Antioxidative Effects of Carrot-Derived Nanovesicles in Cardiomyoblast and Neuroblastoma Cells

Lycium ruthenicum Murray derived exosome-like nanovesicles inhibit Aβ-induced apoptosis in PC12 cells via MAPK and PI3K/AKT signaling pathways

Plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles (ELNs) are nano-sized vesicles extracted from edible plants. Lycium ruthenicum Murray (LRM) has been gaining increasing attention due to its nutritional and medicinal value, but the ELNs in LRM has not been reported. In this study, LRM-ELNs were obtained, and the proteins, lipids, microRNAs (miRNAs) and active components in LRM tissues and LRM-ELNs was analyzed by LC-MS/MS, LC-MS, high-throughput sequencing techniques, and physical and chemical analysis. LRM-ELNs can be uptaken by PC12 cells through macropinocytosis and caveolin-mediated endocytosis primarily. Transcriptomic and western blot experiments indicate that LRM-ELNs can inhibit Aβ-induced apoptosis in PC12 cells through the MAPK and PI3K/AKT signaling pathways, with miRNAs playing a crucial role. These results indicate that LRM-ELNs have the protection effect on PC12 cells and can be considered as dietary supplements for alleviating neurodegenerative diseases.

Scalable Purification, Storage, and Release of Plant-Derived Nanovesicles for Local Therapy Using Nanostructured All-Cellulose Composite Membranes

Plant-derived nanovesicles such as bilberries nanovesicles (BNVs) show immense promise as next-generation biotherapeutics and functional food ingredients; however, their isolation, purification, and storage on a large scale remain a challenge. In this study, biocompatible and nanostructured composite all-cellulose membranes are introduced as a scalable and straightforward approach to the isolation of BNV. The membranes consisting of a cellulose acetate matrix infused with anionic or cationic nanocelluloses promoted selective capture of BNVs through electrostatic and size-exclusion-mediated depth filtration. Furthermore, the surface of the composite membrane acted as a storage matrix for BNVs, ensuring their prolonged stability at 4 °C. The BNVs stored in the membrane could be promptly released through elution assisted by low-pressure vacuum filtration or diffusion in liquid media. The morphology, bioactivity, and stability of the extracted BNVs were preserved, and the release rate of BNVs in different cell cultures could be regulated, facilitating their use for local therapy. Consequently, this approach paves the way for the scalable production, purification, and storage of nanovesicles and advances their use in biotherapeutics and functional foods.

Emerging Trends in the Application of Extracellular Vesicles as Novel Oral Delivery Vehicles for Therapeutics in Inflammatory Diseases

Inflammation involves complex immune responses where cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1, and IL-6 promote vasodilation and increased vascular permeability to facilitate immune cell migration to inflammation sites. Persistent inflammation is linked to diseases like cancer, arthritis, and neurodegenerative disorders. Although oral anti-inflammatory drugs are favored for their non-invasiveness and cost-effectiveness, their efficacy is often compromised due to gastrointestinal degradation and limited bioavailability. Recent advancements highlight the potential of extracellular vesicles (EVs) as nanocarriers that enhance drug delivery by encapsulating therapeutic agents, ensuring targeted release and reduced toxicity. These EVs, derived from dietary sources and cell cultures, exhibit excellent biocompatibility and stability, presenting a novel approach in anti-inflammatory therapies. This review discusses the classification and advantages of orally administered EVs (O-EVs), their mechanism of action, and their emerging role in treating inflammatory conditions, positioning them as promising vectors in the development of innovative anti-inflammatory drug delivery systems.

Phytoconstituents with cardioprotective properties: A pharmacological overview on their efficacy against myocardial infarction

Myocardial infarction (MI) is considered one of the most common cardiac diseases and major cause of death worldwide. The prevalence of MI and MI-associated mortality have been increasing in recent years due to poor lifestyle habits viz. residency, obesity, stress, and pollution. Synthetic drugs for the treatment of MI provide good chance of survival; however, the demand to search more safe, effective, and natural drugs is increasing. Plants provide fruitful sources for powerful antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agents for prevention and/or treatment of MI. However, many plant extracts lack exact information about their possible dosage, toxicity and drug interactions which may hinder their usefulness as potential treatment options. Phytoconstituents play cardioprotective role by either acting as a prophylactic or adjuvant therapy to the concurrently used synthetic drugs to decrease the dosage or relief the side effects of such drugs. This review highlights the role of different herbal formulations, examples of plant extracts and types of several isolated phytoconstituents (phenolic acids, flavonoids, stilbenes, alkaloids, phenyl propanoids) in the prevention of MI with reported activities. Moreover, their possible mechanisms of action are also discussed to guide future research for the development of safer substitutes to manage MI.

Recognition on pharmacodynamic ingredients of natural products

Natural products (NPs) play an irreplaceable role in the intervention of various diseases and have been considered a critical source of drug development. Many new pharmacodynamic compounds with potential clinical applications have recently been derived from NPs. These compounds range from small molecules to polysaccharides, polypeptides, proteins, self-assembled nanoparticles, and extracellular vesicles. This review summarizes various active substances found in NPs. The investigation of active substances in NPs can potentiate new drug development and promote the in-depth comprehension of the mechanism of action of NPs that can be beneficial in the prevention and treatment of human diseases.

Macromolecules with predominant β-pleated sheet proteins in extracellular vesicles released from Raphanus sativus L. var. caudatus Alef microgreens induce DNA damage-mediated apoptosis in HCT116 colon cancer cells

Plant-derived bioactive macromolecules (i.e., proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids) were prepared as extracellular vesicles (EVs). Plant-derived EVs are gaining pharmaceutical research interest because of their bioactive components and delivery properties. The spherical nanosized EVs derived from Raphanus sativus L. var. caudatus Alef microgreens previously showed antiproliferative activity in HCT116 colon cancer cells from macromolecular compositions (predominantly proteins). To understand the mechanism of action, the biological activity studies, i.e., antiproliferation, cellular biochemical changes, DNA conformational changes, DNA damage, apoptotic nuclear morphological changes, apoptosis induction, and apoptotic pathways, were determined by neutral red uptake assay, synchrotron radiation-based Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopy, circular dichroism spectroscopy, comet assay, 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining, flow cytometry, and caspase activity assay, respectively. EVs inhibited HCT116 cell growth in concentration- and time-dependent manners, with a half-maximal inhibitory concentration of 675.4 ± 33.8 μg/ml at 48 h and a selectivity index of 1.5 ± 0.076. HCT116 treated with EVs mainly changed the cellular biochemical compositions in the nucleic acids and carbohydrates region. The DNA damage caused no changes in DNA conformation. The apoptotic nuclear morphological changes were associated with the increased apoptotic cell population. The apoptotic cell death was induced by both extrinsic and intrinsic pathways. EVs have potential as antiproliferative bioparticles.

