Detecting Mild Water Stress in Olive with Multiple Plant-Based Continuous Sensors

Fruit Water Stress Index of Apple Measured by Means of Temperature-Annotated 3D Point Cloud

In applied ecophysiological studies related to global warming and water scarcity, the water status of fruit is of increasing importance in the context of fresh food production. In the present work, a fruit water stress index (FWSI) is introduced for close analysis of the relationship between fruit and air temperatures. A sensor system consisting of light detection and ranging (LiDAR) sensor and thermal camera was employed to remotely analyze apple trees (Malus x domestica Borkh. "Gala") by means of 3D point clouds. After geometric calibration of the sensor system, the temperature values were assigned in the corresponding 3D point cloud to reconstruct a thermal point cloud of the entire canopy. The annotated points belonging to the fruit were segmented, providing annotated fruit point clouds. Such estimated 3D distribution of fruit surface temperature (T Est) was highly correlated to manually recorded reference temperature (r 2 = 0.93). As methodological innovation, based on T Est, the fruit water stress index (FWSI Est) was introduced, potentially providing more detailed information on the fruit compared to the crop water stress index of whole canopy obtained from established 2D thermal imaging. FWSI Est showed low error when compared to manual reference data. Considering in total 302 apples, FWSI Est increased during the season. Additional diel measurements on 50 apples, each at 6 measurements per day (in total 600 apples), were performed in the commercial harvest window. FWSI Est calculated with air temperature plus 5 °C appeared as diel hysteresis. Such diurnal changes of FWSI Est and those throughout fruit development provide a new ecophysiological tool aimed at 3D spatiotemporal fruit analysis and particularly more efficient, capturing more samples, insight in the specific requests of crop management.

Combining proximal and remote sensing to assess 'Calatina' olive water status

Developing an efficient and sustainable precision irrigation strategy is crucial in contemporary agriculture. This study aimed to combine proximal and remote sensing techniques to show the benefits of using both monitoring methods, simultaneously assessing the water status and response of 'Calatina' olive under two distinct irrigation levels: full irrigation (FI), and drought stress (DS, -3 to -4 MPa). Stem water potential (Ψstem) and stomatal conductance (gs) were monitored weekly as reference indicators of plant water status. Crop water stress index (CWSI) and stomatal conductance index (Ig) were calculated through ground-based infrared thermography. Fruit gauges were used to monitor continuously fruit growth and data were converted in fruit daily weight fluctuations (ΔW) and relative growth rate (RGR). Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), normalized difference RedEdge index (NDRE), green normalized difference vegetation index (GNDVI), chlorophyll vegetation index (CVI), modified soil-adjusted vegetation index (MSAVI), water index (WI), normalized difference greenness index (NDGI) and green index (GI) were calculated from data collected by UAV-mounted multispectral camera. Data obtained from proximal sensing were correlated with both Ψstem and gs, while remote sensing data were correlated only with Ψstem. Regression analysis showed that both CWSI and Ig proved to be reliable indicators of Ψstem and gs. Of the two fruit growth parameters, ΔW exhibited a stronger relationship, primarily with Ψstem. Finally, NDVI, GNDVI, WI and NDRE emerged as the vegetation indices that correlated most strongly with Ψstem, achieving high R2 values. Combining proximal and remote sensing indices suggested two valid approaches: a more simplified one involving the use of CWSI and either NDVI or WI, and a more comprehensive one involving CWSI and ΔW as proximal indices, along with WI as a multispectral index. Further studies on combining proximal and remote sensing data will be necessary in order to find strategic combinations of sensors and establish intervention thresholds.

Testing effects of vapor pressure deficit on fruit growth: a comparative approach using peach, mango, olive, orange, and loquat

