Carob Pulp: A Nutritional and Functional By-Product Worldwide Spread in the Formulation of Different Food Products and Beverages. A Review

Fattening Pigs with Tannin-Rich Source (Ceratonia siliqua L.) and High Doses of Vitamin E: Effects on Growth Performance, Economics, Digestibility, Physiology, and Behaviour

This study aimed to assess the impact on growth, economic results, apparent nutrient digestibility (CTTAD), physiological variables, and animal behaviour when 214 fattening pigs (78 ± 8.5 kg of initial body weight and 130 ± 4.5 days of age) of both sexes (gilts and boars) were fed two levels of carob pulp (Cp, 0 vs. 20%) and two doses of vitamin E (Vit E, 30 vs. 300 IU/kg) for 40 days. No interaction effects between factors studied (Cp, Vit E, and sex) were observed on the variables. Most productive traits were unaffected by Cp or Vit E inclusion. However, the Cp increased the feed conversion ratio during the first 20 days. The Cp group showed a higher CTTAD of ether extract and hemicellulose but lower CTTAD of crude protein. Pigs fed Cp had a lower plasmatic urea content than the control group. The high Vit E doses increased the CTTAD of every nutrient and the plasmatic α-tocopherol content. The pigs fed Cp tended to spend more time eating in the early morning, likely to mitigate tannins' astringent effects. Dietary inclusion of 20% Cp in finishing high-conformation pigs is possible without affecting overall performance though it reduces nutrient CTTAD and increases feeding cost. Supra-nutritional doses of Vit E do not affect pig performance but increase the α-tocopherol deposition with potential antioxidant effects.

Sugars and phenols in carob tree fruits from different producing countries: A short review

In the last two decades, important advances have been made in the chemical analysis of the fruit of carob tree. After harvesting, the fruits (also known as dry pods) are ground. The seeds can then be separated from the pulp, which represents 80-90 % of a pod's weight. The health benefits of carob pulp derivatives are well-recognized, and carob pulp-based food products are becoming increasingly available to consumers. The major carob-producing countries are in southern Europe and northern Africa, including the Mediterranean islands, and carob pulp products are normally prepared and consumed regionally. In this review, we compare the sugar and phenol profiles of carob pods harvested from different countries in the Mediterranean basin while accounting for the different cultivars and soil conditions in each sample area. We conclude that pod nutritional composition varies widely among countries, making it necessary for future, multi-year studies to more closely evaluate how climate and soil properties affect the phenol and sugar contents of fruits from the same trees or cultivars.

Carob: A Mediterranean Resource for the Future

For centuries, the carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua L.) has contributed to the economy of the Mediterranean basin, mainly as food for livestock. Nowadays, the value of the carob tree extends far beyond its traditional uses, encompassing a wide range of industries and applications that take advantage of its unique properties and nutritional benefits. Despite its high industrial demand and European indications, there has been a 65% reduction in the area cultivated throughout the Mediterranean area in the 21st century. Given the threats posed by climate change, including reduced water availability and nutrient-depleted soils, there is a growing need to focus on this crop, which is well placed to cope with unpredictable weather. In this review, we use a bibliographic search approach to emphasise the prioritisation of research needs for effective carob tree exploitation. We found enormous gaps in the scientific knowledge of this under-utilised crop species with fruit pulp and seeds of high industrial value. Insufficient understanding of the biology of the species, as well as inadequate agronomic practices, compromise the quantity and the quality of fruits available to the industry. In addition to industrial applications, carob can also be used in reforestation or restoration programmes, providing a valuable crop while promoting biodiversity conservation and soil restoration. The carbon sequestration potential of the trees should be taken into account as a promising alternative in fighting climate change. This bibliographic search has highlighted clusters with different knowledge gaps that require further research and investment. The carob tree has untapped potential for innovation, economic development, and environmental sustainability.