Gut-liver axis: Potential mechanisms of action of food-derived extracellular vesicles

Food-derived extracellular vesicles (FEVs) are nanoscale membrane vesicles obtained from dietary materials such as breast milk, plants and probiotics. Distinct from other EVs, FEVs can survive the harsh degrading conditions in the gastrointestinal tract and reach the intestines. This unique feature allows FEVs to be promising prebiotics in health and oral nanomedicine for gut disorders, such as inflammatory bowel disease. Interestingly, therapeutic effects of FEVs have recently also been observed in non-gastrointestinal diseases. However, the mechanisms remain unclear or even mysterious. It is speculated that orally administered FEVs could enter the bloodstream, reach remote organs, and thus exert therapeutic effects therein. However, emerging evidence suggests that the amount of FEVs reaching organs beyond the gastrointestinal tract is marginal and may be insufficient to account for the significant therapeutic effects achieved regarding diseases involving remote organs such as the liver. Thus, we herein propose that FEVs primarily act locally in the intestine by modulating intestinal microenvironments such as barrier integrity and microbiota, thereby eliciting therapeutic impact remotely on the liver in non-gastrointestinal diseases via the gut-liver axis. Likewise, drugs delivered to the gastrointestinal system through FEVs may act via the gut-liver axis. As the liver is the main metabolic hub, the intestinal microenvironment may be implicated in other metabolic diseases. In fact, many patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular disease suffer from a leaky gut and dysbiosis. In this review, we provide an overview of the recent progress in FEVs and discuss their biomedical applications as therapeutic agents and drug delivery systems, highlighting the pivotal role of the gut-liver axis in the mechanisms of action of FEVs for the treatment of gut disorders and metabolic diseases.

Unlocking the Medicinal Potential of Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: current Progress and Future Perspectives

Botanical preparations for herbal medicine have received more and more attention from drug researchers, and the extraction of active ingredients and their successful clinical application have become an important direction of drug research in major pharmaceutical companies, but the complexity of extracts, multiple side effects, and significant individual differences have brought many difficulties to the clinical application of herbal preparations. It is noteworthy that extracellular vesicles as active biomolecules extracted from medicinal plants are believed to be useful for the treatment of a variety of diseases, including cancer, inflammation, regenerative-restorative and degenerative diseases, which may provide a new direction for the clinical utilization of herbal preparations. In this review, we sort out recent advances in medicinal plant extracellular vesicles and discuss their potential as disease therapeutics. Finally, future challenges and research directions for the clinical translation of medicinal plant extracellular vesicles are also discussed, and we expect that continued development based on medicinal plant extracellular vesicles will facilitate the clinical application of herbal preparations.

Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles for microRNA delivery in cancer treatment

Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PELNs) are natural nanocarriers and effective delivery systems for plant microRNAs (miRNAs). These PELN-carrying plant miRNAs can regulate mammalian genes across species, thereby increasing the diversity of miRNAs in mammals and exerting multi-target effects that play a crucial role in diseases, particularly cancer. PELNs demonstrate exceptional stability, biocompatibility, and targeting capabilities that protect and facilitate the up-take and cross-kingdom communication of plant miRNAs in mammals. Primarily ingested and absorbed within the gastrointestinal tract of mammals, PELNs preferentially act on the intestine to regulate intestinal homeostasis through functional miRNA activity. The oncogenesis and progression of cancer are closely associated with disruptions in intestinal barriers, ecological imbalances, as well as secondary changes, such as abnormal inflammatory reactions caused by them. Therefore, it is imperative to investigate whether PELNs exert their anticancer effects by regulating mammalian intestinal homeostasis and inflammation. This review aims to elucidate the intrinsic crosstalk relationships and mechanisms of PELNs-mediated miRNAs in maintaining intestinal homeostasis, regulating inflammation and cancer treatment. Furthermore, serving as exceptional drug delivery systems for miRNAs molecules, PELNs offer broad prospects for future applications, including new drug research and development along with drug carrier selection within targeted drug delivery approaches for cancer therapy.

Plant-Derived Vesicle-like Nanoparticles: The Next-Generation Drug Delivery Nanoplatforms

A wide variety of natural bioactive compounds derived from plants have demonstrated significant clinical relevance in the treatment of various diseases such as cancer, chronic disease, and inflammation. An increasing number of studies have surfaced that give credence to the potential of plant-derived vesicle-like nanoparticles (PDVLNs) as compelling candidates for a drug delivery system (DDS). PDVLNs are cost-effective production, non-toxicity and non-immunogenicity and fascinating bi-ocompatibility. In this review, we attempt to comprehensively review and consolidate the position of PDVLNs as next-generation drug delivery nanoplatforms. We aim to give a quick glance to readers of the current developments of PDVLNs, including their biogenesis, characteristic features, composition, administration routes, advantages, and application. Further, we discuss the advantages and limitations of PDVLNs. We expect that the role of PDVLNs in drug delivery will be significantly enhanced, thus positioning them as the next generation of therapeutic modalities in the foreseeable future.

Co-Treatment with Phlorotannin and Extracellular Vesicles from Ecklonia cava Inhibits UV-Induced Melanogenesis

Hyperpigmentation due to ultraviolet (UV)-induced melanogenesis causes various esthetic problems. Phlorotannin (PT) and extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from various plants suppress melanogenesis pathways. We used UV-exposed keratinocytes and animal skin to determine if co-treatment with PT and EVs from Ecklonia cava (EVE) could inhibit melanogenesis by reducing UV-induced oxidative stress and the expression of the thioredoxin-interacting protein (TXNIP)/nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor family pyrin domain containing the 3 (NLRP3)/interleukin-18 (IL-18) pathway, which are upstream signals of the microphthalmia-associated transcription factor. UV exposure increased oxidative stress in keratinocytes and animal skin, as evaluated by 8-OHdG expression, and this effect was reduced by co-treatment with PT and EVE. UV also increased binding between NLRP3 and TXNIP, which increased NLRP3 inflammasome activation and IL-18 secretion, and this effect was reduced by co-treatment with PT and EVE in keratinocytes and animal skin. In melanocytes, conditioned media (CM) from UV-exposed keratinocytes increased the expression of melanogenesis-related pathways; however, these effects were reduced with CM from UV-exposed keratinocytes treated with PT and EVE. Similarly, PT and EVE treatment reduced melanogenesis-related signals, melanin content, and increased basement membrane (BM) components in UV-exposed animal skin. Thus, co-treatment with PT and EVE reduced melanogenesis and restored the BM structure by reducing oxidative stress and TXNIP/NLRP3/IL-18 pathway expression.

