding remedies. The influence of confounding factors on biological effects of particle size, including colloidal stability, polydispersity, and in vitro drug release, are addressed for establishing stronger in vitro-in vivo correlation. Particle size design and tailoring approaches for successful nanoparticulate drug delivery beyond parenteral administration are also illustrated. We believe a holistic understanding of the effect of particle size on bio-fate, combined with consistent nanoparticle manufacturing platforms and tailored characterization techniques, would expedite the translation of nanomedicines into clinical practice.

Formulation and optimization of polymeric nanoparticles loaded with riolozatrione: a promising nanoformulation with potential antiherpetic activity

Riolozatrione (RZ) is a diterpenoid compound isolated from a dichloromethane extract of the Jatropha dioica root. This compound has been shown to possess moderate antiherpetic activity in vitro. However, because of the poor solubility of this compound in aqueous vehicles, generating a stable formulation for potential use in the treatment of infection is challenging. The aim of this work was to optimize and physio-chemically characterize Eudragit® L100-55-based polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) loaded with RZ (NPR) for in vitro antiherpetic application. The NPs formulation was initially optimized using the dichloromethane extract of J. dioica, the major component of which was RZ. The optimized NPR formulation was stable, with a size of 263 nm, polydispersity index < 0.2, the zeta potential of -37 mV, and RZ encapsulation efficiency of 89 %. The NPR showed sustained release of RZ for 48 h with release percentages of 95 and 97 % at neutral and slightly acidic pH, respectively. Regarding in vitro antiherpetic activity, the optimized NPR showed a selectivity index for HSV-1 of ≈16 and for HSV-2 of 13.

Enhanced Anti-Rheumatoid Arthritis Activity of Total Alkaloids from Picrasma Quassioides in Collagen-Induced Arthritis Rats by a Targeted Drug Delivery System

New drug delivery systems have rarely been used in the formulation of traditional Chinese medicine, especially those that are crude active Chinese medicinal ingredients. In the present study, hyaluronic acid decorated lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles were used to prepare a targeted drug delivery system (TDDS) for total alkaloid extract from Picrasma quassioides (TAPQ) to improve its targeting property and anti-inflammatory activity. Picrasma quassioides, a common-used traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), containing a series of hydrophobic total alkaloids including β-carboline and canthin-6-one alkaloids show great anti-inflammatory activity. However, its high toxicity (IC50= 8.088±0.903 μg/ml), poor water solubility (need to dissolve with 0.8% Tween-80) and poor targeting property severely limits its clinical application. Herein, hyaluronic acid (HA) decorated lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles loaded with TAPQ (TAPQ-NPs) were designed to overcome above mentioned deficiencies. TAPQ-NPs have good water solubility, strong anti-inflammatory activity and great joint targeting property. The in vitro anti-inflammatory activity assay showed that the efficacy of TAPQ-NPs was significantly higher than TAPQ(P<0.001). Animal experiments showed that the nanoparticles had good joint targeting property and had strong inhibitory activity against collagen-induced arthritis (CIA). These results indicate that the application of this novel targeted drug delivery system in the formulation of traditional Chinese medicine is feasible.

The Impact of Serum Protein Adsorption on PEGylated NT3-BDNF Nanoparticles-Distribution, Protein Release, and Cytotoxicity in a Human Retinal Pigmented Epithelial Cell Model

The adsorption of biomolecules on nanoparticles' surface ultimately depends on the intermolecular forces, which dictate the mutual interaction transforming their physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. Therefore, a better understanding of the adsorption of serum proteins and their impact on nanoparticle physicochemical properties is of utmost importance for developing nanoparticle-based therapies. We investigated the interactions between potentially therapeutic proteins, neurotrophin 3 (NT3), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and polyethylene glycol (PEG), in a cell-free system and a retinal pigmented epithelium cell line (ARPE-19). The variance in the physicochemical properties of PEGylated NT3-BDNF nanoparticles (NPs) in serum-abundant and serum-free systems was studied using transmission electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, multi-angle dynamic, and electrophoretic light scattering. Next, we compared the cellular response of ARPE-19 cells after exposure to PEGylated NT3-BDNF NPs in either a serum-free or complex serum environment by investigating protein release and cell cytotoxicity using ultracentrifuge, fluorescence spectroscopy, and confocal microscopy. After serum exposure, the decrease in the aggregation of PEGylated NT3-BDNF NPs was accompanied by increased cell viability and BDNF/NT3 in vitro release. In contrast, in a serum-free environment, the appearance of positively charged NPs with hydrodynamic diameters up to 900 nm correlated with higher cytotoxicity and limited BDNF/NT3 release into the cell culture media. This work provides new insights into the role of protein corona when considering the PEGylated nano-bio interface with implications for cytotoxicity, NPs' distribution, and BDNF and NT3 release profiles in the in vitro setting.

