1
|
Gani A, Pathak S, Hussain A, Shukla AK, Chand S. Emerging pollutant in surface water bodies: a review on monitoring, analysis, mitigation measures and removal technologies of micro-plastics. ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY AND HEALTH 2024; 46:214. [PMID: 38842590 DOI: 10.1007/s10653-024-01992-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Accepted: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
Water bodies play a crucial role in supporting life, maintaining the environment, and preserving the ecology for the people of India. However, in recent decades, human activities have led to various alterations in aquatic environments, resulting in environmental degradation through pollution. The safety of utilizing surface water sources for drinking and other purposes has come under intense scrutiny due to rapid population growth and industrial expansion. Surface water pollution due to micro-plastics (MPs) (plastics < 5 mm in size) is one of the emerging pollutants in metropolitan cities of developing countries because of its utmost resilience and synthetic nature. Recent studies on the surface water bodies (river, pond, Lake etc.) portrait the correlation between the MPs level with different parameters of pollution such as specific conductivity, total phosphate, and biological oxygen demand. Fibers represent the predominant form of MPs discovered in surface water bodies, exhibiting fluctuations across seasons. Consequently, present study prioritizes understanding the adaptation, prevalence, attributes, fluctuations, and spatial dispersion of MPs in both sediment and surface water environments. Furthermore, the study aims to identify existing gaps in the current understanding and underscore opportunities for future investigation. From the present study, it has been reported that, the concentration of MPs in the range of 0.2-45.2 items/L at the Xisha Islands in the south China sea, whereas in India it was found in the range of 96 items/L in water samples and 259 items/kg in sediment samples. This would certainly assist the urban planners in achieving sustainable development goals to mitigate the increasing amount of emergent pollutant load.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Abdul Gani
- Civil Engineering Department, Netaji Subhas University of Technology, New Delhi, 110073, India
| | - Shray Pathak
- Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Ropar, Rupnagar, Punjab, 140001, India.
| | - Athar Hussain
- Civil Engineering Department, Netaji Subhas University of Technology, New Delhi, 110073, India
| | - Anoop Kumar Shukla
- Manipal School of Architecture and Planning, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, 576104, India
| | - Sasmita Chand
- Manipal School of Architecture and Planning, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, 576104, India
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Di Liberto EA, Battaglia G, Pellerito R, Curcuruto G, Dintcheva NT. Biodegradation of Polystyrene by Plastic-Eating Tenebrionidae Larvae. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:1404. [PMID: 38794597 PMCID: PMC11125288 DOI: 10.3390/polym16101404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2024] [Revised: 05/07/2024] [Accepted: 05/13/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Polystyrene (PS) is an extremely stable polymer with a relatively high molecular weight and a strong hydrophobic character that makes it highly resistant to biodegradation. In this study, PS was subjected to biodegradation tests by Tenebrio Molitor (T. Molitor) and Zophobas Morio (Z. Morio) larvae. Specifically, six different experimental diets were compared: (i) T. Molitor fed with bran; (ii) T. Molitor fed only PS; (iii) T. Molitor fed only PS treated with H2O2; (iv) Z. Morio fed with bran; (v) Z. Morio fed only PS; and (vi) Z. Morio fed only PS treated with H2O2. Therefore, the mass change of the larvae and the survival rate were measured periodically, while the frass collected after 15 and 30 days was analyzed by different analyses, such as spectroscopy (FTIR), spectrometry (molecular weight and polydispersity), thermal analysis (TGA) and microscopy (scanning electron microscopy observations). The obtained results suggest that in the case of T. Molitor larvae, larvae feeding on bran showed the highest survival rate of ~94% at 30 days, while in the case of the Z. Morio larvae, the highest survival rate was exhibited by larvae eating PS-H2O2. Although not strongly pronounced, the Mw and Mn of PS in the frass of both T. Molitor and Z. Morio larvae decreased over 30 days, suggesting PS biodegradation. Finally, the morphological analysis shows that PS samples isolated from the frass of T. Molitor and Z. Morio larvae showed completely different, rough and irregularly carved surface structures, in comparison to PS before biodegradation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Erika Alessia Di Liberto
- Dipartimento di Ingegneria, Università di Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Ed. 6, 90128 Palermo, Italy;
| | - Giuseppe Battaglia
- Dipartimento di Ingegneria, Università di Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Ed. 6, 90128 Palermo, Italy;
| | - Rosalia Pellerito
- Istituto Comprensivo Statale “Luigi Capuana”, Via A. Narbone, 55, 90138 Palermo, Italy;
| | - Giusy Curcuruto
- Institute for Polymers, Composites and Biomaterials (IPCB)—CNR, Via Paolo Gaifami 18, 95126 Catania, Italy;
| | - Nadka Tz. Dintcheva
- Dipartimento di Ingegneria, Università di Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Ed. 6, 90128 Palermo, Italy;
- Institute for Polymers, Composites and Biomaterials (IPCB)—CNR, Via Paolo Gaifami 18, 95126 Catania, Italy;
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Gwenzi W, Gufe C, Alufasi R, Makuvara Z, Marumure J, Shanmugam SR, Selvasembian R, Halabowski D. Insects to the rescue? Insights into applications, mechanisms, and prospects of insect-driven remediation of organic contaminants. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 925:171116. [PMID: 38382596 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Revised: 02/16/2024] [Accepted: 02/18/2024] [Indexed: 02/23/2024]
Abstract
Traditional and emerging contaminants pose significant human and environmental health risks. Conventional physical, chemical, and bioremediation techniques have been extensively studied for contaminant remediation. However, entomo- or insect-driven remediation has received limited research and public attention. Entomo-remediation refers to the use of insects, their associated gut microbiota, and enzymes to remove or mitigate organic contaminants. This novel approach shows potential as an eco-friendly method for mitigating contaminated media. However, a comprehensive review of the status, applications, and challenges of entomo-remediation is lacking. This paper addresses this research gap by examining and discussing the evidence on entomo-remediation of various legacy and emerging organic contaminants. The results demonstrate the successful application of entomo-remediation to remove legacy organic contaminants such as persistent organic pollutants. Moreover, entomo-remediation shows promise in removing various groups of emerging contaminants, including microplastics, persistent and emerging organic micropollutants (e.g., antibiotics, pesticides), and nanomaterials. Entomo-remediation involves several insect-mediated processes, including bio-uptake, biotransfer, bioaccumulation, and biotransformation of contaminants. The mechanisms underlying the biotransformation of contaminants are complex and rely on the insect gut microbiota and associated enzymes. Notably, while insects facilitate the remediation of contaminants, they may also be exposed to the ecotoxicological effects of these substances, which is often overlooked in research. As an emerging field of research, entomo-remediation has several knowledge gaps. Therefore, this review proposes ten key research questions to guide future perspectives and advance the field. These questions address areas such as process optimization, assessment of ecotoxicological effects on insects, and evaluation of potential human exposure and health risks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Willis Gwenzi
- Biosystems and Environmental Engineering Research Group, 380 New Adylin, Marlborough, Harare, Zimbabwe; Alexander von Humboldt Fellow and Guest Professor, Grassland Science and Renewable Plant Resources, Faculty of Organic Agricultural Sciences, Universität Kassel, Steinstraße 19, D-37213 Witzenhausen, Germany; Alexander von Humboldt Fellow and Guest Professor, Leibniz-Institut für Agrartechnik und Bioökonomie e.V. (ATB), Max-Eyth-Allee 100, D-14469 Potsdam, Germany.