Molecular mechanisms and therapeutic application of extracellular vesicles from plants

Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) isolated from animal sources are among the most investigated types of cell-free therapeutic tools to cure different diseases. sEVs have been isolated from a variety of sources, ranging from prokaryotes to animals and plants. Human-derived sEVs have many uses in pre- and clinical studies in medicine and drug delivery, while plant-derived EVs, also known as plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs), have not been widely investigated until the second decade of the 21st century. For the past five years, there has been a rapid rise in the use of plant EVs as a therapeutic tool due to the ease of massive production with high efficacy and yield of preparation. Plant EVs contain various active biomolecules such as proteins, regulatory RNAs, and secondary metabolites and play a key role in inter-kingdom communications. Many studies have already investigated the potential application of plant EVs in preventing and treating cancer, inflammation, infectious diseases, and tissue regeneration with no sign of toxicity and are therefore considered safe. However, due to a lack of universal markers, the properties of plant EVs have not been extensively studied. Concerns regarding the safety and therapeutic function of plant EVs derived from genetically modified plants have been raised. In this paper, we review the physiological role of EVs in plants. Moreover, we focus on molecular and cellular mechanisms involved in the therapeutic effects of plant EVs on various human diseases. We also provide detailed information on the methodological aspects of plant EV isolation and analysis, which could pave the way for future clinical translation.

Emerging Drug Delivery Vectors: Engineering of Plant-Derived Nanovesicles and Their Applications in Biomedicine

Extracellular vesicles can transmit intercellular information and transport biomolecules to recipient cells during various pathophysiological processes in the organism. Animal cell exosomes have been identified as potential nanodrugs delivery vehicles, yet they have some shortcomings such as high immunogenicity, high cytotoxicity, and complicated preparation procedures. In addition to exosomes, plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDVs), which carry a variety of active substances, are another promising nano-transport vehicles emerging in recent years due to their stable physicochemical properties, wide source, and low cost. This work briefly introduces the collection and characterization of PDVs, then focuses on the application of PDVs as natural or engineered drug carriers in biomedicine, and finally discusses the development and challenges of PDVs in future applications.

Exploring the Potential of Plant-Derived Exosome-like Nanovesicle as Functional Food Components for Human Health: A Review

Plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles (PELNs) are bilayer membrane-enclosed nanovesicles secreted by plant cells, serving as carriers of various substances such as proteins, RNA, and metabolites. The mounting evidence suggests that PELN plays a crucial role in transmembrane signaling, nutrient transportation, apoptosis, and regulation of gut microbiota composition. This makes it a promising "dark nutrient" for plants to modulate human physiology and pathogenesis. A comprehensive understanding of PELN formation, uptake, and functional mechanisms can offer novel insights into plant nutrition and functional properties, thereby facilitating the precise development of plant-based foods and drugs. This article provides a summary of PELN extraction and characterization, as well as absorption and delivery processes. Furthermore, it focuses on the latest discoveries and underlying physiological mechanisms of PELN's functions while exploring future research directions.

Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: A New Revolutionization of Modern Healthy Diets and Biomedical Applications

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) have recently emerged as a promising area of research due to their potential health benefits and biomedical applications. Produced by various plant species, these EVs contain diverse bioactive molecules, including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Increasing in vitro and in vivo studies have shown that PDEVs have inherent pharmacological activities that affect cellular processes, exerting anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer activities, which can potentially contribute to disease therapy and improve human health. Additionally, PDEVs have shown potential as efficient and biocompatible drug delivery vehicles in treating various diseases. However, while PDEVs serve as a potential rising star in modern healthy diets and biomedical applications, further research is needed to address their underlying knowledge gaps, especially the lack of standardized protocols for their isolation, identification, and large-scale production. Furthermore, the safety and efficacy of PDEVs in clinical applications must be thoroughly evaluated. In this review, we concisely discuss current knowledge in the PDEV field, including their characteristics, biomedical applications, and isolation methods, to provide an overview of the current state of PDEV research. Finally, we discuss the challenges regarding the current and prospective issues for PDEVs. This review is expected to provide new insights into healthy diets and biomedical applications of vegetables and fruits, inspiring new advances in natural food-based science and technology.

Beta vulgaris-derived exosome-like nanovesicles alleviate chronic doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity by inhibiting ferroptosis

Dose-dependent heart failure is a major complication of the clinical use of doxorubicin (Dox), one of the most potent chemotherapeutic agents. Effective adjuvant therapy is required to prevent Dox-induced cardiotoxicity. Currently, plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicle (PELNV) has revealed their salubrious antioxidant and immunological regulating actions in various disease models. In this study, we isolated, purified and characterized Beta vulgaris-derived exosome-like nanovesicle (BELNV). Dox or normal saline was given to HL-1 cells (3 μM) and 8-week C57BL/6N mice (5 mg/kg bodyweight per week for 4 weeks) to establish the in vitro and in vivo model of Dox-induced cardiotoxicity. Administration of BELNV significantly alleviated chronic Dox-induced cardiotoxicity in terms of echocardiographic and histological results. A reduced malondialdehyde (MDA), increased ratio of glutathione (GSH) to oxidized glutathione (GSSG) and levels of system xc- and glutathione peroxidase 4 were observed, indicating that DOX-stimulated ferroptosis was reversed by BELNV. Besides, the safety of BELNV was also validated since no liver, spleen, and kidney toxicity induced by BELNV was observed. These findings provide evidence that BELNV may act as a novel therapeutic biomaterial for patients undergoing adverse effects of Dox, at least partly mediated by inhibiting Dox-induced ferroptosis.

Prospects of plant-derived exosome-like nanocarriers in oncology and tissue engineering

Almost all cell types, either in vivo or in vitro, create extracellular vesicles (EVs). Among them are exosomes (EXOs), i.e., tiny nanovesicles containing a lipid bilayer, proteins, and RNAs that are actively involved in cellular communication, indicating that they may be exploited as both diagnostics and therapeutics for conditions like cancer. These nanoparticles can also be used as nanocarriers in many types of research to carry agents such as drugs. Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PENs) are currently under investigation as a substitute for EXOs formed from mammalian cells, allowing researchers to get beyond the technical constraints of mammalian vesicles. Because of their physiological, chemical, and biological properties, PENs have a lot of promise for use as nanocarriers in drug delivery systems that can deliver various dosages, especially when it comes to large-scale repeatability. The present study has looked at the origins and isolation techniques of PENs, their anticancer properties, their usage as nanocarriers in the treatment of different illnesses, and their antioxidant properties. These nanoparticles can aid in the achievement of therapeutic objectives, as they have benign, non-immunogenic side effects and can pass biological barriers. Time-consuming and perhaps damaging PEN separation techniques is used. For the current PEN separation techniques to be used in commercial and therapeutic settings, they must be altered. In this regard, the concurrent application of biological sciences can be beneficial for improving PEN separation techniques. PENs' innate metabolic properties provide them a great deal of promise for application in drug delivery systems. However, there could be a risk to both the loaded medications and the intrinsic bioactive components if these particles are heavily armed with drugs. Therefore, to prevent these side effects, more studies are needed to devise sophisticated drug-loading procedures and to learn more about the physiology of PENs.