Nutritional, biochemical and health properties of Locust beans and its applications in the food industry: a review

The Locust Bean (Ceratonia siliqua L.) is an ancient Mediterranean fruit that is used to make locust bean gum from seeds, which is a popular ingredient in many foods today. Locust Bean fruit and Gum are rich in bioactive compounds that can be helpful in the treatment of conditions involving the digestive system, as well as cancer, hyperlipidemia, and diabetes. The locust bean gum is a polysaccharide extracted from the endosperm of the locust bean seed through different thermomechanical or chemical processes. It is an approved food additive with the European number E410 and a number of different food uses. It is a galactomannan and it is frequently used in dairy products for its water-binding and thickening properties to improve their rheological properties. This review aims to study the functional, and nutritional characteristics of Locust Bean Gum, the extraction of Locust Bean Gum, as well as its applications in the food sector and its impacts on dairy product processing.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-023-05765-5.

A Potentially Ecosustainable Hazelnut/Carob-Based Spread

Commercial cocoa and hazelnut-based sweet spreads typically present a poor nutribiochemical level due to their ingredients and recipes, while nowadays, there is the need of developing sustainable food products addressing both an improved nutritional and environmental profile. The aim of this work was then to develop an innovative hazelnut/carob-based spread with potential high sustainability and nutritional profile, including the exploitation of grape-processing residues (grape skin flour and grapeseed oil) and carob pulp as cocoa surrogate. Rheological (rotational/oscillatory), oxidative, and thermal features of the spread were assessed and compared with two commercial nut-cocoa-based products. Tribology was used to mimic and evaluate the spreads' behavior during oral consumption, and sensory profile (by quantitative descriptive analysis) was also assessed. All products exhibited a pseudoplastic behavior, with the elastic component prevailing over the viscous one. The innovative product showed the highest lubricity from both rheological and sensory analysis, thus well correlating to the obtained lowest viscosity and friction factor trends. Grapeseed oil provided a better nutritional profile, but the largest amount of unsaturated fatty acids promoted oxidation, despite the higher total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity coming from the use of carob and grape skin powders. The sensory perception investigation revealed a characteristic mouthfeel/flavor for the new spread identified having a more fluid consistency and a bitter/sour taste, together with a greater stickiness and a poorer smoothness due to a higher fiber content and solid fat absence.

Trends and challenges of fruit by-products utilization: insights into safety, sensory, and benefits of the use for the development of innovative healthy food: a review

A significant portion of the human diet is comprised of fruits, which are consumed globally either raw or after being processed. A huge amount of waste and by-products such as skins, seeds, cores, rags, rinds, pomace, etc. are being generated in our homes and agro-processing industries every day. According to previous statistics, nearly half of the fruits are lost or discarded during the entire processing chain. The concern arises when those wastes and by-products damage the environment and simultaneously cause economic losses. There is a lot of potential in these by-products for reuse in a variety of applications, including the isolation of valuable bioactive ingredients and their application in developing healthy and functional foods. The development of novel techniques for the transformation of these materials into marketable commodities may offer a workable solution to this waste issue while also promoting sustainable economic growth from the bio-economic viewpoint. This approach can manage waste as well as add value to enterprises. The goal of this study is twofold based on this scenario. The first is to present a brief overview of the most significant bioactive substances found in those by-products. The second is to review the current status of their valorization including the trends and techniques, safety assessments, sensory attributes, and challenges. Moreover, specific attention is drawn to the future perspective, and some solutions are discussed in this report.

Carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.), Pharmacological and Phytochemical Activities of Neglected Legume of the Mediterranean Basin, as Functional Food

Carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) has been widely cultivated in different parts of the world, particularly in the Mediterranean region, and the tree belongs to the family Leguminosae. Several studies have indicated that carobs and their products can improve human health and help prevent different specific chronic diseases. Carob can considered as functional food due to its high content in dietary fibers, low-fat content, and high content of minerals. Its fruit is a pod containing 10%-20% seeds, and the pods consist of sugars, proteins, crude fibers, minerals, vitamins, polyphenols, vitamins, and lipids. In many countries in the Middle east, carob is mainly used to prepare as a traditional drink and some kinds of confectioneries. The powders can be utilized to prepare carob juice concentrate. The systematic review of documents from clinical trials and scientific societies dedicated to traditional medicine in China has been carried out. The goal of this review article is a survey of chemical compounds, and pharmaceutical benefits of carob, especially by considering traditional medicinal sciences. Moreover, clinical trials research promotes studies to highlight and focus on the scope of application of traditional medicinal science in the growing system of medicine.