| | - Claudious Gufe
- Department of Veterinary Technical Services, Central Veterinary Laboratories, 18A Bevan Building, Borrowdale Road, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Richwell Alufasi
- Biological Sciences Department, Bindura University of Science Education, 741 Chimurenga Road, Off Trojan Road, P. Bag 1020, Bindura, Zimbabwe
| | - Zakio Makuvara
- Department of Physics, Geography and Environmental Science, School of Natural Sciences, Great Zimbabwe University, Masvingo, Zimbabwe; Department of Life and Consumer Sciences, School of Agriculture and Life Sciences, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa, South Africa
| | - Jerikias Marumure
- Department of Physics, Geography and Environmental Science, School of Natural Sciences, Great Zimbabwe University, Masvingo, Zimbabwe; Department of Life and Consumer Sciences, School of Agriculture and Life Sciences, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa, South Africa
| | | | - Rangabhashiyam Selvasembian
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, School of Engineering and Sciences, SRM University-AP, Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh 522240, India
| | - Dariusz Halabowski
- University of Lodz, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Department of Ecology and Vertebrate Zoology, Lodz, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Wang J, Liu C, Cao Q, Li Y, Chen L, Qin Y, Wang T, Wang C. Enhanced biodegradation of microplastic and phthalic acid ester plasticizer: The role of gut microorganisms in black soldier fly larvae. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 924:171674. [PMID: 38479533 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Revised: 02/23/2024] [Accepted: 03/10/2024] [Indexed: 03/17/2024]
Abstract
Hermetia illucens larvae are recognized for their ability to mitigate or eliminate contaminants by biodegradation. However, the biodegradation characteristics of microplastics and phthalic acid esters plasticizers, as well as the role of larval gut microorganisms, have remained largely unrevealed. Here, the degradation kinetics of plasticizers, and biodegradation characteristics of microplastics were examined. The role of larval gut microorganisms was investigated. For larval development, microplastics slowed larval growth significantly (P < 0.01), but the effect of plasticizer was not significant. The degradation kinetics of plasticizers were enhanced, resulting in an 8.11 to 20.41-fold decrease in degradation half-life and a 3.34 to 3.82-fold increase in final degradation efficiencies, compared to degradation without larval participation. The depolymerization and biodeterioration of microplastics were conspicuously evident, primarily through a weight loss of 17.63 %-25.52 %, variation of chemical composition and structure, bio-oxidation and bioerosion of microplastic surface. The synergistic effect driven by larval gut microorganisms, each with various functions, facilitated the biodegradation. Specifically, Ignatzschineria, Paenalcaligenes, Moheibacter, Morganella, Dysgonomonas, Stenotrophomonas, Bacteroides, Sphingobacterium, etc., appeared to be the key contributors, owing to their xenobiotic biodegradation and metabolism functions. These findings offered a new perspective on the potential for microplastics and plasticizers biodegradation, assisted by larval gut microbiota.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiaqing Wang
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Process of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Novel Reactor and Green Chemical Technology of Hubei Province, School of Chemical Engineering and Pharmacy, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan 430205, People's Republic of China
| | - Cuncheng Liu
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Process of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Novel Reactor and Green Chemical Technology of Hubei Province, School of Chemical Engineering and Pharmacy, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan 430205, People's Republic of China; Research Center for Environmental Ecology and Engineering, School of Environmental Ecology and Biological Engineering, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan 430205, People's Republic of China.
| | - Qingcheng Cao
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Process of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Novel Reactor and Green Chemical Technology of Hubei Province, School of Chemical Engineering and Pharmacy, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan 430205, People's Republic of China
| | - Yun Li
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Process of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Novel Reactor and Green Chemical Technology of Hubei Province, School of Chemical Engineering and Pharmacy, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan 430205, People's Republic of China
| | - Li Chen
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Process of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Novel Reactor and Green Chemical Technology of Hubei Province, School of Chemical Engineering and Pharmacy, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan 430205, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuanhang Qin
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Process of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Novel Reactor and Green Chemical Technology of Hubei Province, School of Chemical Engineering and Pharmacy, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan 430205, People's Republic of China
| | - Tielin Wang
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Process of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Novel Reactor and Green Chemical Technology of Hubei Province, School of Chemical Engineering and Pharmacy, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan 430205, People's Republic of China
| | - Cunwen Wang
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Process of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Novel Reactor and Green Chemical Technology of Hubei Province, School of Chemical Engineering and Pharmacy, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan 430205, People's Republic of China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
El-Kurdi N, El-Shatoury S, ElBaghdady K, Hammad S, Ghazy M. Biodegradation of polystyrene nanoplastics by Achromobacter xylosoxidans M9 offers a mealworm gut-derived solution for plastic pollution. Arch Microbiol 2024; 206:238. [PMID: 38684545 PMCID: PMC11058615 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-024-03947-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2024] [Revised: 03/24/2024] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
Nanoplastics pose significant environmental problems due to their high mobility and increased toxicity. These particles can cause infertility and inflammation in aquatic organisms, disrupt microbial signaling and act as pollutants carrier. Despite extensive studies on their harmful impact on living organisms, the microbial degradation of nanoplastics is still under research. This study investigated the degradation of nanoplastics by isolating bacteria from the gut microbiome of Tenebrio molitor larvae fed various plastic diets. Five bacterial strains capable of degrading polystyrene were identified, with Achromobacter xylosoxidans M9 showing significant nanoplastic degradation abilities. Within 6 days, this strain reduced nanoplastic particle size by 92.3%, as confirmed by SEM and TEM analyses, and altered the chemical composition of the nanoplastics, indicating a potential for enhanced bioremediation strategies. The strain also caused a 7% weight loss in polystyrene film over 30 days, demonstrating its efficiency in degrading nanoplastics faster than polystyrene film. These findings might enhance plastic bioremediation strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Najat El-Kurdi
- Biotechnology Program, Basic and Applied Science Institute, Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology, New Burj Al-Arab, Alexandria, Egypt
- Aquaculture Biotechnology Department, Fish Farming and Technology Institute, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt
| | - Sahar El-Shatoury
- Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt.