Plant-derived nanovesicles as an emerging platform for cancer therapy

Plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs) derived from natural green products have emerged as an attractive nanoplatform in biomedical application. They are usually characterized by unique structural and biological functions, such as the bioactive lipids/proteins/nucleic acids as therapeutics and targeting groups, immune-modulation, and long-term circulation. With the rapid development of nanotechnology, materials, and synthetic chemistry, PDNVs can be engineered with multiple functions for efficient drug delivery and specific killing of diseased cells, which represent an innovative biomaterial with high biocompatibility for fighting against cancer. In this review, we provide an overview of the state-of-the-art studies concerning the development of PDNVs for cancer therapy. The original sources, methods for obtaining PDNVs, composition and structure are introduced systematically. With an emphasis on the featured application, the inherent anticancer properties of PDNVs as well as the strategies in constructing multifunctional PDNVs-based nanomaterials will be discussed in detail. Finally, some scientific issues and technical challenges of PDNVs as promising options in improving anticancer therapy will be discussed, which are expected to promote the further development of PDNVs in clinical translation.

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles -a novel clinical anti-inflammatory drug carrier worthy of investigation

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) have shown remarkable potential as sustainable, green, and efficient drug delivery nanocarriers. As natural nanoparticles containing lipids, protein, nucleic acids and secondary metabolites, they have received widespread attention as a replacement for mammalian exosomes in recent years. In this review, the advances in isolation, identification, composition, therapeutic effect, and clinical application prospect were comprehensively reviewed, respectively. In addition, the specific modification strategies have been listed focusing on the inherent drawbacks of the raw PDEVs like low targeting efficiency and poor homogeneity. With emphasis on their biology mechanism in terms of immune regulation, regulating oxidative stress and promoting regeneration in the anti-inflammatory field and application value demonstrated by citing some typical examples, this review about PDEVs would provide a broad and fundamental vision for the in-depth exploration and development of plant-derived extracellular vesicles in the in-vivo anti-inflammation and even other biomedical applications.

Plant-derived nanovesicles: harnessing nature's power for tissue protection and repair

Tissue damage and aging lead to dysfunction, disfigurement, and trauma, posing significant global challenges. Creating a regenerative microenvironment to resist external stimuli and induce stem cell differentiation is essential. Plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs) are naturally bioactive lipid bilayer nanovesicles that contain proteins, lipids, ribonucleic acid, and metabolites. They have shown potential in promoting cell growth, migration, and differentiation into various types of tissues. With immunomodulatory, microbiota regulatory, antioxidant, and anti-aging bioactivities, PDNVs are valuable in resisting external stimuli and facilitating tissue repair. The unique structure of PDNVs provides an optimal platform for drug encapsulation, and surface modifications enhance their stability and specificity. Moreover, by employing synergistic administration strategies, PDNVs can maximize their therapeutic potential. This review summarized the progress and prospects of PDNVs as regenerative tools, provided insights into their selection for repair activities based on existing studies, considered the key challenge for clinical application, and anticipated their continued prominent role in the field of biomedicine.

Plant-Derived Vesicles: A New Era for Anti-Cancer Drug Delivery and Cancer Treatment

Lipid-structured vesicles have been applied for drug delivery system for over 50 years. Based on their origin, lipid-structured vesicles are divided into two main categories, namely synthetic lipid vesicles (SLNVEs) and vesicles of mammalian origin (MDVEs). Although SLNVEs can stably transport anti-cancer drugs, their biocompatibility is poor and degradation of exogenous substances is a potential risk. Unlike SLNVEs, MDVEs have excellent biocompatibility but are limited by a lack of stability and a risk of contamination by dangerous pathogens from donor cells. Since the first discovery of plant-derived vesicles (PDVEs) in carrot cell supernatants in 1967, emerging evidence has shown that PDVEs integrate the advantages of both SLNVEs and MDVEs. Notably, 55 years of dedicated research has indicated that PDVEs are an ideal candidate vesicle for drug preparation, transport, and disease treatment. The current review systematically focuses on the role of PDVEs in cancer therapy and in particular compares the properties of PDVEs with those of conventional lipid vesicles, summarizes the preparation methods and quality control of PDVEs, and discusses the application of PDVEs in delivering anti-cancer drugs and their underlying molecular mechanisms for cancer therapy. Finally, the challenges and future perspectives of PDVEs for the development of novel therapeutic strategies against cancer are discussed.

Perilla-Leaf-Derived Extracellular Vesicles Selectively Inhibit Breast Cancer Cell Proliferation and Invasion

Breast cancer is a common type of cancer characterized by high mortality rates. However, chemotherapy is not selective and often leads to side-effects. Therefore, there is a need for the development of highly efficient drugs. Recent studies have shown that some extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from cell cultures possess anti-cancer activity and hold great potential as cancer therapeutics. However, the use of mammalian cell cultures for EV production results in low productivity and high costs. To address this issue, extracellular vesicles derived from perilla leaves (Perex) were isolated and investigated for their anti-cancer activity in various cancer cells. Initially, a high concentration of Perex with a low level of impurities was successfully purified through a combination of ultrafiltration and size-exclusion chromatography. Perex exhibited potent anti-cancer activities, inhibiting the proliferation, migration, and invasion of MDA-MB-231 cancer cells, which have high levels of caveolin-1 compared to other cancer and normal cells. This selective attack on cancer cells with high levels of caveolin-1 reduces unwanted side-effects on normal cells. Considering its high productivity, low production cost, selective anti-cancer activity, and minimal side-effects, Perex represents a promising candidate for the therapeutic treatment of breast cancer.

Food-Derived Extracellular Vesicles as Multi-Bioactive Complex and Their Versatile Health Effects

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-bound organelles that are generally released by eukaryotic cells and enclose various cellular metabolic information, such as RNA, meta-proteins, and versatile metabolites. The physiological properties and diverse functions of food-derived EVs have been extensively elucidated, along with a recent explosive upsurge in EV research. Therefore, a concise review of the health effects of food-derived EVs is necessary. This review summarizes the structural stability and uptake pathways of food-derived EVs to target cells and their health benefits, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticarcinogenic effects, gut microbiome modulation, and intestinal barrier enhancement.