A chestnut-hemp type-II sourdough to improve technological, nutritional, and sensory properties of gluten-free bread

The nutritional quality of gluten-free (GF) products is usually improved by using flours derived from alternative grains (e.g., pseudocereals and legumes), additives and hydrolysates, leading to long ingredient lists in the labels, that conflict with current customer expectations. In this work, chestnut, carob, and hemp flours were used as mixed ingredients for making a gluten-free type-II sourdough. Three exopolysaccharides-producer lactic acid bacteria, belonging to Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Weissella cibaria, and Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides, were used, and the fermentation processes (6 log10 cfu/g, 25 °C, 16 h) optimize to maximize the EPS synthesis (15.70 ± 2.1 mg/kg). The chestnut-hemp (70:30) type-II sourdough was included in a rice/corn gluten-free bread recipe also containing psyllium flour as structuring agent. Although the fortification with unfermented flours already led the achievement of 6 g/100 g of fiber (high fiber, Regulation EC n. 1924/2006) and content of magnesium higher than the daily reference intakes, the use of type-II sourdoughs led to a further structural, sensory, and nutritional improvements (e.g., decreasing the main anti-nutritional factor phytic acid). This work demonstrated that the use of ad-hoc selected ingredients and optimized protocol can be used to produce a GF and "clean label" bread with optimal nutritional features and appreciable sensory and structural properties.

Aridity Gradients Shape Intraspecific Variability of Morphological Traits in Native Ceratonia siliqua L. of Morocco

The carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua L.) is a significant fruit tree in the Mediterranean region with cultural, biological, and ecological importance. Despite its importance, intraspecific trait variability (ITV) in carob trees has been largely overlooked in previous studies. Understanding ITV and its relationship with environmental conditions is crucial for conservation and breeding programs. In this study, we investigated the variability of carob pod and seed-related traits across different ecological scales in 25 studied populations in Morocco. Significant differences in morphological traits were observed between carob populations at various ecological levels, and pod-related traits exhibited greater variability than seed traits. Correlation analysis revealed strong associations between carob morphological traits and environmental conditions, with altitude and aridity index playing an influential role. The aridity gradient was strongly related to changes in pod size, seed number, and size, as well as seed yield. Our findings highlight an important ITV reaching 45% at the intra-population level, 36.5% at the inter-geographic level, and 30% at the inter-population level. Overall, this study contributes valuable insights into the ecology and adaptation of carob trees, emphasizing the importance of considering intraspecific variability when studying this remarkable species. This knowledge is critical for addressing the challenges posed by climate change and human activities on the long-term survival and ecological functioning of carob populations.

Biological Activities of Ceratonia siliqua Pod and Seed Extracts: A Comparative Analysis of Two Cretan Cultivars

Ceratonia siliqua L., commonly known as the carob tree, appears in most Mediterranean countries, often cultivated for the collection of its fruits to be used as food for humans and animals. This study was aimed at the phytochemical characterization of two common Cretan C. siliqua cultivars and the biological evaluation of deseeded pod and seed extracts regarding their putative use in cosmetics. Gas and liquid chromatographic techniques were used to assess their essential oil, fatty acid, and carbohydrate profiles. Cell-free assays, including free-radical scavenging; the inhibition of tyrosinase and collagenase; the blocking of advanced glycation end product (AGE) formation; along with assays in human skin fibroblast cultures, i.e., reactive oxygen species suppression, glutathione stimulation, and protection from oxidative stress and from ultraviolet (UVB) radiation, were also used. Extracts from both cultivars were found to possess antioxidant capacity, tyrosinase- and collagenase-inhibitory activities, an ability to block glucose-induced AGEs, and in certain cases, UVB absorbance and photoprotective activities. Seed extracts were in general more active, while the use of 30% aqueous methanol seemed to be more efficient than n-hexane for extraction. Serial partition of the most active extracts resulted in fractions with enriched biological activities. These properties make Cretan carob extracts and their fractions suitable candidates for use in cosmetics.