| | - Khaled ElBaghdady
- Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Sherif Hammad
- Medicinal Chemistry Department, PharmD Program, Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology, New Burj Al-Arab, Alexandria, Egypt
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Helwan University, Ain Helwan, Egypt
| | - Mohamed Ghazy
- Biotechnology Program, Basic and Applied Science Institute, Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology, New Burj Al-Arab, Alexandria, Egypt
- Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
He L, Yang SS, Ding J, Chen CX, Yang F, He ZL, Pang JW, Peng BY, Zhang Y, Xing DF, Ren NQ, Wu WM. Biodegradation of polyethylene terephthalate by Tenebrio molitor: Insights for polymer chain size, gut metabolome and host genes. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 465:133446. [PMID: 38219578 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.133446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Revised: 01/02/2024] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 01/16/2024]
Abstract
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET or polyester) is a commonly used plastic and also contributes to the majority of plastic wastes. Mealworms (Tenebrio molitor larvae) are capable of biodegrading major plastic polymers but their degrading ability for PET has not been characterized based on polymer chain size molecular size, gut microbiome, metabolome and transcriptome. We verified biodegradation of commercial PET by T. molitor larvae in a previous report. Here, we reported that biodegradation of commercial PET (Mw 29.43 kDa) was further confirmed by using the δ13C signature as an indication of bioreaction, which was increased from - 27.50‰ to - 26.05‰. Under antibiotic suppression of gut microbes, the PET was still depolymerized, indicating that the host digestive enzymes could degrade PET independently. Biodegradation of high purity PET with low, medium, and high molecular weights (MW), i.e., Mw values of 1.10, 27.10, and 63.50 kDa with crystallinity 53.66%, 33.43%, and 4.25%, respectively, showed a mass reduction of > 95%, 86%, and 74% via broad depolymerization. Microbiome analyses indicated that PET diets shifted gut microbiota to three distinct structures, depending on the low, medium, and high MW. Metagenome sequencing, transcriptomic, and metabolic analyses indicated symbiotic biodegradation of PET by the host and gut microbiota. After PET was fed, the host's genes encoding degradation enzymes were upregulated, including genes encoding oxidizing, hydrolyzing, and non-specific CYP450 enzymes. Gut bacterial genes for biodegrading intermediates and nitrogen fixation also upregulated. The multiple-functional metabolic pathways for PET biodegradation ensured rapid biodegradation resulting in a half-life of PET less than 4 h with less negative impact by PET MW and crystallinity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lei He
- CAS Key Laboratory of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China; State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Shan-Shan Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China.
| | - Jie Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Cheng-Xin Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Fan Yang
- School of Life Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Zhi-Li He
- Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), Zhuhai 519080, China
| | - Ji-Wei Pang
- China Energy Conservation and Environmental Protection Group, Beijing 100089, China
| | - Bo-Yu Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Yalei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - De-Feng Xing
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Nan-Qi Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Wei-Min Wu
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, William & Cloy Codiga Resource Recovery Center, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Li X, Wang Y, Sun H, Wang Y, Han X, Yu J, Zhao X, Liu B. Differences in ingestion and biodegradation of the melamine formaldehyde plastic by yellow mealworms Tenebrio molitor and superworms Zophobas atratus, and the prediction of functional gut microbes. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 352:141499. [PMID: 38373446 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.141499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2023] [Revised: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/21/2024]
Abstract
Plastics biodegradation by insect larvae is considered as a new strategy for plastic wastes treatment. To uncover the biodegradation of a more complex chemical polymer of melamine formaldehyde (MF) by insect larvae, two worm species of yellow mealworm Tenebrio molitor and superworm Zophobas atratus were fed on MF foam as sole diet for 45 days with sole bran diet as control. Although the MF foam consumption by yellow mealworms of 0.38 mg/d/g-larvae was almost 40% higher than that by superworms of 0.28 mg/d/g-larvae, a similar decrease of survival rates in both species were obtained at about 58%, indicating the adverse effects on their growth. Depolymerization and biodegradation of MF foam occurred in both larval guts, but was more extensive in yellow mealworms. MF foam sole diet influenced gut bacterial and fungal microbiomes of both larvae species, which were assessed by Illumina MiSeq on day 45. Compared to the bran-fed group, both gut bacterial and fungal communities significantly changed in MF-fed groups, but differed in the two larvae species. The results demonstrated a strong association between the distinctive gut microbiome and MF foam degradation, such as unclassified Enterobacteriaceae, Hyphopichia and Issatchenkia. However, sole MF foam diet negatively influenced worms, like lower survival rates and gut abnormalities. In summary, MF foam could be degraded by both yellow mealworms and superworms, albeit with adverse effects. Gut microbes were strongly associated to MF foam degradation, especially the gut fungi.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xin Li
- Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Resources and Civil Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110819, PR China
| | - Yijing Wang
- Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Resources and Civil Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110819, PR China
| | - Huayang Sun
- Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Resources and Civil Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110819, PR China
| | - Yumeng Wang
- Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Resources and Civil Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110819, PR China
| | - Xiaoyu Han
- Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Resources and Civil Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110819, PR China
| | - Jingli Yu
- College of Ecology and Environment, Inner Mongolia University, Huhhot, 010021, PR China
| | - Xin Zhao
- Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Resources and Civil Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110819, PR China.
| | - Baoqin Liu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110122, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Pignataro E, Pini F, Barbanente A, Arnesano F, Palazzo A, Marsano RM. Flying toward a plastic-free world: Can Drosophila serve as a model organism to develop new strategies of plastic waste management? THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 914:169942. [PMID: 38199375 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.169942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Revised: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
The last century was dominated by the widespread use of plastics, both in terms of invention and increased usage. The environmental challenge we currently face is not just about reducing plastic usage but finding new ways to manage plastic waste. Recycling is growing but remains a small part of the solution. There is increasing focus on studying organisms and processes that can break down plastics, offering a modern approach to addressing the environmental crisis. Here, we provide an overview of the organisms associated with plastics biodegradation, and we explore the potential of harnessing and integrating their genetic and biochemical features into a single organism, such as Drosophila melanogaster. The remarkable genetic engineering and microbiota manipulation tools available for this organism suggest that multiple features could be amalgamated and modeled in the fruit fly. We outline feasible genetic engineering and gut microbiome engraftment strategies to develop a new class of plastic-degrading organisms and discuss of both the potential benefits and the limitations of developing such engineered Drosophila melanogaster strains.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eugenia Pignataro
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnology and Environment, University of Bari "Aldo Moro" via Orabona 4, 70125 Bari, Italy.