Isolation of Extracellular Vesicles from Phloem Sap by Size Exclusion Chromatography

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoparticles that are released by cells and participate in the transfer of information. It is now known that EVs from mammalian cells are involved in different physiological and pathophysiological processes (antigen presentation, tissue regeneration, cancer, inflammation, diabetes, etc.). In the past few years, several studies on plants have demonstrated that EVs are also key tools for plant intercellular and cross-kingdom communications, suggesting that these nanostructures may contribute to distinct aspects of plant physiology such as development, defense, reproduction, symbiotic relationships, etc. These findings are challenging the traditional view of signaling in plants. EVs are probably involved in the phloem's transport system, since this vascular tissue plays a crucial role in translocating nutrients, defensive compounds, and informational signals throughout the plant. The collection of phloem is experimentally challenging because sap is under high turgor pressure inside the sieve elements, which have a small diameter and are hidden within the plant organs. The goals of this work are to develop new protocols that allow us to detect EVs for the first time in the phloem of the plants, and to isolate these nanovesicles for in-depth analysis and characterization. Our protocols describe two distinct methods to collect the phloem sap from rice and melon. The first method (Basic Protocol 1) involves 'Aphid stylectomy by radiofrequency microcautery' using rice plants and the aphid Sitobion avenae. This is considered the least invasive method for collecting phloem sap. The second method, 'Stem incision', involves cutting the stem of melon plants for collecting the exuded sap. Phloem sap EVs are then isolated by size exclusion chromatography. The results obtained in this study represent the first report on typical EVs isolated from in vivo-collected phloem sap. © 2023 The Authors. Current Protocols published by Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Isolation of EVs from phloem sap: Aphid stylectomy by radiofrequency microcautery Basic Protocol 2: Isolation of EVs from phloem sap: Stem incision method.

Plant and mammalian-derived extracellular vesicles: a new therapeutic approach for the future

Background: In recent years, extracellular vesicles have been recognized as important mediators of intercellular communication through the transfer of active biomolecules (proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids) across the plant and animal kingdoms and have considerable roles in several physiological and pathological mechanisms, showing great promise as new therapeutic strategies for a variety of pathologies. Methods: In this study, we carefully reviewed the numerous articles published over the last few decades on the general knowledge of extracellular vesicles, their application in the therapy of various pathologies, and their prospects as an approach for the future. Results: The recent discovery and characterization of extracellular vesicles (EVs) of diverse origins and biogenesis have altered the current paradigm of intercellular communication, opening up new diagnostic and therapeutic perspectives. Research into these EVs released by plant and mammalian cells has revealed their involvement in a number of physiological and pathological mechanisms, such as embryonic development, immune response, tissue regeneration, and cancer. They are also being studied as potential biomarkers for disease diagnosis and vectors for drug delivery. Conclusion: Nanovesicles represent powerful tools for intercellular communication and the transfer of bioactive molecules. Their molecular composition and functions can vary according to their origin (plant and mammalian), so their formation, composition, and biological roles open the way to therapeutic applications in a variety of pathologies, which is arousing growing interest in the scientific community. Clinical Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03608631.

Plant-derived nanovesicles: Further exploration of biomedical function and application potential

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are phospholipid bilayer vesicles actively secreted by cells, that contain a variety of functional nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids, and are important mediums of intercellular communication. Based on their natural properties, EVs can not only retain the pharmacological effects of their source cells but also serve as natural delivery carriers. Among them, plant-derived nanovesicles (PNVs) are characterized as natural disease therapeutics with many advantages such as simplicity, safety, eco-friendliness, low cost, and low toxicity due to their abundant resources, large yield, and low risk of immunogenicity in vivo. This review systematically introduces the biogenesis, isolation methods, physical characterization, and components of PNVs, and describes their administration and cellular uptake as therapeutic agents. We highlight the therapeutic potential of PNVs as therapeutic agents and drug delivery carriers, including anti-inflammatory, anticancer, wound healing, regeneration, and antiaging properties as well as their potential use in the treatment of liver disease and COVID-19. Finally, the toxicity and immunogenicity, the current clinical application, and the possible challenges in the future development of PNVs were analyzed. We expect the functions of PNVs to be further explored to promote clinical translation, thereby facilitating the development of a new framework for the treatment of human diseases.

Lemon-derived nanovesicles achieve antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects activating the AhR/Nrf2 signaling pathway

In the last years, extracellular vesicles (EVs) from different plant matrices have been isolated and gained the interest of the scientific community for their intriguing biological properties. In this study, we isolated and characterized nanovesicles from lemon juice (LNVs) and evaluated their antioxidant effects. We tested LNV antioxidant activity using human dermal fibroblasts that were pre-treated with LNVs for 24 h and then stimulated with hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and UVB irradiation. We found that LNV pre-treatment reduced ROS levels in fibroblasts stimulated with H₂O₂ and UVB. This reduction was associated with the activation of the AhR/Nrf2 signaling pathway, whose protein expression and nuclear localization was increased in fibroblasts treated with LNVs. By using zebrafish embryos as in vivo model, we confirmed the antioxidant effects of LNVs. We found that LNVs reduced ROS levels and neutrophil migration in zebrafish embryos stimulated with LPS.

Therapeutic Applications of Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles as Antioxidants for Oxidative Stress-Related Diseases

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) composed of a lipid bilayer are released from various cell types, including animals, plants, and microorganisms, and serve as important mediators of cell-to-cell communication. EVs can perform a variety of biological functions through the delivery of bioactive molecules, such as nucleic acids, lipids, and proteins, and can also be utilized as carriers for drug delivery. However, the low productivity and high cost of mammalian-derived EVs (MDEVs) are major barriers to their practical clinical application where large-scale production is essential. Recently, there has been growing interest in plant-derived EVs (PDEVs) that can produce large amounts of electricity at a low cost. In particular, PDEVs contain plant-derived bioactive molecules such as antioxidants, which are used as therapeutic agents to treat various diseases. In this review, we discuss the composition and characteristics of PDEVs and the appropriate methods for their isolation. We also discuss the potential use of PDEVs containing various plant-derived antioxidants as replacements for conventional antioxidants.

Oral Treatment with Plant-Derived Exosomes Restores Redox Balance in H2O2-Treated Mice

Plant-derived exosomes (PDEs) are receiving much attention as a natural source of antioxidants. Previous research has shown that PDEs contain a series of bioactives and that their content varies depending on the fruit or vegetable source. It has also been shown that fruits and vegetables derived from organic agriculture produce more exosomes, are safer, free of toxic substances, and contain more bioactives. The aim of this study was to investigate the ability of orally administered mixes of PDE (Exocomplex^®) to restore the physiological conditions of mice treated for two weeks with hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), compared with mice left untreated after the period of H₂O₂ administration and mice that received only water during the experimental period. The results showed that Exocomplex^® had a high antioxidant capacity and contained a series of bioactives, including Catalase, Glutathione (GSH), Superoxide Dismutase (SOD), Ascorbic Acid, Melatonin, Phenolic compounds, and ATP. The oral administration of Exocomplex^® to the H₂O₂-treated mice re-established redox balance with reduced serum levels of both reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA), but also a general recovery of the homeostatic condition at the organ level, supporting the future use of PDE for health care.