Determining the influence of vapor pressure deficit (VPD) on fruit growth is a key issue under a changing climate scenario. Using a comparative approach across different fruit tree species may provide solid indications of common or contrasting plant responses to environmental factors. Knowing fruit growth responses to VPD may also be useful to optimize horticultural management practices under specific atmospheric conditions. Climate data to calculate VPD and fruit relative growth rates (RGR) by fruit gauges were monitored in peach at cell division, pit hardening and cell expansion stages; in two mango cultivars at cell division, cell expansion and maturation stages; in two olive cultivars, either full irrigated or rainfed, at early and late cell expansion stages; in 'Valencia' orange at early and late cell division stage, before and after mature fruit harvest; in loquat at cell expansion and maturation stages. At the fruit cell division stage, sensitivity of fruit growth to VPD seems to vary with species, time, and probably soil and atmospheric water deficit. 'Keitt' mango and 'Valencia' orange fruit growth responded to VPD in opposite ways, and this could be due to very different time of the year and VPD levels in the monitoring periods of the two species. At pit hardening stage of peach fruit growth, a relatively weak relationship was observed between VPD and RGR, and this is not surprising as fruit growth in size at this stage slows down significantly. A consistent and marked negative relationship between VPD and RGR was observed at cell expansion stage, when fruit growth is directly depending on water intake driving cell turgor. Another behavior common to all observed species was the gradual loss of relationship between VPD and RGR at the onset of fruit maturation, when fruit growth in size is generally programmed to stop. Finally, regardless of fruit type, VPD may have a significant effect on fruit growth and could be a useful parameter to be monitored for tree water management mainly when the cell expansion process prevails during fruit growth.

Interactive effect of branch source-sink ratio and leaf aging on photosynthesis in pistachio

Tree source-sink ratio has a predominant and complex impact on tree performance and can affect multiple physiological processes including vegetative and reproductive growth, water and nutrient use, photosynthesis, and productivity. In this study, we manipulated the branch level source-sink ratio by reduction of photosynthetic activity (partial branch defoliation) or thinning branch fruit load early in the growing season (after fruit set) in pistachio (Pistacia vera) trees. We then characterized the leaf photosynthetic light response curves through leaf aging. In addition, we determined changes in leaf non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) and nitrogen (N) concentrations. In leaves with high source-sink ratios, there was a gradual decrease in maximum net photosynthetic rate (ANmax) over the growing season, while in branches with low source-sink ratios, there was a sharp decline in ANmax in the first two weeks of August. Branches with high-sink showed an up-regulation (increase) in photosynthesis toward the end of July (at 1,500 growing degree days) during the period of rapid kernel growth rate and increased sink strength, with ANmax being about 7 μmol m-1 s-1 higher than in branches with low-sink. In August, low source-sink ratios precipitated leaf senescence, resulting in a drastic ANmax decline, from 25 to 8 μmol m-1 s-1 (70% drop in two weeks). This reduction was associated with the accumulation of NSC in the leaves from 20 to 30 mg g-1. The mechanisms of ANmax reduction differ between the two treatments. Lower photosynthetic rates of 8-10 μmol m-1 s-1 late in the season were associated with lower N levels in high-sink branches, suggesting N remobilization to the kernels. Lower photosynthesis late in the season was associated with lower respiration rates in low-source branches, indicating prioritization of assimilates to storage. These results can facilitate the adaptation of management practices to tree crop load changes in alternate bearing species.

Monitoring plant water status via static uniaxial compression of the leaf lamina

Turgor pressure is an essential, but difficult to measure indicator of plant water status. Turgor has been quantified by localized compression of cells or tissues, but a simple method to perform these measurements is lacking. We hypothesized that changes in leaf turgidity can be monitored by uniaxially compressing the leaf lamina and measuring the mechanical stress under a constrained thickness (stress relaxation) and that changes in leaf water content can be monitored by measuring the leaf thickness under constant mechanical stress. Using a simple, custom-built leaf squeeze-flow rheometer, we performed different compression tests on leaves from 13 plant species. The mechanical stress measured during stress relaxation was correlated with leaf bulk turgor pressure (R²  > 0.95) and thus with balancing pressure (R²  > 0.94); the leaf thickness measured under constant mechanical stress was correlated with relative water content (R²  > 0.74). The coefficients of these relationships were related to the leaf bulk osmotic pressure at the turgor-loss point. An idealized average-cell model suggests that, under isothermal conditions, the stationary bulk modulus during compression is largely determined by the bulk osmotic pressure. Our study presents an inexpensive, accessible and automatable method to monitor plant water status noninvasively.