| | - Francesco Pini
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnology and Environment, University of Bari "Aldo Moro" via Orabona 4, 70125 Bari, Italy.
| | - Alessandra Barbanente
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", via Orabona 4, 70125 Bari, Italy.
| | - Fabio Arnesano
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", via Orabona 4, 70125 Bari, Italy.
| | - Antonio Palazzo
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnology and Environment, University of Bari "Aldo Moro" via Orabona 4, 70125 Bari, Italy.
| | - René Massimiliano Marsano
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnology and Environment, University of Bari "Aldo Moro" via Orabona 4, 70125 Bari, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Zheng X, Li Y, Xu J, Lu Y. Response of Propsilocerus akamusi (Diptera: Chironomidae) to the leachates from AMD-contaminated sediments: Implications for metal bioremediation of AMD-polluted areas. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2024; 266:106795. [PMID: 38070394 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2023.106795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Revised: 11/14/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/02/2024]
Abstract
Acid mine water (AMD) is a global environmental problem caused by coal mining with the characteristics of low pH and high concentrations of metals and sulfates. It is a pertinent topic to seek both economical and environmentally friendly approaches to minimize the harmful effects of AMD on the environment. Insect larvae are considered a promising solution for pollution treatment. Chironomidae is the most tolerant family to contaminants in pools and its larvae have a strong capacity for metal accumulation from sediment. This paper aimed to evaluate the larvae of Propsilocerus akamusi, a dominant species in the chironomid community, as a new species for entomoremediation in AMD-polluted areas. We detected the toxic effects of AMD on P. akamusi larvae based on their survival and the trace metals bioaccumulation capabilities of P. akamusi larvae. Moreover, we analyzed the expression patterns of four stress-response genes, HSP70, Eno1, HbV, and Hb VII in P. akamusi larvae. Our results revealed that AMD exposure did not significantly affect the survival of the P. akamusi larvae and individuals exposed to some AMD gradients even exhibited higher survival. We also observed the significantly accumulated concentrations of Fe, Ni, and Zn as well as higher bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) for Ni and Zn in the P. akamusi larvae exposure to AMD. Induced expression of Eno1 and Hb VII may play important roles in the AMD tolerance of P. akamusi larvae. This study indicated the potential application of P. akamusi larvae in the metal bioremediation of AMD-polluted areas. STATEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATION: Acid mine drainage (AMD) is a global environmental problem related to coal mining activities. AMD pollution has become a long-term, worldwide issue for its interactive and complex stress factors. Bioremediation is an effective method to remove the metals of AMD from wastewater to prevent downstream pollution. However, the disadvantages of the slow growth rate, susceptibility to seasonal changes, difficult post-harvest management, and small biomass of hyperaccumulating plants greatly limit the usefulness of phytoremediation. Insect larvae may be useful candidate organisms to overcome these shortcomings and have been considered a promising pollution solution. Propsilocerus akamusi is a dominant species in the chironomid community and is distributed widely in many lakes of eastern Asia. This species has extraordinary abilities to resist various stresses. This research is the first time to our knowledge to evaluate the application of P. akamusi as a new species in entomoremediation in AMD-contaminated areas.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xianyun Zheng
- Institute of Environmental Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, PR China.
| | - Yuyu Li
- Institute of Environmental Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, PR China
| | - Jingchao Xu
- Institute of Environmental Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, PR China
| | - Yanchao Lu
- Institute of Environmental Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, PR China
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Jung H, Shin G, Park SB, Jegal J, Park SA, Park J, Oh DX, Kim HJ. Circular waste management: Superworms as a sustainable solution for biodegradable plastic degradation and resource recovery. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2023; 171:568-579. [PMID: 37812971 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2023.09.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Revised: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 10/11/2023]
Abstract
Bioplastics offer a promising solution to plastic pollution, however, their production frequently relies on edible biomass, and their degradation rates remain inadequate. This study investigates the potential of superworms (Zophobas atratus larvae) for polybutylene succinate (PBS) waste management, aiming to achieve both resource recovery and biodegradation. Superworms exclusively fed on PBS for a month exhibited the same survival rate as those on a standard bran diet. PBS digestion yielded a 5.13% weight gain and a 23.23% increase in protein composition in superworms. Additionally, carbon isotope analyses substantiated the conversion of PBS into superworm components. Gut microbes capable of PBS biodegradation became progressively prominent, further augmenting the degradation rate of PBS under composting conditions (ISO 14855-1). Gut-free superworms fed with PBS exhibited antioxidant activities comparable to those of blueberries, renowned for their high antioxidant activity. Based on these findings, this study introduces a sustainable circular solution encompassing recycling PBS waste to generate insect biomass, employing insect gut and frass for PBS degradation and fertilizer, and harnessing insect residue as a food source. In essence, the significance of this research extends to socio-economic and environmental spheres, impacting waste management, resource efficiency, circular economy promotion, environmental preservation, industrial advancement, and global sustainability objectives. The study's outcomes possess the potential to reshape society's approach to plastic waste, facilitating a shift toward more sustainable paradigms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hyuni Jung
- Research Center for Bio-based Chemistry, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), Ulsan 44429, Republic of Korea
| | - Giyoung Shin
- Research Center for Bio-based Chemistry, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), Ulsan 44429, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung Bae Park
- Research Center for Bio-based Chemistry, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), Ulsan 44429, Republic of Korea
| | - Jonggeon Jegal
- Research Center for Bio-based Chemistry, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), Ulsan 44429, Republic of Korea
| | - Seul-A Park
- Research Center for Bio-based Chemistry, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), Ulsan 44429, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeyoung Park
- Research Center for Bio-based Chemistry, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), Ulsan 44429, Republic of Korea; Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Sogang University, Seoul 04107, Republic of Korea.
| | - Dongyeop X Oh
- Research Center for Bio-based Chemistry, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), Ulsan 44429, Republic of Korea; Department of Polymer Science and Engineering and Program in Environmental and Polymer Engineering, Inha University, Incheon 22212, Republic of Korea.