Synthesis of an insulin-loaded mucoadhesive nanoparticle designed for intranasal administration: focus on new diffusion media

Intranasal administration is a drug delivery approach to provide a non-invasive pharmacological response in the central nervous system with relatively small peripheral side effects. To improve the residence time of intranasal drug delivery systems in the nasal mucosa, mucoadhesive polymers (e.g., chitosan) can be used. Here, insulin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles were synthesized and their physiochemical properties were evaluated based on requirements of intranasal administration. The nanoparticles were spherical (a hydrodynamic diameter of 165.3 nm, polydispersity index of 0.24, and zeta potential of +21.6 mV) that granted mucoadhesion without any noticeable toxicity to the nasal tissue. We applied a new approach using the Krebs-Henseleit buffer solution along with simulated nasal fluid in a Franz's diffusion cell to study this intranasal drug delivery system. We used the Krebs-Henseleit buffer because of its ability to supply glucose to the cells which serves as a novel ex vivo diffusion medium to maintain the viability of the tissue during the experiment. Based on diffusion rate and histopathological endpoints, the Krebs-Henseleit buffer solution can be a substituent solution to the commonly used simulated nasal fluid for such drug delivery systems.

Chitosan Nanoparticles for Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease Treatment

Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) is a chronic ailment that results from the backward flow of stomach acid into the esophagus, causing heartburn and acid regurgitation. This review explores nanotechnology as a novel treatment approach for GERD. Chitosan nanoparticles (CSNPs) offer several advantages, including biocompatibility, biodegradability, and targeted drug delivery capabilities. CSNPs have been extensively studied due to their ability to encapsulate and release medications in a controlled manner. Different nanoparticle (NP) delivery systems, including gels, microspheres, and coatings, have been developed to enhance drug retention, drug targeting, and controlled release in the esophagus. These nanoparticles can target specific molecular pathways associated with acid regulation, esophageal tissue protection, and inflammation modulation. However, the optimization of nanoparticle formulations faces challenges, including ensuring stability, scalability, and regulatory compliance. The future may see CSNPs combined with other treatments like proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) or mucosal protectants for a synergistic therapeutic approach. Thus, CSNPs provide exciting opportunities for novel GERD treatment strategies.

Application of a Customised Franz-Type Cell Coupled with HPTLC to Monitor the Timed Release of Bioactive Components in Complex Honey Matrices

The aim of this study was to assess the release profile of components in five different honeys (a New Zealand Manuka and two Western Australian honeys, a Jarrah honey and a Coastal Peppermint honey) and their corresponding honey-loaded gel formulations using a custom-designed Franz-type diffusion cell in combination with High-Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography (HPTLC). To validate the suitability of the customised setup, release data using this new approach were compared with data obtained using a commercial Franz cell apparatus, which is an established analytical tool to monitor the release of active ingredients from topical semisolid products. The release profiles of active compounds from pure honey and honey-loaded formulations were found to be comparable in both types of Franz cells. For example, when released either from pure honey or its corresponding pre-gel formulation, the percentage release of two Jarrah honey constituents, represented by distinct bands at RF 0.21 and 0.53 and as analysed by HPTLC, was not significantly different (p = 0.9986) at 12 h with over 99% of these honey constituents being released in both apparatus. Compared to the commercial Franz diffusion cell, the customised Franz cell offers several advantages, including easy and convenient sample application, the requirement of only small sample quantities, a large diffusion surface area, an ability to analyse 20 samples in a single experiment, and lower cost compared to purchasing a commercial Franz cell. Thus, the newly developed approach coupled with HPTLC is conducive to monitor the release profile of minor honey constituents from pure honeys and honey-loaded semisolid formulations and might also be applicable to other complex natural-product-based products.