Balloon Flower Root-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: In Vitro Assessment of Anti-Inflammatory, Proliferative, and Antioxidant Effects for Chronic Wound Healing

Excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) in wound lesions can lead to oxidative stress and failure of normal wound healing processes, eventually resulting in chronic skin wounds. A multitude of researchers have investigated various natural products with physiological activities, including antioxidant effects, for healing chronic skin wounds. Balloon flower root (BFR), which contains bioactive components such as platycodins, is known for its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. In this study, we isolated BFR-derived extracellular vesicles (BFR-EVs) that possess anti-inflammatory, proliferative, and antioxidant activities via a combination of polyethylene glycol-based precipitation and ultracentrifugation. Our objective was to investigate the potential of BFR-EVs in treating chronic wounds caused by ROS. Despite efficient intracellular delivery, BFR-EVs showed no significant cytotoxicity. In addition, BFR-EVs inhibited the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokine genes in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Furthermore, water-soluble tetrazolium salt-8 assay showed that BFR-EVs had a proliferation-promoting effect on human dermal fibroblasts (HDFs). Scratch closure and transwell migration assays indicated that BFR-EVs could promote the migration of HDFs. When the antioxidant effect of BFR-EVs was evaluated through 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate staining and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, the results revealed that BFR-EVs significantly suppressed ROS generation and oxidative stress induced by H₂O₂ and ultraviolet irradiation. Our findings suggest that BFR-EVs hold the potential as a natural candidate for healing chronic skin wounds.

Polymers in Engineering Extracellular Vesicle Mimetics: Current Status and Prospective

The maintenance of a high delivery efficiency by traditional nanomedicines during cancer treatment is a challenging task. As a natural mediator for short-distance intercellular communication, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have garnered significant attention owing to their low immunogenicity and high targeting ability. They can load a variety of major drugs, thus offering immense potential. In order to overcome the limitations of EVs and establish them as an ideal drug delivery system, polymer-engineered extracellular vesicle mimics (EVMs) have been developed and applied in cancer therapy. In this review, we discuss the current status of polymer-based extracellular vesicle mimics in drug delivery, and analyze their structural and functional properties based on the design of an ideal drug carrier. We anticipate that this review will facilitate a deeper understanding of the extracellular vesicular mimetic drug delivery system, and stimulate the progress and advancement of this field.

Novel N1 or N9 modified α-carboline analogues as potential ligands in Alzheimer's disease therapy: Synthesis and neurobiological activity evaluation

A series of new α-carboline analogues modified at N¹ or N⁹ positions by alkyl, benzyl and phenyl were synthesized and characterized as potential ligands for AD therapy. These compounds exhibited multifunctional neurobiological activities including anti-neuroinflammatory, neuroprotective and cholinesterase inhibition. Among them, compound 5d with good drug-like properties and no cytotoxicity, showed potent inhibitory activity against NO production (IC₅₀ = 1.45 μM), which could suppress the expression levels of iNOS and COX-2 in a dose-dependent manner. Further mechanism exploration indicated that compound 5d could regulate the NF-κB signaling pathway by decreasing the phosphorylation of IκB-α and p65. Notably, compound 5d could effectively decrease the LPS-induced aberrations in zebrafish. Compounds 3b, 4f, 5c, 5g, 5m and 6i exhibited potential neuroprotective activity (cell viability > 70 %) in the H₂O₂-induced PC-12 neuronal death model and rescued the SOD activity. In particular, compounds 3b, 4f, and 5g activated the Nrf2 signaling pathway, and improved the expressions of antioxidant proteins NQO-1 and HO-1, which alleviated the head cell apoptosis in zebrafish. Additionally, compound 6i exhibited potential inhibitory activity against BuChE with IC₅₀ of 0.77 μM. Overall, this work provided some lead compounds based on α-carboline used for AD therapy.

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) in nanomedicine for human disease and therapeutic modalities

BACKGROUND

The past few years have witnessed a significant increase in research related to plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) in biological and medical applications. Using biochemical technologies, multiple independent groups have demonstrated the important roles of PDEVs as potential mediators involved in cell-cell communication and the exchange of bio-information between species. Recently, several contents have been well identified in PDEVs, including nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and other active substances. These cargoes carried by PDEVs could be transferred into recipient cells and remarkably influence their biological behaviors associated with human diseases, such as cancers and inflammatory diseases. This review summarizes the latest updates regarding PDEVs and focuses on its important role in nanomedicine applications, as well as the potential of PDEVs as drug delivery strategies to develop diagnostic and therapeutic agents for the clinical management of diseases, especially like cancers.

CONCLUSION

Considering its unique advantages, especially high stability, intrinsic bioactivity and easy absorption, further elaboration on molecular mechanisms and biological factors driving the function of PDEVs will provide new horizons for the treatment of human disease.

Current understanding of plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles in regulating the inflammatory response and immune system microenvironment

Natural compounds are widely used to prevent and treat various diseases due to their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. As a kind of promising natural compound, plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PELNs) are extracted from multivesicular bodies of various edible plants, including vegetables, foods, and fruits, and mainly regulate the cellular immune response to pathogen attacks. Moreover, PELNs could remarkably interfere with the dynamic imbalance between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory effects, facilitating to maintain the homeostasis of cellular immune microenvironment. PELNs may serve as a better alternative to animal-derived exosomes (ADEs) owing to their widespread sources, cost-effectiveness, and easy accessibility. PELNs can mediate interspecies communication by transferring various cargoes such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids from plant cells to mammalian cells. This review summarizes the biogenesis, composition, and classification of exosomes; the common separation, purification, and characterization methods of PELNs, the potential advantages of PELNs over ADEs; and the anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory functions of PELNs in various diseases including colitis, cancer, and inflammation-associated metabolic diseases. Additionally, the future perspectives of PELNs and the challenges associated with their clinical application are discussed.

Characterization and bioactivity of extracellular vesicles isolated from pomegranate

In the current study, extracellular vesicles from pomegranate juice (PgEVs) were isolated for the first time using size exclusion chromatography (SEC). This method permitted us to obtain highly enriched EV samples without most of the non-EV co-isolated proteins. The characterization of PgEVs through nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) allowed the determination of vesicles' concentration/volume, size, and morphology. It was confirmed from the analytical data that PgEVs contain a homogeneous population of vesicles, with a dimension and structure comparable to plant-derived EVs. Proteomic analyses by LC-MS/MS led to the characterization of 131 proteins, and several of them were related commonly to the biogenesis and transport of EVs, and/or proposed as EV markers. PgEVs exerted anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and wound-healing effects when added to the in vitro cultures of monocytic (THP-1) and intestinal (Caco-2) cell lines, respectively.