| | - Hyo Jeong Kim
- Research Center for Bio-based Chemistry, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), Ulsan 44429, Republic of Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Kang MG, Kwak MJ, Kim Y. Polystyrene microplastics biodegradation by gut bacterial Enterobacter hormaechei from mealworms under anaerobic conditions: Anaerobic oxidation and depolymerization. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 459:132045. [PMID: 37480606 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Revised: 07/09/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/24/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic plastic is used throughout daily life and industry, threatening organisms with microplastic pollution. Polystyrene is a major plastic polymer and also widely found sources of plastic wastes and microplastics. Here, we report that Enterobacter hormaechei LG3 (CP118279.1), a facultative anaerobic bacterial strain isolated from the gut of Tenebrio molitor larvae (mealworms) can oxidize and depolymerize polystyrene under anaerobic conditions. LG3 performed biodegradation while forming a biofilm on the plastic surface. PS biodegradation was characterized by analyses of surface oxidation, change in morphology and molecular weights, and production of biodegraded derivative. The biodegradation performance by LG3 was compared with PS biodegradation by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens SCGB1 under both anaerobic and aerobic conditions. In addition, through nanopore sequencing technology, we identified degradative enzymes, including thiol peroxidase (tpx), alkyl hydroperoxide reductase C (ahpC) and bacterioferritin comigratory protein (bcp). Along with the upregulation of degradative enzymes for biodegradation, changes in lipid A and biofilm-associated proteins were also observed after the cells were incubated with polystyrene microplastics. Our results provide evidence for anaerobic biodegradation by polystyrene-degrading bacteria and show alterations in gene expression patterns after polystyrene microplastics treatment in the opportunistic pathogen Enterobacter hormaechei.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Min-Geun Kang
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology and Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Science, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Min-Jin Kwak
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology and Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Science, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Younghoon Kim
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology and Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Science, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Kim JH, Lee SH, Lee BM, Son KH, Park HY. Biodegradation Potential of Polyethylene Terephthalate by the Two Insect Gut Symbionts Xanthomonas sp. HY-74 and Bacillus sp. HY-75. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:3546. [PMID: 37688172 PMCID: PMC10489954 DOI: 10.3390/polym15173546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Revised: 08/17/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is a plastic material that is widely used in beverage bottles, food packaging, and other consumer products, which is highly resistant to biodegradation. In this study, we investigated the effects of two insect gut symbionts, Xanthomonas sp. HY-74 and Bacillus sp. HY-75, during PET biodegradation. Both strains degraded PET-containing agar plates, and the sole nutrition source assay showed that HY-74 had different degradation rates depending on the presence of specific carbon and nitrogen sources, whereas HY-75 exhibited comparable degradation across all tested conditions. The two strains biodegraded the PET film with 1.57 ± 0.21% and 1.42 ± 0.46% weight loss after 6 weeks, respectively. Changes in the morphology and structure of the PET films, such as erosion, scratching, and surface roughening, were determined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Further, the two strains biodegraded PET powder, broke it into its degradation products, and changed the surface functional groups. This is the first study to investigate the biodegradation of PET by Hymenoptera gut-derived microbes and offers promising insights into the potential applications of insect gut symbionts in PET waste management.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Ho-Yong Park
- Microbiome Convergence Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea; (J.-H.K.); (S.-H.L.); (B.-M.L.); (K.-H.S.)
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Tournier V, Duquesne S, Guillamot F, Cramail H, Taton D, Marty A, André I. Enzymes' Power for Plastics Degradation. Chem Rev 2023; 123:5612-5701. [PMID: 36916764 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/16/2023]
Abstract
Plastics are everywhere in our modern way of living, and their production keeps increasing every year, causing major environmental concerns. Nowadays, the end-of-life management involves accumulation in landfills, incineration, and recycling to a lower extent. This ecological threat to the environment is inspiring alternative bio-based solutions for plastic waste treatment and recycling toward a circular economy. Over the past decade, considerable efforts have been made to degrade commodity plastics using biocatalytic approaches. Here, we provide a comprehensive review on the recent advances in enzyme-based biocatalysis and in the design of related biocatalytic processes to recycle or upcycle commodity plastics, including polyesters, polyamides, polyurethanes, and polyolefins. We also discuss scope and limitations, challenges, and opportunities of this field of research. An important message from this review is that polymer-assimilating enzymes are very likely part of the solution to reaching a circular plastic economy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Tournier
- Carbios, Parc Cataroux-Bâtiment B80, 8 rue de la Grolière, 63100 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Sophie Duquesne
- Toulouse Biotechnology Institute, TBI, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INRAE, INSA, Toulouse, France, 135, avenue de Rangueil, F-31077 Toulouse Cedex 04, France
| | - Frédérique Guillamot
- Carbios, Parc Cataroux-Bâtiment B80, 8 rue de la Grolière, 63100 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Henri Cramail
- Université Bordeaux, CNRS, Bordeaux INP, LCPO, 16 Avenue Pey-Berland, 33600 Pessac, France
| | - Daniel Taton
- Université Bordeaux, CNRS, Bordeaux INP, LCPO, 16 Avenue Pey-Berland, 33600 Pessac, France
| | - Alain Marty
- Carbios, Parc Cataroux-Bâtiment B80, 8 rue de la Grolière, 63100 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Isabelle André
- Toulouse Biotechnology Institute, TBI, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INRAE, INSA, Toulouse, France, 135, avenue de Rangueil, F-31077 Toulouse Cedex 04, France
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
An R, Liu C, Wang J, Jia P. Recent Advances in Degradation of Polymer Plastics by Insects Inhabiting Microorganisms. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15051307. [PMID: 36904548 PMCID: PMC10007075 DOI: 10.3390/polym15051307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2022] [Revised: 01/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Plastic pollution endangers all natural ecosystems and living creatures on earth. Excessive reliance on plastic products and excessive production of plastic packaging are extremely dangerous for humans because plastic waste has polluted almost the entire world, whether it is in the sea or on the land. This review introduces the examination of pollution brought by non-degradable plastics, the classification and application of degradable materials, and the current situation and strategy to address plastic pollution and plastic degradation by insects, which mainly include Galleria mellonella, Zophobas atratus, Tenebrio molitor, and other insects. The efficiency of plastic degradation by insects, biodegradation mechanism of plastic waste, and the structure and composition of degradable products are reviewed. The development direction of degradable plastics in the future and plastic degradation by insects are prospected. This review provides effective ways to solve plastic pollution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rongrong An
- School of Geographic and Biologic Information, Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Chengguo Liu
- Institute of Chemical Industry of Forest Products, Chinese Academy of Forestry, 16 Suojin North Road, Nanjing 210042, China
| | - Jun Wang
- School of Geographic and Biologic Information, Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Nanjing 210023, China
- Correspondence: (J.W.); (P.J.)
| | - Puyou Jia
- Institute of Chemical Industry of Forest Products, Chinese Academy of Forestry, 16 Suojin North Road, Nanjing 210042, China
- Correspondence: (J.W.); (P.J.)