Chitosan Nanoparticles-Preparation, Characterization and Their Combination with Ginkgo biloba Extract in Preliminary In Vitro Studies

Nanoparticles (NPs), due to their size, have a key position in nanotechnology as a spectrum of solutions in medicine. NPs improve the ability of active substances to penetrate various routes: transdermal, but also digestive (active endocytosis), respiratory and injection. Chitosan, an N-deacetylated derivative of chitin, is a natural biodegradable cationic polymer with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties. Cross-linked chitosan is an excellent matrix for the production of nanoparticles containing active substances, e.g., the Ginkgo biloba extract (GBE). Chitosan nanoparticles with the Ginkgo biloba extract (GBE) were obtained by ion gelation using TPP as a cross-linking agent. The obtained product was characterized in terms of morphology and size based on SEM and Zeta Sizer analyses as well as an effective encapsulation of GBE in nanoparticles-FTIR-ATR and UV-Vis analyses. The kinetics of release of the active substance in water and physiological saline were checked. Biological studies were carried out on normal and cancer cell lines to check the cytotoxic effect of GBE, chitosan nanoparticles and a combination of the chitosan nanoparticles with GBE. The obtained nanoparticles contained and released GBE encapsulated in research media. Pure NPs, GBE and a combination of NPs and the extract showed cytotoxicity against tumor cells, with no cytotoxicity against the physiological cell line.

Formulation of Resveratrol-Loaded Polycaprolactone Inhalable Microspheres Using Tween 80 as an Emulsifier: Factorial Design and Optimization

Resveratrol (RSV) is a bioactive phytoconstituent that has potential applications in respiratory diseases. However, poor oral bioavailability is the major hurdle to its clinical use. In the present work, resveratrol-loaded polycaprolactone (PCL) inhalable microspheres (MSs) were formulated to improve their therapeutic potential. The inhalable microspheres were formulated using the emulsion-solvent evaporation method. In this research, inhalable resveratrol microspheres were prepared using Tween 80 in place of polyvinyl alcohol which formed insoluble lumps. A 3² factorial design was applied taking polymer (PCL) and emulsifier (Tween 80) as independent variables and drug loading (DL) and encapsulation efficiency (EE) as dependent variables. The DL and EE of the optimized formulation were found to be 30.6% and 63.84% respectively. The in vitro aerosolization study performed using the Anderson cascade impactor showed that the fine particle fraction (FPF) of optimized resveratrol polycaprolactone microspheres (RSV-PCL-MSs) blended with lactose, and RSV-PCL-MSs were significantly higher than those of the pure drugs. The MMAD_T (theoretical mass median aerodynamic diameter) of optimized RSV-PCL-MSs was found to be 3.25 ± 1.15. The particle size of microspheres was within the inhalable range, i.e., between 1 and 5 µm. The morphological analysis showed spherical-shaped particles with smooth surfaces. The in vitro release study showed sustained drug release from the microspheres for up to 12 h. The study concluded that resveratrol-loaded inhalable microspheres may be an efficient delivery system to treat COPD.

Multicomponent Antibiofilm Lipid Nanoparticles as Novel Platform to Ameliorate Resveratrol Properties: Preliminary Outcomes on Fibroblast Proliferation and Migration