Colour Stability, Fatty Acid Profile, and Lipid Oxidation in Meat Stored in Modified Atmosphere Packaging from Light Lambs Fed with Concentrate with Carob Pulp (Ceratonia siliqua L.)

There is a growing interest in using by-products rich in polyphenols, such as carob pulp (Cp, Ceratonia siliqua L.), as a dietary source of antioxidants for animals. This study assesses the effects of including Cp in lambs' diet and meat display time (0, 7, 9, and 11 days) in modified atmosphere packaging on meat colour, fatty acid (FA) composition, tocopherol levels, and lipid oxidation values in the Semimembranosus muscle of 40 light lambs. The lambs were fed with concentrates supplemented with increasing Cp levels (0, 150, and 300 g/kg) for 45 days before slaughter. Metmyoglobin (MMb) and malondialdehyde (MDA) contents increased linearly with display time (p < 0.05), regardless of diet (p > 0.05). At 11 days of display, MMb (28 ± 0.8%) and MDA (0.6 ± 0.1 mg MDA/kg of meat) contents remained within the acceptable limits. The α-tocopherol content was lower in the 30% Cp group and meat (p < 0.05). Total saturated and monounsaturated FA contents (934 ± 64 and 823 ± 65 mg/100 g of meat, respectively) did not differ significantly among the groups. However, the meat from lambs fed with 30% Cp showed reduced levels of branched-chain FAs, while polyunsaturated FAs increased (p < 0.05) compared to the control lambs. The inclusion of Cp in the lamb's diet, up to 30%, did not lead to meat deterioration and improved certain quality parameters, including a healthier FA profile. These findings highlight Cp's potential as an alternative antioxidant source in animal diets.

Use of Selected Lactic Acid Bacteria and Carob Flour for the Production of a High-Fibre and "Clean Label" Plant-Based Yogurt-like Product

Carob, an underutilized crop with several ecological and economic advantages, was traditionally used as animal feed and excluded from the human diet. Yet, nowadays, its beneficial effects on health are making it an interesting candidate as a food ingredient. In this study, a carob-based yogurt-like product was designed and fermented with six lactic acid bacteria strains, whose performances after fermentation and during shelf life were assessed through microbial and biochemical characterization. The strains showed different aptitudes to ferment the rice-carob matrix. Particularly, Lactiplantibacillus plantarum T6B10 was among the strains with the lowest latency phase and highest acidification at the end of fermentation. T6B10 also showed discrete proteolysis during storage, so free amino acids were up to 3-fold higher compared to the beverages fermented with the other strains. Overall, fermentation resulted in the inhibition of spoilage microorganisms, while an increase in yeasts was found in the chemically acidified control. The yogurt-like product was characterized by high-fiber and low-fat content; moreover, compared to the control, fermentation decreased the predicted glycemic index (-9%) and improved the sensory acceptability. Thus, this work demonstrated that the combination of carob flour and fermentation with selected lactic acid bacteria strains represents a sustainable and effective option to obtain safe and nutritious yogurt-like products.

Exploring the Multi-Faceted Potential of Carob (Ceratonia siliqua var. Rahma) Leaves from Morocco: A Comprehensive Analysis of Polyphenols Profile, Antimicrobial Activity, Cytotoxicity against Breast Cancer Cell Lines, and Genotoxicity