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Goveas LC, Nayak S, Kumar PS, Rangasamy G, Vidya SM, Vinayagam R, Selvaraj R, Vo DVN. Microplastics occurrence, detection and removal with emphasis on insect larvae gut microbiota. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2023; 188:114580. [PMID: 36657228 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.114580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2022] [Revised: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Microplastics have been identified in all living forms including human beings, the present need is to restrain its spread and devise measures to remediate microplastics from polluted ecosystems. In this regard, the present review emphasizes on the occurrence, sources detection and toxic effects of microplastics in various ecosystems. The removal of microplastics is prevalent by various physico-chemical and biological methods, although the removal efficiency by biological methods is low. It has been noted that the degradation of plastics by insect gut larvae is a well-known aspect, however, the underlying mechanism has not been completely identified. Studies conducted have shown the magnificent contribution of gut microbiota, which have been isolated and exploited for microplastic remediation. This review also focuses on this avenue, as it highlights the contribution of insect gut microbiota in microplastic degradation along with challenges faced and future prospects in this area.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Louella Concepta Goveas
- Nitte (Deemed to be University), NMAM Institute of Technology (NMAMIT), Department of Biotechnology Engineering, Nitte, India
| | - Sneha Nayak
- Nitte (Deemed to be University), NMAM Institute of Technology (NMAMIT), Department of Biotechnology Engineering, Nitte, India
| | - P Senthil Kumar
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, Chennai 603 110, India; Centre of Excellence in Water Research (CEWAR), Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, Chennai 603 110, India; Department of Biotechnology Engineering and Food Technology, Chandigarh University, Mohali 140413, India; School of Engineering, Lebanese American University, Byblos, Lebanon.
| | - Gayathri Rangasamy
- School of Engineering, Lebanese American University, Byblos, Lebanon; Department of Sustainable Engineering, Institute of Biotechnology, Saveetha School of Engineering, SIMATS, Chennai 602105, India
| | - S M Vidya
- Nitte (Deemed to be University), NMAM Institute of Technology (NMAMIT), Department of Biotechnology Engineering, Nitte, India.
| | - Ramesh Vinayagam
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka 576104, India
| | - Raja Selvaraj
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka 576104, India.
| | - Dai Viet N Vo
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Nguyen Tat Thanh University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Ali SS, Elsamahy T, Zhu D, Sun J. Biodegradability of polyethylene by efficient bacteria from the guts of plastic-eating waxworms and investigation of its degradation mechanism. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 443:130287. [PMID: 36335905 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.130287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Revised: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Polyethylene (PE) has been regarded as non-biodegradable for decades, and the evidence for its degradation by bacteria remains unclear in the literature. Waxworms have recently gained attention for their ability to degrade natural long-chain polymers and synthetic plastic. This study aims to explore the potential of low-density polyethylene (LDPE)-degrading bacteria from the gut symbionts of lesser waxworm (Achroia grisella) larvae for the effective biodegradation of LEDP. Two bacterial isolates (LDPE-DB1 and LDPE-DB2) exhibited the greatest reduction in tensile strength among all isolates (P < 0.0001), reaching 51.3% and 58.3%, respectively. The bacterial strains LDPE-DB1 and LDPE-DB2 stand for molecularly identified species, Citrobacter freundii and Bacillus sp., respectively. After 5 days of incubation, the cell density of LDPE-DB1 and LDPE-DB2 reached 2.20 × 108 and 1.8 × 108 CFU/mL, respectively. However, after 30 days of incubation, the cell density reached 7.3 × 108 and 5.9 × 108, respectively. The formed cavities indicate the high activity of the isolated bacteria from Achroia grisella larvae where the cavities reach a depth of up to 1.2 µm. The findings of this study demonstrated the presence of LDPE-degrading bacteria in Achroia grisella and provide promising evidence for the biodegradation of plastic waste management in the environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sameh Samir Ali
- Biofuels Institute, School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China; Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Tanta University, Tanta 31527, Egypt.
| | - Tamer Elsamahy
- Biofuels Institute, School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Daochen Zhu
- Biofuels Institute, School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Jianzhong Sun
- Biofuels Institute, School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Yang XG, Wen PP, Yang YF, Jia PP, Li WG, Pei DS. Plastic biodegradation by in vitro environmental microorganisms and in vivo gut microorganisms of insects. Front Microbiol 2023; 13:1001750. [PMID: 36687617 PMCID: PMC9852869 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1001750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Traditional plastics, such as polyethylene (PE), polystyrene (PS), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyurethane (PUR), and other plastic polymers, are difficult to degrade and are gradually accumulated in the environment to cause a serious environmental problem, which is urgently needed to develop novel treatments or control technology. The biodegradation of plastics has gained great attention due to the advantages of green and safe characteristics. Microorganisms play a vital role in the biodegradation of plastics, including environmental microbes (in vitro) and gut microbes of insects (in vivo). Microbial degradation in environmental conditions in vitro is extremely slow for major plastics at degradation rates on the basis of a month or even a year time, but recent discoveries show that the fast biodegradation of specific plastics, such as PS, PE, and PUR, in some invertebrates, especially insects, could be enhanced at rates on basis of hours; the biodegradation in insects is likely to be gut microbial-dependent or synergetic bioreactions in animal digestive systems. This review comprehensively summarizes the latest 7-year (2016-2022) publications on plastic biodegradation by insects and microorganisms, elucidates the mechanism of plastic degradation in insects and environmental microbes, and highlights the cutting-edge perspectives for the potential applications of plastic biodegradation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xian-Guang Yang
- State Key Laboratory Base of Cell Differentiation and Regulation, College of Life Science, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, China
| | - Ping-Ping Wen
- State Key Laboratory Base of Cell Differentiation and Regulation, College of Life Science, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, China
- School of Public Health, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yi-Fan Yang
- State Key Laboratory Base of Cell Differentiation and Regulation, College of Life Science, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, China
- School of Public Health, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Pan-Pan Jia
- School of Public Health, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Wei-Guo Li
- State Key Laboratory Base of Cell Differentiation and Regulation, College of Life Science, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, China
| | - De-Sheng Pei
- School of Public Health, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Orts JM, Parrado J, Pascual JA, Orts A, Cuartero J, Tejada M, Ros M. Polyurethane Foam Residue Biodegradation through the Tenebrio molitor Digestive Tract: Microbial Communities and Enzymatic Activity. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 15:polym15010204. [PMID: 36616553 PMCID: PMC9823465 DOI: 10.3390/polym15010204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Revised: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Polyurethane (PU) is a widely used polymer with a highly complex recycling process due to its chemical structure. Eliminating polyurethane is limited to incineration or accumulation in landfills. Biodegradation by enzymes and microorganisms has been studied for decades as an effective method of biological decomposition. In this study, Tenebrio molitor larvae (T. molitor) were fed polyurethane foam. They degraded the polymer by 35% in 17 days, resulting in a 14% weight loss in the mealworms. Changes in the T. molitor gut bacterial community and diversity were observed, which may be due to the colonization of the species associated with PU degradation. The physical and structural biodegradation of the PU, as achieved by T. molitor, was observed and compared to the characteristics of the original PU (PU-virgin) using Fourier Transform InfraRed spectroscopy (FTIR), Thermal Gravimetric Analysis (TGA), and Scanning Electron Microphotography (SEM).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jose M. Orts
- Departament of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, C/Prof. García Gonzalez 2, 41012 Sevilla, Spain
| | - Juan Parrado
- Departament of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, C/Prof. García Gonzalez 2, 41012 Sevilla, Spain
- Correspondence: (J.P.); (J.A.P.)