The well-being of skin and mucous membranes is fundamental for the homeostasis of the body and thus it is imperative to treat any lesion quickly and correctly. In this view, polyphenols might assist and enhance a successful wound healing process by reducing the inflammatory cascade and the production of free radicals. However, they suffer from disadvantageous physico-chemical properties, leading to restricted clinical use. In this work, a complex mixture of PEGylated lipid, Glyceryl monoester, 18-β-Glycyrrhetinic Acid and Menthol was designed to entrap Resveratrol (RSV) as the active ingredient and further produce lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) by homogenization followed by high-frequency sonication. The nanosystem was properly characterized in terms of particle size (DLS, SEM), zeta potential, drug loading, antioxidant power (DPPH), release behaviour, cytocompatibility, wound healing and antibiofilm properties. The optimized lipid mixture was homogeneous, melted at 57-61 °C and encapsulated amorphous RSV (4.56 ± 0.04% w/w). The RSV-loaded LNPs were almost monodispersed (PDI: 0.267 ± 0.010), with nanometric size (162.86 ± 3.12 nm), scavenger properties and suitable DR% and LE% values (96.82 ± 1.34% and 95.17 ± 0.25%, respectively). The release studies were performed to simulate the wound conditions: 1-octanol to mimic the lipophilic domains of biological tissues (where the First Order kinetic was observed) and citrate buffer pH 5.5 according to the inflammatory wound exudate (where the Korsmeyer-Peppas kinetic was followed). The biological and microbiological evaluations highlighted fibroblast proliferation and migration effects as well as antibiofilm properties at extremely low doses (LNPs: 22 μg/mL, corresponding to RSV 5 µM). Thus, the proposed multicomponent LNPs could represent a valuable RSV delivery platform for wound healing purposes.

Inhalable Nanoparticle-based Dry Powder Formulations for Respiratory Diseases: Challenges and Strategies for Translational Research

The emergence of novel respiratory infections (e.g., COVID-19) and expeditious development of nanoparticle-based COVID-19 vaccines have recently reignited considerable interest in designing inhalable nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems as next-generation respiratory therapeutics. Among various available devices in aerosol delivery, dry powder inhalers (DPIs) are preferable for delivery of nanoparticles due to their simplicity of use, high portability, and superior long-term stability. Despite research efforts devoted to developing inhaled nanoparticle-based DPI formulations, no such formulations have been approved to date, implying a research gap between bench and bedside. This review aims to address this gap by highlighting important yet often overlooked issues during pre-clinical development. We start with an overview and update on formulation and particle engineering strategies for fabricating inhalable nanoparticle-based dry powder formulations. An important but neglected aspect in in vitro characterization methodologies for linking the powder performance with their bio-fate is then discussed. Finally, the major challenges and strategies in their clinical translation are highlighted. We anticipate that focused research onto the existing knowledge gaps presented in this review would accelerate clinical applications of inhalable nanoparticle-based dry powders from a far-fetched fantasy to a reality.

Chemical Sensors Based on Molecularly Imprinted Polymers Can Determine Drug Release Kinetics from Nanocarriers without Filtration, Centrifugation, and Dialysis Steps

With the development of drug delivery systems, the use of nanomaterials for slow, targeted, and effective drug release has grown significantly. To ensure the quality of performance, it is essential to obtain drug release profiles from therapeutic nanoparticles prior to in vivo testing. Typically, the methods of monitoring the drug release profile from nanoparticle drug delivery systems include one or more filtration, separation, and sampling steps, with or without membrane, which cause several systematic errors and make the process time-consuming. Here, the release rate of doxorubicin as a model drug from liposome as a nanocarrier was determined via highly selective binding of released doxorubicin to the doxorubicin-imprinted electropolymerized polypyrrole as a molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP). Incubation of the MIP-modified substrate with imprinted cavities complementary to doxorubicin molecules in the releasing medium leads to the binding of released doxorubicin molecules to cavities. The drug trapped in the cavities is determined by one of the analytical methods depending on its signaling properties. In this work, due to the favorable electrochemical properties of doxorubicin, the voltammetry method was used for quantitative analysis of released doxorubicin. The voltammetric oxidation peak current intensity of doxorubicin on the surface of the electrode was enhanced by increasing the release time. This membranelle platform allows fast, reliable, and simple monitoring of drug release profiles without any sample preparation, filtration, and centrifugation in buffer and blood serum samples.

Insight into oral amphiphilic cyclodextrin nanoparticles for colorectal cancer: comprehensive mathematical model of drug release kinetic studies and antitumoral efficacy in 3D spheroid colon tumors