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles: Recent advancements and current challenges on their use for biomedical applications

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) represent a diverse class of lipid bilayer membrane vesicles released by both animal and plant cells. These ubiquitous vesicles are involved in intercellular communication and transport of various biological cargos, including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. In recent years, interest in plant-derived EVs has increased tremendously, as they serve as a scalable and sustainable alternative to EVs derived from mammalian sources. In vitro and in vivo findings have demonstrated that these plant-derived vesicles (PDVs) possess intrinsic therapeutic activities that can potentially treat diseases and improve human health. In addition, PDVs can also act as efficient and biocompatible drug carriers. While preclinical studies have shown promising results, there are still several challenges and knowledge gaps that have to be addressed for the successful translation of PDVs into clinical applications, especially in view of the lack of standardised protocols for material handling and PDV isolation from various plant sources. This review provides the readers with a quick overview of the current understanding and research on PDVs, critically analysing the current challenges and highlighting the immense potential of PDVs as a novel class of therapeutics to treat human diseases. It is expected that this work will guide scientists to address the knowledge gaps currently associated with PDVs and promote new advances in plant-based therapeutic solutions.

Species-Specific Plant-Derived Nanoparticle Characteristics

Medicinal and agricultural plants contain numerous phytochemical compounds with pronounced biological effects on human health. They are known to encapsulate most of their characteristic bioactive compounds within membranous elements of intercellular communication known as exosomes. These nanovesicles serve as capsules protecting their biological activity and improving their penetration into the tissue. Therefore, the application of plant exosome preparations holds considerable potential for cosmetics and pharmacy, but the quality and consistency of plant material for exosome isolation is of critical importance. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to evaluate yield, size distribution patterns, and antioxidant properties between nanovesicle preparations of the following portfolio of medicinal plants: Kalanchoe daigremontiana, Artemisia absinthium, Hypericum perforatum, Silybum marianum, Chelidonium majus, and Scutellaria baicalensis. Results showed that nanoparticle yield, size distribution, and antioxidant activities were specific to plant species. Compared to other plants, nanoparticle preparations from Artemisia absinthium were distinguished by remarkably higher yield and concentration, while the highest antioxidant activity of plant-derived nanoparticle preparations per weight and per particle was determined to occur in Chelidonium majus and Hypericum perforatum samples. Results showed no significant correlation in DPPH (2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) free radical scavenging activity and FRAP (ferric reducing antioxidant power) between plant material and nanoparticle preparations. More detailed biochemical analysis of exosome preparations is necessary to validate their biological activity and its relation to source plant cells.

Exosomes as Novel Delivery Systems for Application in Traditional Chinese Medicine

Exosomes, as gifts of nature derived from various cell types with a size range from ~40 to 160 nm in diameter, have gained attention recently. They are composed of a lipid membrane bilayer structure containing different constituents, such as surface ligands and receptors, from the parental cells. Originating from a variety of sources, exosomes have the ability to participate in a diverse range of biological processes, including the regulation of cellular communication. On account of their ideal native structure and characteristics, exosomes are taken into account as drug delivery systems (DDSs). They can provide profound effects on conveying therapeutic agents with great advantages, including specific targeting, high biocompatibility, and non-toxicity. Further, they can also be considered to ameliorate natural compounds, the main constituents of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), which are usually ignored due to the complexity of their structures, poor stability, and unclear mechanisms of action. This review summarizes the classification of exosomes as well as the research progress on exosome-based DDSs for the treatment of different diseases in TCM. Furthermore, this review discusses the advantages and challenges faced by exosomes to contribute to their further investigation and application.

Plant-derived nanovesicles: Current understanding and applications for cancer therapy

Plant-derived vesicles (PDVs) are membranous structures that originate from plant cells and are responsible for multiple physiological and pathological functions. In the last decade, PDVs have gained much attention for their involvement in different biological processes, including intercellular communication and defense response, and recent scientific evidence has opened a new avenue for their applications in cancer treatment. Nevertheless, much remains unknown about these vesicles, and current research remains inconsistent. This review aims to provide a comprehensive introduction to PDVs, from their biological characteristics to purification methods, and to summarize the status of their potential development for cancer therapy.

Isolation of Aloe saponaria-Derived Extracellular Vesicles and Investigation of Their Potential for Chronic Wound Healing

A chronic wound is caused by a failure to progress through the normal phases of wound repair in an orderly and timely manner. To induce skin regeneration while inhibiting chronic inflammation, numerous natural products, and in particular, plant-derived biomaterials, have been developed. Aloe saponaria, is known to contain flavonoid and phenolic acid compounds with anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory properties. Here, we isolated extracellular vesicles (EVs) from Aloe saponaria by polyethylene glycol (PEG)-based precipitation and investigated their potential as a therapeutic for chronic wound healing. The Aloe saponaria-derived EVs (AS-EVs) showed no significant cytotoxicity on several cell types, despite a high level of intracellular uptake. When lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages were treated with AS-EVs, significant reductions in the expression of pro-inflammatory genes, such as interleukin-6 and interleukin-1β, were observed. Proliferation and migration of human dermal fibroblasts, as determined by the water-soluble tetrazolium salt-8 and transwell migration assay, respectively, were shown to be promoted by treatment with AS-EVs. It was also demonstrated that AS-EVs enhanced tube formation in human umbilical vein endothelial cells, indicating a stimulatory activity on angiogenesis; one of the crucial steps for effective wound healing. Collectively, our results suggest the potential of AS-EVs as a natural therapeutic for chronic wound healing.

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles as oral drug delivery carriers

Oral administration is one of the most convenient and widely utilized methods of drug administration. However, many drugs were difficult to be administered orally due to their poor oral bioavailability. Designing a safe and effective oral drug delivery system is one of the basic strategies to overcome the poor oral bioavailability. Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) were found in a variety of plants and have similar physical and chemical properties to mammalian EVs. It has been proved that PDEVs can effectively encapsulate hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs, remain stable in harsh gastrointestinal environments, and cross biological barriers to reach target tissues. Furthermore, the biological activity of PDEVs enables it to play a synergistic therapeutic role with drugs. In addition, the safety and high yield of PDEVs indicate their potential as oral drug carriers. In this review, we introduce the biogenesis, isolation, characterization and drug delivery methods of PDEVs, describe their stability, transport, delivery and therapeutic applications. Finally, the potential and challenges of PDEVs as drug carriers are discussed.

Characterization of anti-proliferative and anti-oxidant effects of nano-sized vesicles from Brassica oleracea L. (Broccoli)

In this in vitro study, we test our hypothesis that Broccoli-derived vesicles (BDVs), combining the anti-oxidant properties of their components and the advantages of their structure, can influence the metabolic activity of different cancer cell lines. BDVs were isolated from homogenized fresh broccoli (Brassica oleracea L.) using a sucrose gradient ultracentrifugation method and were characterized in terms of physical properties, such as particle size, morphology, and surface charge by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and laser doppler electrophoresis (LDE). Glucosinolates content was assessed by RPLC–ESI–MS analysis. Three different human cancer cell lines (colorectal adenocarcinoma Caco-2, lung adenocarcinoma NCI-H441 and neuroblastoma SHSY5Y) were evaluated for metabolic activity by the MTT assay, uptake by fluorescence and confocal microscopy, and anti-oxidant activity by a fluorimetric assay detecting intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). Three bands were obtained with average size measured by TEM based size distribution analysis of 52 nm (Band 1), 70 nm (Band 2), and 82 nm (Band 3). Glucobrassicin, glucoraphanin and neoglucobrassicin were found mostly concentrated in Band 1. BDVs affected the metabolic activity of different cancer cell lines in a dose dependent manner compared with untreated cells. Overall, Band 2 and 3 were more toxic than Band 1 irrespective of the cell lines. BDVs were taken up by cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Pre-incubation of cells with BDVs resulted in a significant decrease in ROS production in Caco-2 and NCI-H441 stimulated with hydrogen peroxide and SHSY5Y treated with 6-hydroxydopamine, with all three Bands. Our findings open to the possibility to find a novel “green” approach for cancer treatment, focused on using vesicles from broccoli, although a more in-depth characterization of bioactive molecules is warranted.