| | - Jose A. Pascual
- Department of Soil and Water Conservation and Organic Waste Management, Centro de Edafologia y Biología Aplicada del Segura (CEBAS-CSIC), University Campus of Espinardo, 30100 Murcia, Spain
- Correspondence: (J.P.); (J.A.P.)
| | - Angel Orts
- Departament of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, C/Prof. García Gonzalez 2, 41012 Sevilla, Spain
| | - Jessica Cuartero
- Department of Soil and Water Conservation and Organic Waste Management, Centro de Edafologia y Biología Aplicada del Segura (CEBAS-CSIC), University Campus of Espinardo, 30100 Murcia, Spain
| | - Manuel Tejada
- Grupo de Investigacion Edafologia Ambiental, Departamento de Cristalografia, Mineralogia y Quimica Agricola, E.T.S.I.A. Universidad de Sevilla, 41004 Sevilla, Spain
| | - Margarita Ros
- Department of Soil and Water Conservation and Organic Waste Management, Centro de Edafologia y Biología Aplicada del Segura (CEBAS-CSIC), University Campus of Espinardo, 30100 Murcia, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Byeun DG, Moon BS, Lee S, Choi JK. Germ Cell Isolation and Cryopreservation from Reproductive Organs of Brown Mealworm. INSECTS 2022; 13:1108. [PMID: 36555018 PMCID: PMC9783178 DOI: 10.3390/insects13121108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Revised: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to isolate and freeze germ cells from the superior brown mealworm. Styrofoam diet changes were observed for 20 days to determine whether mealworms were useful insects for decomposing Styrofoam. The average weight of mealworms before the Styrofoam diet was 500 mg, which decreased to 336 mg at D20 after their diet. To preserve mealworms with excellent Styrofoam-degrading ability, we first isolated the reproductive organs of mealworms, testes, ovaries, sperms, and ovarioles. Morphologically, male and female adult brown mealworms were distinguished according to the presence or absence of a protrusion at the tip of the fifth segment of the abdomen. Sperms and ovarioles were observed in anatomically isolated testes and ovaries. We compared mechanical and enzymatic (collagenase I) methods to effectively isolate ovarioles from adult female brown mealworms. For the enzymatic method, most were torn and burst as the membrane of the ovarioles was damaged by collagenase I, unlike the mechanical method. To preserve the superior genetic resources of mealworms, we cryopreserved the ovaries of female brown mealworms using slow-freezing and vitrification. Histological analysis showed that the yolk sac was completely damaged in the ovaries after slow-freezing. However, only partial damage was achieved in the vitrification group compared to the control group (no freezing). The newly developed vitrification method with alginate-encapsulated ovarioles maintained the yolk sac in the ovarioles but was evenly distributed. These results provide basic data for reproductive studies of other useful insects and contribute to the biobanking and fertility preservation of superior mealworm germ cells and endangered insects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Do Gyeung Byeun
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life and Applied Sciences, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Republic of Korea
| | - Byoung-San Moon
- Department of Biotechnology, Chonnam National University, Yeosu 59626, Republic of Korea
| | - Seungki Lee
- Biological and Genetic Resources Assessment Division, National Institute of Biological Resources, Incheon 404-708, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung Kyu Choi
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life and Applied Sciences, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Liu J, Liu J, Xu B, Xu A, Cao S, Wei R, Zhou J, Jiang M, Dong W. Biodegradation of polyether-polyurethane foam in yellow mealworms (Tenebrio molitor) and effects on the gut microbiome. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 304:135263. [PMID: 35697110 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.135263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Revised: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 06/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Polyurethane (PU) is one of the mass-produced recalcitrant plastics with a high environmental resistance but extremely low biodegradability. Therefore, improperly disposed PU waste adds significantly to plastic pollution, which must be addressed immediately. In recent years, there has been an increasing number of reports on plastic biodegradation in insect larvae, especially those that can feed on polyethylene and polystyrene. This study revealed that yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) larvae can chew and ingest polyether-PU foams efficiently, resulting in a significant mass loss of nearly 67% after 35 days at a similar survival rate compared to when fed on bran. However, polyether-PU fragments were found in the frass of T. molitor, indicating that polyether-PU biodegradation and bioconversion in intestinal tracts were not complete. The scission of ether and urethane bonds in the polyether-PU can be evidenced by comparing polymer fragments recovered from frass with the pristine ones using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Gel permeation chromatography suggested the release of low-molecular-weight oligomers as a result of the biodegradation, which also resulted in poor thermal stability of the polyether-PU foam as determined by thermogravimetric analysis. High-throughput sequencing of the gut microbiome revealed significant changes in the microbial community populations due to the polyether-PU diet, for example, an increase in the families Enterobacteriaceae and Streptococcaceae, suggesting that these microorganisms may contribute to the polyether-PU biodegradation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiawei Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, 211800, PR China
| | - Jingyuan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, 211800, PR China
| | - Bin Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, 211800, PR China
| | - Anming Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, 211800, PR China
| | - Shixiang Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, 211800, PR China
| | - Ren Wei
- Junior Research Group Plastic Biodegradation, Department of Biotechnology and Enzyme Catalysis, Institute of Biochemistry, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Jie Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, 211800, PR China.
| | - Min Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, 211800, PR China
| | - Weiliang Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, 211800, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Wang J, Wang Y, Li X, Weng Y, Dong X, Zhao X. Comparison on the effectiveness of Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FT-IR) in characterizing plastics biodegradation by insect larvae. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 839:156289. [PMID: 35644389 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Revised: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The discovery that insect larvae can feed on foam plastics provided new exploration ideas and potential for plastic wastes biodegradation. In previous studies, both attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FT-IR) and conventional FT-IR have been used but no comparison has been done to evaluate the difference of effectiveness for the characterization of oxidization and biodegradation of plastics by insect larvae. To address this, foam plastics of polystyrene, polyurethane and polyethylene, as well as the frass of plastics-fed superworms Zophobas atratus were characterized using both FT-IR and ATR-FT-IR, and the differences were compared. For FT-IR, spectra were found to vary due to the difference in shape and thickness of the samples, as well as the moisture absorption of KBr. For ATR-FT-IR, although tests could be performed directly without pretreatment, the reflection with short wavelength could not deeply penetrate into the frass samples. Since the composition of plastics-fed larval frass is more complex than the original plastics, the spectra of FT-IR and ATR-FT-IR were observed significantly different. Therefore, the ATR-FT-IR was more effective in monitoring functional groups of original plastics, and be recommended to employ in combination with FT-IR for a more comprehensive characterization of plastics-fed larval frass in future studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiaming Wang
- Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Resources and Civil Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
| | - Yumeng Wang
- Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Resources and Civil Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
| | - Xin Li
- Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Resources and Civil Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
| | - Yue Weng
- Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Resources and Civil Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
| | - Xiaoying Dong
- Panjin Institute of Industrial Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Panjin 124221, China
| | - Xin Zhao
- Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Resources and Civil Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China.