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most diagnosed cancer type globally and ranks second in cancer-related deaths. With the current treatment possibilities, a definitive, safe, and effective treatment approach for CRC has not been presented yet. However, new drug delivery systems show promise in this field. Amphiphilic cyclodextrin-based nanocarriers are innovative and interesting formulation approaches for targeting the colon through oral administration. In our previous studies, oral chemotherapy for colon tumors was aimed and promising results were obtained with formulation development studies, mucin interaction, mucus penetration, cytotoxicity, and permeability in 2D cell culture, and furthermore in vivo antitumoral and antimetastatic efficacy in early and late-stage colon cancer models and biodistribution after single dose oral administration. This study was carried out to further elucidate oral camptothecin (CPT)-loaded amphiphilic cyclodextrin nanoparticles for the local treatment of colorectal tumors in terms of their drug release behavior and efficacy in 3-dimensional tumor models to predict the in vivo efficacy of different nanocarriers. The main objective was to build a bridge between formulation development and in vitro phase and animal studies. In this context, CPT-loaded polycationic-β-cyclodextrin nanoparticles caused reduced cell viability in CT26 and HT29 colon carcinoma spheroid tumors of mice and human origin, respectively. In addition, the release profile, which is one of the critical quality parameters in new drug delivery systems, was investigated mathematically by release kinetic modeling for the first time. The overall findings indicated that the strategy of orally targeting anticancer drugs such as CPT with positively charged poly-β-CD-C6 nanoparticles to colon tumors for local and/or systemic efficacy is a promising approach.

Chitosan Surface-Modified PLGA Nanoparticles Loaded with Cranberry Powder Extract as a Potential Oral Delivery Platform for Targeting Colon Cancer Cells

Nutraceutical cranberry powder extract (CBPE) has distinct polyphenols inhibiting colon cancer growth and proliferation. However, its oral therapeutic efficacy is hindered because of its low permeability. This study aims to formulate chitosan surface-modified PLGA nanoparticles (CS-PLGA NPs) for encapsulating CBPE and modulating its release rate, permeation, cell targeting, and, therefore, its cytotoxicity. A full 2³ factorial design is employed to scrutinize the effect of lactide/glycolide ratio, PLGA weight, and stabilizer concentrations on entrapment efficiency percentage (EE%), particle size (PS), polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential (ZP). The optimum formula (F4) shows spherical particles with a relatively high EE% (72.30 ± 2.86%), an appropriate size of 370.10 ± 10.31 nm, PDI; 0.398 ± 0.001, and ZP; -5.40 ± 0.21 mV. Alongside the ATR-FTIR outcomes, the chitosan surface-modified formula (CS-F4) demonstrates a significant increase in particle size (417.67 ± 6.77 nm) and a shift from negative to positive zeta potential (+21.63 ± 2.46 mV), confirming the efficiency of surface modification with chitosan. The intestinal permeability of F4 and CS-F4 is significantly increased by 2.19- and 3.10-fold, respectively, compared to the CBPE solution, with the permeability coefficient (P_app) being 2.05 × 10^-4 cm/min and 2.91 × 10^-4 cm/min, for F4 and CS-F4, respectively, compared to the CBPE solution, 9.36 × 10^-5 cm/min. Moreover, CS-F4 evidences significant caspase-3 protein level expression stimulation and significant inhibition of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and signal transducer and activator of transcription-3 (STAT-3) protein expression levels, confirming the superiority of CS-F4 for targeting HT-29 cells. Briefly, CS-PLGA NPs could be regarded as a prosperous delivery system of CBPE with enhanced permeation, cell targeting, and antitumor efficacy.

PEG-PLGA nanoparticles for encapsulating ciprofloxacin

Antibiotic medications have been found to hinder the success of regenerative endodontic treatment due to the rapid degradation of the drug, and the acidic nature of ciprofloxacin (CIP) can be harmful to stem cells of the apical papilla (SCAPs), the cells responsible for regeneration. In this study, a nanocarrier system was used for controlled drug release for longer drug activity and less cytotoxicity to the cells. CIP was loaded in poly (ethylene glycol) methyl ether-block-poly (lactide-co-glycolide) (PEG-PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) with an ion-pairing agent. The NPs demonstrated a monodispersed spherical morphology with a mean diameter of 120.7 ± 0.43 nm. The encapsulation efficiency of the CIP-loaded PEG-PLGA NPs was 63.26 ± 9.24%, and the loading content was 7.75 ± 1.13%. Sustained CIP release was achieved over 168 h and confirmed with theoretical kinetic models. Enhanced NP bactericidal activity was observed against Enterococcus faecalis. Additionally, CIP-loaded PEG-PLGA NPs had a low cytotoxic effect on SCAPs. These results suggest the use of a nanocarrier system to prolong the antibiotic activity, provide a sterile environment, and prevent reinfection by the bacteria remaining in the root canal during regenerative endodontic treatment.