Physiological and Structural Responses to Prolonged Water Deficit in Young Trees of Two Olive Cultivars

This study aimed to characterize the physiological and structural responses of potted one-year-old olive trees belonging to two olive cultivars—‘Nocellara del Belice’ and ‘Cerasuola’—exposed to prolonged drought under greenhouse conditions. Two irrigation treatments based on evapotranspiration (ET) were imposed for 69 days, i.e., well-watered (WW, 100% ET) and drought-stressed (DS, 10−30% ET). Leaf stomatal conductance (gs), stem water potential (Ψstem), transpiration (E), photosynthetic capacity (Amax), water use efficiency (WUE), stem (Kstem) and root (Kroot) hydraulic conductance, trunk diameter variations (TDV), and leaf patch attenuated pressure fluctuations (pp, a proxy of the inverse of leaf turgor pressure) were measured in WW and DS trees at different stages of the experiment. Leaf gs did not significantly differ between cultivars under DS, whereas differences in Ψstem only became significant at the end of prolonged drought, when ‘Nocellara del Belice’ experienced Ψstem < −4 MPa. ‘Cerasuola’ trees expressed the best WUE under drought, although they were more susceptible to photoinhibition under optimal plant water status. Both cultivars tended to increase their Kstem at the end of the drought period. A marked reduction in Kroot occurred in ‘Cerasuola’ plants after prolonged drought; however, a similar mechanism was not observed in ‘Nocellara del Belice’. The ratio between Kstem and Kroot exponentially increased towards the end of the prolonged drought period in both cultivars, but more markedly in ‘Cerasuola’. TDV and pp trends suggested that ‘Cerasuola’ plants keep better plant water status under severe drought compared to ‘Nocellara del Belice’ by maintaining high leaf turgor and reduced trunk diameter fluctuations. These responses may be related to reduced cell wall elasticity and xylem vessel size and/or wall thickness—drought avoidance mechanisms. The Kstem/Kroot ratio can serve as an indicator of drought stress avoidance mechanisms to compare genotype-specific responses to drought stress.

On-line monitoring of plant water status: Validation of a novel sensor based on photon attenuation of radiation through the leaf

Non-destructive real-time monitoring of leaf water status is important for precision irrigation practice to increase water productivity and reduce its use. To this end, we tested and validated a novel leaf sensor (Leaf Water Meter, LWM), based on the photon attenuation during the passage of the light through the leaf, to monitor plant water status. Four woody species were subjected to multiple cycles of dehydration and re-hydration, and the signals recorded by the LWM were compared with classical measurements of plant water relations (relative water content and water potential). A good agreement between the signals recorded by LWM sensor and the destructive measurements, throughout the repeated water stress and rewatering cycles, was found across all species. These results demonstrate that LWM sensor is a sensitive, non-destructive and easy-to-handle device to reliably monitor in continuous fashion leaf water status. In conclusion, this sensor may be considered a promising tool for smart irrigation scheduling in precision agriculture context to decrease water wastage in light of global change and increasing conflicts over water demand.

Diurnal Change of the Photosynthetic Light-Response Curve of Buckbean (Menyanthes trifoliata), an Emergent Aquatic Plant

Understanding plant physiological responses to high temperature is an important concern pertaining to climate change. However, compared with terrestrial plants, information about aquatic plants remains limited. Since the degree of midday depression of photosynthesis under high temperature depends on soil water conditions, it is expected that emergent aquatic plants, for which soil water conditions are always saturated, will show different patterns compared with terrestrial plants. We investigated the diurnal course of the photosynthetic light-response curve and incident light intensity for a freshwater emergent plant, buckbean (Menyanthes trifoliata L.; Menyanthaceae) in a cool temperate region. The effect of midday depression was observed only on a very hot day, but not on a moderately hot day, in summer. The diurnal course of photosynthetic light-response curves on this hot day showed that latent morning reduction of photosynthetic capacity started at dawn, preceding the apparent depression around the midday, in agreement with results reported in terrestrial plants. We concluded that (1) midday depression of emergent plants occurs when the stress intensity exceeds the species' tolerance, and (2) measurements of not only photosynthetic rate under field conditions but also diurnal course of photosynthetic light-response curve are necessary to quantify the effect of midday depression.

Establishing a Reference Baseline for Midday Stem Water Potential in Olive and Its Use for Plant-Based Irrigation Management