The botanical species Ceratonia siliqua L., commonly referred to as the Carob tree, and locally as "L'Kharrûb", holds significance as an agro-sylvo-pastoral species, and is traditionally utilized in Morocco for treating a variety of ailments. This current investigation aims to ascertain the antioxidant, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic properties of the ethanolic extract of C. siliqua leaves (CSEE). Initially, we analyzed the chemical composition of CSEE through high-performance liquid chromatography with Diode-Array Detection (HPLC-DAD). Subsequently, we conducted various assessments, including DPPH scavenging capacity, β-carotene bleaching assay, ABTS scavenging, and total antioxidant capacity assays to evaluate the antioxidant activity of the extract. In this study, we investigated the antimicrobial properties of CSEE against five bacterial strains (two gram-positive, Staphylococcus aureus, and Enterococcus faecalis; and three gram-negative bacteria, Escherichia coli, Escherichia vekanda, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and two fungi (Candida albicans, and Geotrichum candidum). Additionally, we evaluated the cytotoxicity of CSEE on three human breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7, MDA-MB-231, and MDA-MB-436) and assessed the potential genotoxicity of the extract using the comet assay. Through HPLC-DAD analysis, we determined that phenolic acids and flavonoids were the primary constituents of the CSEE extract. The results of the DPPH test indicated a potent scavenging capacity of the extract with an IC₅₀ of 302.78 ± 7.55 µg/mL, which was comparable to that of ascorbic acid with an IC₅₀ of 260.24 ± 6.45 µg/mL. Similarly, the β-carotene test demonstrated an IC₅₀ of 352.06 ± 12.16 µg/mL, signifying the extract's potential to inhibit oxidative damage. The ABTS assay revealed IC₅₀ values of 48.13 ± 3.66 TE µmol/mL, indicating a strong ability of CSEE to scavenge ABTS radicals, and the TAC assay demonstrated an IC₅₀ value of 165 ± 7.66 µg AAE/mg. The results suggest that the CSEE extract had potent antioxidant activity. Regarding its antimicrobial activity, the CSEE extract was effective against all five tested bacterial strains, indicating its broad-spectrum antibacterial properties. However, it only showed moderate activity against the two tested fungal strains, suggesting it may not be as effective against fungi. The CSEE exhibited a noteworthy dose-dependent inhibitory activity against all the tested tumor cell lines in vitro. The extract did not induce DNA damage at the concentrations of 6.25, 12.5, 25, and 50 µg/mL, as assessed by the comet assay. However, the 100 µg/mL concentration of CSEE resulted in a significant genotoxic effect compared to the negative control. A computational analysis was conducted to determine the physicochemical and pharmacokinetic characteristics of the constituent molecules present in the extract. The Prediction of Activity Spectra of Substances (PASS) test was employed to forecast the potential biological activities of these molecules. Additionally, the toxicity of the molecules was evaluated using the Protox II webserver.

Locust bean milling-derived dust as a raw material for the development of biodegradable bioplastics with antioxidant activity

BACKGROUND

Non-value agrifood byproducts are rich in biomolecules such as proteins and polysaccharides, and possess film-forming ability, motivating their use in the development of biodegradable plastics. This work studied the feasibility of using locust bean milling-derived dust (LBMD) as a source of biomolecules suitable for developing biodegradable plastics.

RESULTS

LBMD is composed of 56% protein, 28% carbohydrate, 10% moisture, 6% lipid, and 2% ash. In addition, phenolic compounds are also present. The carbohydrates are mainly composed by (1 → 4)-mannose, (1 → 4,6)-mannose, and t-galactose glycosidic linkages. Depending on the LBMD concentration used, when employed in casting biodegradable plastics, LBMD yields transparent yellowish bioplastics with 90% elongation at break and surface water contact angles ranging from 60° to 90°. Additionally, LBMD-based bioplastics display antioxidant activity, inhibiting cationic 2,2'-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) radicals up to 61% in just 24 h. LBMD-based bioplastics are disintegrated when incubated on the soil surface for 34 weeks, perhaps acting as a soil nutrient.