Molecular Complex of HSIM-loaded Polymeric Nanoparticles: Potential Carriers in Osteoporosis

BACKGROUND

Statins, especially simvastatin promote bone formation by stimulating the activity of osteoblasts and suppressing osteoclast activity via the BMP-Smad signaling pathway. Statins present the liver first-pass metabolism. This study attempts to fabricate and evaluate simvastatin functionalized hydroxyapatite encapsulated in poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) nanoparticles (HSIM-PLGA NPs) administered subcutaneously with sustained release properties for effective management of osteoporosis.

METHODS

Simvastatin functionalized hydroxyapatite (HSIM) was prepared by stirring and validated by docking studies, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Further, HSIM-loaded PLGA nanoparticles (HSIM-PLGA NPs) were developed via the solvent emulsification method. The nanoparticles were evaluated for zeta potential, particle size, entrapment efficiency, stability studies, and in vitro drug release studies. in vitro binding affinity of nanoparticles for hydroxyapatite was also measured. Bone morphology and its effect on bone mineral density were examined by using a glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis rat model.

RESULTS

The optimized nanoparticles were found to be amorphous and showed no drug-polymer interaction. The particle size of formulated nanoparticles varied from 196.8 ± 2.27nm to 524.8 ± 5.49 nm and the entrapment efficiency of nanoparticles varied from 41.9 ± 3.44% to 70.8 ± 4.46%, respectively. The nanoparticles showed sustained release behaviour (75% in 24 hr) of the drug followed by non-fickian drug release. The nanoparticles exhibited high binding affinity to bone cell receptors, increasing bone mineral density. A significant difference in calcium and phosphorous levels was observed in disease and treatment rats. Porous bone and significant improvement in porosity were observed in osteoporotic rats and treated rats, respectively (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Bone-targeting nanoparticles incorporating functionalized simvastatin can target bone. Thus, in order to distribute simvastatin subcutaneously for the treatment of osteoporosis, the developed nanoparticles may act as a promising approach.

Some things old, new and borrowed: Delivery of dabrafenib and vemurafenib to melanoma cells via self-assembled nanomicelles based on an amphiphilic dendrimer

Two clinically approved anticancer drugs targeting BRAF in melanoma patients - dabrafenib (DAB) and vemurafenib (VEM) - have been successfully encapsulated into nanomicelles formed upon self-assembly of an amphiphilic dendrimer AD based on two C₁₈ aliphatic chains and a G2 PAMAM head. The process resulted in the formation of well-defined (∼10 nm) core-shell nanomicelles (NMs) with excellent encapsulation efficiency (∼70% for DAB and ∼60% for VEM) and good drug loading capacity (∼27% and ∼24% for DAB and VEM, respectively). Dynamic light scattering (DLS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), small-angle x-ray scattering (SAXS), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC), and molecular simulation (MS) experiments were used, respectively, to determine the size and structure of the empty and drug-loaded nanomicelles (DLNMs), along with the interactions between the NMs and their cargoes. The in vitro release data revealed profiles governed by Fickian diffusion; moreover, for both anticancer molecules, an acidic environment (pH = 5.0) facilitated drug release with respect to physiological pH conditions (pH = 7.4). Finally, both DAB- and VEM-loaded NMs elicited enhanced response with respect to free drug treatments in 4 different melanoma cell lines.

Nanoparticle Formulation Composition Analysis by Liquid Chromatography on Reversed-Phase Monolithic Silica