Emergence of Edible Plant-Derived Nanovesicles as Functional Food Components and Nanocarriers for Therapeutics Delivery: Potentials in Human Health and Disease

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a highly heterogeneous population of membranous particles that are secreted by almost all types of cells across different domains of life, including plants. In recent years, studies on plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs) showed that they could modulate metabolic reactions of the recipient cells, affecting (patho)physiology with health benefits in a trans-kingdom manner. In addition to its bioactivity, PDNV has advantages over conventional nanocarriers, making its application promising for therapeutics delivery. Here, we discuss the characteristics of PDNV and highlight up-to-date pre-clinical and clinical evidence, focusing on therapeutic application.

Extracellular vesicles isolated from dsRNA-sprayed barley plants exhibit no growth inhibition or gene silencing in Fusarium graminearum

Numerous reports have shown that incorporating a double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)-expressing transgene into plants or applying dsRNA by spraying it onto their leaves successfully protects them against invading pathogens exploiting the mechanism of RNA interference (RNAi). How dsRNAs or siRNAs are transferred between donor host cells and recipient fungal cells is largely unknown. It is speculated that plant extracellular vesicles (EVs) function as RNA shuttles between plants and their pathogens. Recently, we found that EVs isolated from host-induced gene silencing (HIGS) or spray-induced gene silencing (SIGS) plants contained dsRNA-derived siRNAs. In this study, we evaluated whether isolated EVs from dsRNA-sprayed barley (Hordeum vulgare) plants affected the growth of the phytopathogenic ascomycete Fusarium graminearum. Encouraged by our previous finding that dropping barley-derived EVs on F. graminearum cultures caused fungal stress phenotypes, we conducted an in vitro growth experiment in microtiter plates where we co-cultivated F. graminearum with plant EVs isolated from dsRNA-sprayed barley leaves. We observed that co-cultivation of F. graminearum macroconidia with barley EVs did not affect fungal growth. Furthermore, plant EVs containing SIGS-derived siRNA appeared not to affect F. graminearum growth and showed no gene silencing activity on F. graminearum CYP51 genes. Based on our findings, we concluded that either the amount of SIGS-derived siRNA was insufficient to induce target gene silencing in F. graminearum, indicating that the role of EVs in SIGS is minor, or that F. graminearum uptake of plant EVs from liquid cultures was inefficient or impossible.

Ferroptosis and Autophagy-Related Genes in the Pathogenesis of Ischemic Cardiomyopathy

Background

Obesity plays an important role in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and myocardial infarction (MI). Ferroptosis and ferritinophagy are related to metabolic pathways, such as fatty acid metabolism and mitochondrial respiration. We aimed to investigate the ferroptosis- and autophagy-related differentially expressed genes (DEGs) that might be potential targets for MI progression.

Methods

GSE116250 was analyzed to obtain DEGs. A Venn diagram was used to obtain the overlapping ferroptosis- and autophagy-related DEGs. The enrichment pathway analysis was performed and the hub genes were obtained. Pivotal miRNAs, transcription factors, and drugs with the hub genes interactions were also predicted. The MI mice model was constructed, and qPCR analysis and single-cell sequencing were used to validate the hub genes.

Results

Utilizing the limma package and the Venn diagram, 26 ferroptosis-related and 29 autophagy-related DEGs were obtained. The list of ferroptosis-related DEGs was analyzed, which were involved in the cellular response to a toxic substance, cellular oxidant detoxification, and the IL-17 signaling pathway. The list of autophagy-related DEGs was involved in the regulation of autophagy, the regulation of JAK-STAT signaling pathway, and the regulation of MAPK cascade. In the protein-protein interaction network, the hub DEGs, such as IL-6, PTGS2, JUN, NQO1, NOS3, LEPR, NAMPT, CDKN2A, CDKN1A, and Snai1, were obtained. After validation using qPCR analysis in the MI mice model and single-cell sequencing, the 10 hub genes can be the potential targets for MI deterioration.

Conclusion

The screened hub genes, IL-6, PTGS2, JUN, NQO1, NOS3, LEPR, NAMPT, CDKN2A, CDKN1A, and Snai1, may be therapeutic targets for patients with MI and may prevent adverse cardiovascular events.

The Potentiality of Plant-Derived Nanovesicles in Human Health-A Comparison with Human Exosomes and Artificial Nanoparticles

Research in science and medicine is witnessing a massive increases in literature concerning extracellular vesicles (EVs). From a morphological point of view, EVs include extracellular vesicles of a micro and nano sizes. However, this simplistic classification does not consider both the source of EVs, including the cells and the species from which Evs are obtained, and the microenvironmental condition during EV production. These two factors are of crucial importance for the potential use of Evs as therapeutic agents. In fact, the choice of the most suitable Evs for drug delivery remains an open debate, inasmuch as the use of Evs of human origin may have at least two major problems: (i) autologous Evs from a patient may deliver dangerous molecules; and (ii) the production of EVs is also limited to cell factory conditions for large-scale industrial use. Recent literature, while limited to only a few papers, when compared to the papers on the use of human EVs, suggests that plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNV) may represent a valuable tool for extensive use in health care.

Plant-RNA in Extracellular Vesicles: The Secret of Cross-Kingdom Communication

The release of extracellular vesicles (EVs) is a common language, used by living organisms from different kingdoms as a means of communication between them. Extracellular vesicles are lipoproteic particles that contain many biomolecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. The primary role of EVs is to convey information to the recipient cells, affecting their function. Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) can be isolated from several plant species, and the study of their biological properties is becoming an essential starting point to study cross-kingdom communication, especially between plants and mammalians. Furthermore, the presence of microRNAs (miRNAs) in PDEVs represents an interesting aspect for understanding how PDEVs can target the mammalian genes involved in pathological conditions such as cancer, inflammation, and oxidative stress. In particular, this review focuses on the history of PDEVs, from their discovery, to purification from various matrices, and on the functional role of PDEV-RNAs in cross-kingdom interactions. It is worth noting that miRNAs packaged in PDEVs can be key modulators of human gene expression, representing potential therapeutic agents.