Midday stem water potential (SWP) is rapidly becoming adopted as a standard tool for plant-based irrigation management in many woody perennial crops. A reference or "baseline" SWP has been used in some crops (almond, prune, grape, and walnut) to account for the climatic influence of air vapor pressure deficit (VPD) on SWP under non-limiting soil moisture conditions. The baseline can be determined empirically for field trees maintained under such non-limiting conditions, but such conditions are difficult to achieve for an entire season. We present the results of an alternative survey-based approach, using a large set of SWP and VPD data collected over multiple years, from irrigation experiments in olive orchards located in multiple countries [Spain, United States (California), Italy, and Argentina]. The relation of SWP to midday VPD across the entire data set was consistent with an upper limit SWP which declined with VPD, with the upper limit being similar to that found in Prunus. A best fit linear regression estimate for this upper limit (baseline) was found by selecting the maximum R 2 and minimum probability for various upper fractions of the SWP/VPD relation. In addition to being surprisingly similar to the Prunus baseline, the olive baseline was also similar (within 0.1 MPa) to a recently published mechanistic olive soil-plant-atmosphere-continuum (SPAC) model for "super high density" orchard systems. Despite similarities in the baseline, the overall physiological range of SWP exhibited by olive extends to about -8 MPa, compared to about -4 MPa for economically producing almond. This may indicate that, despite species differences in physiological responses to low water availability (drought), there may be convergent adaptations/acclimations across species to high levels of water availability. Similar to its use in other crops, the olive baseline will enable more accurate and reproducible plant-based irrigation management for both full and deficit irrigation practices, and we present tentative SWP guidelines for this purpose.

Continuous Monitoring of Olive Fruit Growth by Automatic Extensimeter in Response to Vapor Pressure Deficit from Pit Hardening to Harvest

Recently, several studies on olive fruit growth have focused on circadian monitoring as an important orchard management tool. The olive fruit growth trend is described by double sigmoid model with four growth phases, where the third phase spans from the end of pit hardening to initial fruit maturation, and the last phase includes olive maturation up to fruit drop. Environmental factors play an important role in fruit growth, with vapor pressure deficit (VPD) being a keystone factor. Our experiment was designed to hourly monitor olive (Olea europaea L. cv. ‘Frantoio’) fruit transversal diameter from approximately initial pit hardening (II Phase), extension (III Phase) until harvest time (IV Phase) in the attempt to determine whether fruit growth dynamically responds to environmental variables such as diurnal VPD change in different stages of fruit development. Automatic extensimeters were applied in open field and VPD was calculated from data of our weather station. Throughout the experiment period, the circadian model of fruit growth showed two steps: shrinkage and expansion. Almost in all days of the third phase of fruit growth, daily response of transversal diameter to VPD formed complete clockwise hysteresis loops. During the fourth phase of fruit growth, with increasing fruit maturation, the complete clockwise hysteresis loop experienced some abnormality. At the fourth stage of fruit growth there were incomplete and partial clockwise hysteresis loops. We conclude that hysteresis can be employed to detect the shift between the end of the third phase (cell expansion) and the beginning of the fourth phase (fruit maturation) of fruit growth. The disappearance of the complete clockwise hysteresis loop and the substitution with incomplete, or partial clockwise hysteresis loops was observable only in the fourth stage of fruit growth. These results can be valuable for any smart fruit management of olive fruit production.

Fruit Growth Stage Transitions in Two Mango Cultivars Grown in a Mediterranean Environment

Studying mango (Mangifera&nbsp;indica L.) fruit development represents one of the most important aspects for the precise orchard management under non-native environmental conditions. In this work, precision fruit gauges were used to investigate important eco-physiological aspects of fruit growth in two mango cultivars, Keitt (late ripening) and Tommy Atkins (early-mid ripening). Fruit absolute growth rate (AGR, mm day^-1), daily diameter fluctuation (ΔD, mm), and a development index given by their ratio (AGR/ΔD) were monitored to identify the prevalent mechanism (cell division, cell expansion, ripening) involved in fruit development in three ('Tommy Atkins') or four ('Keitt') different periods during growth. In 'Keitt', cell division prevailed over cell expansion from 58 to 64 days after full bloom (DAFB), while the opposite occurred from 74 to 85 DAFB. Starting at 100 DAFB, internal changes prevailed over fruit growth, indicating the beginning of the ripening stage. In Tommy Atkins (an early ripening cultivar), no significant differences in AGR/ΔD was found among monitoring periods, indicating that both cell division and expansion coexisted at gradually decreasing rates until fruit harvest. To evaluate the effect of microclimate on fruit growth the relationship between vapor pressure deficit (VPD) and ΔD was also studied. In 'Keitt', VPD was the main driving force determining fruit diameter fluctuations. In 'Tommy Atkins', the lack of relationship between VPD and ΔD suggest a hydric isolation of the fruit due to the disruption of xylem and stomatal flows starting at 65 DAFB. Further studies are needed to confirm this hypothesis.