Multifunctional nanoparticle (NP) formulations for medical purposes have already found their way toward envisaged translation. A persistent challenge of those systems is, next to NP size analysis, the compositional analysis of the NPs with the polymer as the matrix component and the encapsulated drug, particularly in a quantitative manner. Herein, we report the formulation of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) NPs by nanoprecipitation and the analysis of their integrity and size by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Those NPs feature a variety of encapsulated drugs including the well-known ibuprofen (Ibu) as well as dexamethasone (Dex) and dexamethasone acetate (DexAce), with the latter being of potential interest for clinical treatment of SARS-CoV-2 patients. All those dissolved formulation compositions have been subjected to liquid chromatography on reversed-phase silica monolithic columns, allowing to quantitatively assess amounts of small molecule drug and NP constituting PLGA polymer in a single run. The chromatographically resolved hydrophobicity differences of the drugs correlated with their formulation loading and were clearly separated from the PLGA matrix polymer with high resolution. Our study identifies the viability of reversed-phase monolithic silica in the chromatography of both small drug molecules and particularly pharmapolymers in a repeatable and simultaneous fashion, and can provide a valuable strategy for analysis of diverse precursor polymer systems and drug components in multifunctional drug formulations.

Quality by Design Approach in Liposomal Formulations: Robust Product Development

Nanomedicine is an emerging field with continuous growth and differentiation. Liposomal formulations are a major platform in nanomedicine, with more than fifteen FDA-approved liposomal products in the market. However, as is the case for other types of nanoparticle-based delivery systems, liposomal formulations and manufacturing is intrinsically complex and associated with a set of dependent and independent variables, rendering experiential optimization a tedious process in general. Quality by design (QbD) is a powerful approach that can be applied in such complex systems to facilitate product development and ensure reproducible manufacturing processes, which are an essential pre-requisite for efficient and safe therapeutics. Input variables (related to materials, processes and experiment design) and the quality attributes for the final liposomal product should follow a systematic and planned experimental design to identify critical variables and optimal formulations/processes, where these elements are subjected to risk assessment. This review discusses the current practices that employ QbD in developing liposomal-based nano-pharmaceuticals.

Orally administered docetaxel-loaded chitosan-decorated cationic PLGA nanoparticles for intestinal tumors: formulation, comprehensive in vitro characterization, and release kinetics

Intestinal cancers are the third most lethal cancers globally, beginning as polyps in the intestine and spreading with a severe metastatic tendency. Chemotherapeutic drugs used in the treatment of intestinal tumors are usually formulated for parenteral administration due to poor solubility and bioavailability problems. Pharmaceutically, clinical failure due to a drug's wide biodistribution and non-selective toxicity is one of the major challenges of chemotherapy. In addition, parenteral drug administration in chronic diseases that require long-term drug use, such as intestinal tumors, is challenging in terms of patient compliance and poses a burden in terms of health economy. Especially in the field of chemotherapy research, oral chemotherapy is a subject that has been intensively researched in recent years, and developments in this field will provide serious breakthroughs both scientifically and socially. Development of orally applicable nanodrug formulations that can act against diseases seen in the distant region of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), such as intestinal tumor, brings with it a series of difficulties depending on the drug and/or GIT physiology. The aim of this study is to develop an oral nanoparticle drug delivery system loaded with docetaxel (DCX) as an anticancer drug, using poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) as nanoparticle material, and modified with chitosan (CS) to gain mucoadhesive properties. In this context, an innovative nanoparticle formulation that can protect orally administered DCX from GIT conditions and deliver the drug to the intestinal tumoral region by accumulating in mucus has been designed. For this purpose, DCX-PLGA nanoparticles (NPs) and CS/DCX-PLGA NPs were prepared, and their in vitro characteristics were elucidated. Nanoparticles around 250-300 nm were obtained. DCX-PLGA NPs had positive surface charge with CS coating. The formulations have the potential to deliver the encapsulated drug to the bowel according to the in vitro release studies in three different simulated GIT fluids for approximately 72 h. Mucin interaction and penetration into the artificial mucus layer were also investigated in detail, and the mucoadhesive and mucus-penetration characteristics of the formulations were examined. Furthermore, in vitro release kinetic studies of the NPs were elucidated. DCX-PLGA NPs were found to be compatible with the Weibull model, and CS/DCX-PLGA NPs were found to be compatible with the Peppas-Sahlin model. Within the scope of in vitro cytotoxicity studies, the drug-loaded NPs showed significantly higher cytotoxicity than a DCX solution on the HT-29 colon cell line, and CS/DCX-PLGA showed the highest cytotoxicity (p < 0.05). According to the permeability studies on the Caco-2 cell line, the CS/DCX-PLGA formulation increased permeability by 383% compared to free DCX (p < 0.05). In the light of all results, CS/DCX-PLGA NPs can offer a promising and innovative approach as an oral anticancer drug-loaded nanoformulation for intestinal tumors.