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Wang Y, Luo L, Li X, Wang J, Wang H, Chen C, Guo H, Han T, Zhou A, Zhao X. Different plastics ingestion preferences and efficiencies of superworm (Zophobas atratus Fab.) and yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor Linn.) associated with distinct gut microbiome changes. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 837:155719. [PMID: 35526626 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2022] [Revised: 04/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Larvae of superworms (Zophobas atratus Fab.) and yellow mealworms (Tenebrio molitor Linn.) can survive on sole plastic diets. However, no side-by-side comparison of plastics degradation by both species is available yet. Here, superworms and yellow mealworms were fed with polystyrene (PS) or polyurethane (PU) foam plastics as sole diets for 35 days with bran as control. Superworms survived 100% on all diets but decreased weights were observed after 20 days with sole plastic diets. In contrast, yellow mealworms survived 84.67% or 62.67% with PS or PU diet, respectively, both plastics diet groups showed increased weights. Cumulative consumption of plastics by superworms were 49.24 mg-PS/larva and 26.23 mg-PU/larva, which were 18 and 11 folds of that of yellow mealworms, respectively. When converted into mg/g-larvae, superworms had a higher PS consumption rate but both species had similar PU consumption rates. Similar changes of the plastic chemical functional groups in frass indicated occurrences of oxidation and biodegradation of plastics in the guts of both species. Changes of gut microbial communities were found associated with plastics feedstocks and larvae species. The increased relative abundances of unclassified Enterobacteriaceae, Klebsiella, Enterococcus, Dysgonomonas and Sphingobacterium were strongly associated with PS diet in superworms, while Hafnia was strongly associated with PS diet in yellow mealworms. Enterococcus and Mangrovibacter were dominant in PU-fed superworm guts, while unclassified Enterobacteriaceae and Hafnia were strongly associated with PU feeding in yellow mealworms. The results demonstrated that different plastics ingestion preferences and efficiencies of both species were associated with distinct dominant microbiomes although similar changes of chemical groups in plastics were observed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yumeng Wang
- Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Resources and Civil Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
| | - Liping Luo
- Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Resources and Civil Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
| | - Xin Li
- Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Resources and Civil Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
| | - Jiaming Wang
- Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Resources and Civil Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
| | - Hongxuan Wang
- Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Resources and Civil Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
| | - Chen Chen
- Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Hongqin Guo
- Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Resources and Civil Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
| | - Tianfang Han
- Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Resources and Civil Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
| | - Aifen Zhou
- Institute for Environmental Genomics, Department of Microbiology & Plant Biology, University of Oklahoma, Norman 73019, USA
| | - Xin Zhao
- Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Resources and Civil Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China.
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Pivato AF, Miranda GM, Prichula J, Lima JEA, Ligabue RA, Seixas A, Trentin DS. Hydrocarbon-based plastics: Progress and perspectives on consumption and biodegradation by insect larvae. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 293:133600. [PMID: 35031254 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.133600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Revised: 12/27/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The obvious contrast between the remarkable durability and the high consumption of plastic products leads to the deposition of at least 100 million tons of plastics per year in nature. Since 2010, several studies have shown the potential of insect larvae to biodegrade different types of plastics, at higher rates than those reported for microorganisms. This review discusses a compilation of studies about the consumption and biodegradation of hydrocarbon-based plastics, particularly PE, PS, PP and PVC, by lepidopteran and coleopteran larvae. Insects of the Coleoptera order seem to have a better adaptation for PS biodegradation, while those of the Lepidoptera order can better biodegrade PE. Tenebrio molitor biomineralize PE and PS into CO2, and PVC into HCl; while Tenebrio obscurus and Zophobas atratus converts PE and PS into CO2, respectively. Plastic biodegradation by T. molitor has been shown to be dependent on microbiota, exception for PE. Similar PS and PE biodegradation profile has been shown for T. obscurus. PS, PP and PE biodegradation by Z. atratus is also reported to be microbial-dependent. For Galleria mellonella, microbial role on PE biodegradation is still controversial, but the PS metabolism was proved to be microbiota-independent. Advances in this field has stimulated new studies with other insect species, which need to be better explored. Uncovering and understanding the chemical processes behind the innate plastic biodegradation by insect larvae will open the perspective to new eco-friendly innovative biotechnological solutions for the challenge of plastic waste.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andressa F Pivato
- Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Departamento de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Laboratório de Microbiologia Molecular, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Gabriela M Miranda
- Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Escola Politécnica, Laboratório de Organometálicos e Resinas, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Janira Prichula
- Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Departamento de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Laboratório de Microbiologia Molecular, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Jeane E A Lima
- Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Escola Politécnica, Laboratório de Organometálicos e Resinas, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Rosane A Ligabue
- Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Escola Politécnica, Laboratório de Organometálicos e Resinas, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Adriana Seixas
- Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Departamento de Farmacociências, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Danielle S Trentin
- Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Departamento de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Laboratório de Microbiologia Molecular, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Pączkowski P, Puszka A, Gawdzik B. Investigation of Degradation of Composites Based on Unsaturated Polyester Resin and Vinyl Ester Resin. MATERIALS 2022; 15:ma15041286. [PMID: 35207827 PMCID: PMC8874597 DOI: 10.3390/ma15041286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Revised: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This study compares the degradation process of unsaturated polyester resin (UPR) and vinyl ester resin (VER) and their biocomposites with kraft lignin. In order to study their degradation, accelerated aging, immersion in different solvents, microwave radiation and high temperature were applied. The results show that, depending on the conditions, the degradation assumes a different course. The VER resin is more chemically resistant than the UPR resin. In the case of the composites immersed in an aggressive solvent (acetone), it can be observed that the polymer matrix is degraded, whereas in water only a small increase of weight takes place. Immersion in NaOH initiates the degradation process consisting in the hydrolysis of ester bonds, which are especially observed for pure resins. Under the influence of UV radiation and microwaves, the resins are additionally cross-linked. Thermogravimetric analysis shows that in the case of composites heated to 1000 °C, a residual mass remains, which is carbonized with lignin. In turn, composites treated with microwaves lost weight.
Collapse
|