Curcumin loaded Ag-TiO2-halloysite nanotubes platform for combined chemo-photodynamic therapy treatment of cancer cells

The use of naturally occurring anticancer materials in combination with doped metal oxide has emerged as one of the most promising ways for improving anticancer treatment efficacy. In this study, the anticancer potential of curcumin-loaded Ag-TiO₂-halloysite nanotubes (curcumin-loaded Ag-TiO₂-HNTs) was examined. Ag-TiO₂-HNTs with different wt% of Ag-TiO₂ were synthesized and characterized using XRD, TGA, FT-IR, UV-Vis spectroscopy, and SEM-EDX. The XRD results revealed the presence of crystalline TiO₂. However, the presence of Ag was detected through the SEM-EDX analysis. Cyclic voltammetry measurements suggested the enhancement of the release of ROS from TiO₂ upon deposition with Ag. FT-IR and TGA analysis confirmed the successful loading of curcumin inside the nanotubes of the halloysite. In vitro drug released studies revealed the release of approximately 80-99% curcumin within 48 hours. Kinetic model studies revealed that the release of curcumin from HNT and Ag-TiO₂-HNT followed the first-order and Higuchi models, respectively. The light irradiated curcumin-loaded Ag-TiO₂-HNTs samples exhibited considerable anticancer potential as compared to the free curcumin, irradiated Ag-TiO₂ NPs samples, and unirradiated curcumin loaded Ag-TiO₂-HNTs samples. The obtained results revealed that combined chemo- and photodynamic therapy using curcumin-loaded Ag-TiO₂-HNTs nanomaterial has the potential as an effective anticancer treatment method.

Biodegradable PEG-PCL Nanoparticles for Co-delivery of MUC1 Inhibitor and Doxorubicin for the Confinement of Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Combating triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is still a problem, despite the development of numerous drug delivery approaches. Mucin1 (MUC1), a glycoprotein linked to chemo-resistance and progressive malignancy, is unregulated in TNBC. GO-201, a MUC1 peptide inhibitor that impairs MUC1 activity, promotes necrotic cell death by binding to the MUC1-C unit. The current study deals with the synthesis and development of a novel nano-formulation (DM-PEG-PCL NPs) comprising of polyethylene glycol-polycaprolactone (PEG-PCL) polymer loaded with MUC1 inhibitor and an effective anticancer drug, doxorubicin (DOX). The DOX and MUC1 loaded nanoparticles were fully characterized, and their different physicochemical properties, viz. size, shape, surface charge, entrapment efficiencies, release behavior, etc., were determined. With IC₅₀ values of 5.8 and 2.4 nm on breast cancer cell lines, accordingly, and a combination index (CI) of < 1.0, DM-PEG-PCL NPs displayed enhanced toxicity towards breast cancer cells (MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231) than DOX-PEG-PCL and MUC1i-PEG-PCL nanoparticles. Fluorescence microscopy analysis revealed DOX localization in the nucleus and MUC1 inhibitor in the mitochondria. Further, DM-PEG-PCL NPs treated breast cancer cells showed increased mitochondrial damage with enhancement in caspase-3 expression and reduction in Bcl-2 expression.In vivo evaluation using Ehrlich Ascites Carcinoma bearing mice explicitly stated that DM-PEG-PCL NPs therapy minimized tumor growth relative to control treatment. Further, acute toxicity studies did not reveal any adverse effects on organs and their functions, as no mortalities were observed. The current research reports for the first time the synergistic approach of combination entrapment of a clinical chemotherapeutic (DOX) and an anticancer peptide (MUC1 inhibitor) encased in a diblock PEG-PCL copolymer. Incorporating both DOX and MUC1 inhibitors in PEG-PCL NPs in the designed nanoformulation has provided chances and insights for treating triple-negative breast tumors. Our controlled delivery technology is biodegradable, non-toxic, and anti-multidrug-resistant. In addition, this tailored smart nanoformulation has been particularly effective in the therapy of triple-negative breast cancer.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10924-022-02654-4.