CONCLUSION

LBMD represents a potential source of biomolecules for producing transparent, flexible, water tolerant, antioxidant, and biodegradable bioplastics, opening up opportunities to implement a novel circular strategy to valorize this locust bean industry byproduct. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Structural and Physiological Traits of Compound Leaves of Ceratonia siliqua Trees Grown in Urban and Suburban Ambient Conditions

Ceratonia siliqua L. (carob tree) is an endemic plant to the eastern Mediterranean region. In the present study, anatomical and physiological traits of successively grown compound leaves (i.e., the first, third, fifth and seventh leaves) of C. siliqua were investigated in an attempt to evaluate their growth under urban and suburban environmental conditions. Chlorophyll and phenolic content, as well as the specific leaf area of the compound leaves were determined. Structural traits of leaflets (i.e., thickness of palisade and spongy parenchyma, abaxial and adaxial epidermis, as well as abaxial and adaxial periclinal wall) were also investigated in expanding and fully expanded leaflets. Fully expanded leaflets from urban sites exhibited increased thickness of the lamina and the palisade parenchyma, while the thickness of the spongy parenchyma was thicker in suburban specimens. The palisade tissue was less extended than the spongy tissue in expanding leaflets, while the opposite held true for the expanded leaflets. Moreover, the thickness of the adaxial and the abaxial epidermises, as well as the adaxial and abaxial periclinal wall were higher in suburban leaflets. The chlorophyll content increased concomitantly with the specific leaf area (SLA) of both expanding and expanded leaflets, and strong positive correlations were detected, while the phenolic content declined with the increased SLA of expanding and expanded leaflets. It is noteworthy that the SLA of expanding leaflets in the suburban site was comparable to the SLA of expanded leaflets experiencing air pollution in urban sites; the size and the mass of leaf blades of C. siliqua possess adaptive features to air pollution. These results, linked to the functional structure of expanding and expanded successive foliar tissues, provide valuable assessment information coordinated with an adaptive process and yield of carob trees exposed to the considered ambient conditions, which have not hitherto been published.

Process Optimization of Phytoantioxidant and Photoprotective Compounds from Carob Pods (Ceratonia siliqua L.) Using Ultrasonic Assisted Extraction Method

The current study first describes the extraction of phytoantioxidant polyphenols from Carob byproducts (pods) using maceration and heating-assisted extraction as traditional methods and ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UAE) as an innovative method to determine the most efficient extraction process in terms of four targeted responses: total phenolic content (TPC), antioxidant activities (TAC and DPPH), and photoprotective properties as measured by the sun protection factor (SPF). Second, we used response surface methodology (RSM) with a central composite rotatable design (CCDR) approach to investigate the influence of process variables (extraction time, extraction temperature, and solvent concentration) on UAE, which was found to be the most effective extraction technique in our study. Carob byproduct extracts had a TPC ranging from 6.21 to 21.92 mg GAE/g dw, a TAC ranging from 22.00 to 49.30 mg AAE/g dw, DPPH scavenging activity ranging from 56.35 to 90.50%, and SPF values ranging from 8.62 to 22.37. The optimal UAE conditions for maximum TPC, TAC, DPPH, and SPF responses were determined to be 38.90% ethanol, 53.90 °C, and 50.92 min. Using Carob as a source for sustainable and bioactive products in conjunction with optimized UAE is a promising contribution to the cosmetic industry that will help to strengthen the concept of environmentally-friendly "green chemistry". Given that Carob pulp or seeds are considered food byproducts, the research presented here encourages the use of these agri-food waste materials in cosmetics.

Locust Bean Gum: Processing, Properties and Food Applications

Locust bean gum is derived from the seed endosperm of the Ceratonia siliqua carob tree and is known as locust bean or carob gum. Food, medicines, paper, textile, oil drilling, and cosmetic sectors all use it as an ingredient. Hydrogen bonding with water molecules makes locust bean gum useful in industrial settings. In addition, its dietary fibre activity helps regulate numerous health issues, including diabetes, bowel motions, heart disease and colon cancer. Locust bean gum production, processing, composition, characteristics, culinary applications, and health advantages are the subject of this article.

Effect of feeding carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) pulp powder to broiler chicken on growth performance, intestinal microbiota, carcass traits, and meat quality

In this study, the influence of a partial substitution of corn with carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) pulp powder on broiler performance, intestinal microbiota, carcass traits, and meat quality, was investigated. Two dietary treatments were compared: the control group received a diet containing basically corn, soybean meal, and wheat bran for all the breeding periods while the experimental group received the same starter diet as the control group and grower and finisher diets containing 3% and 7% of carob pulp powder, respectively. Growth performance (weight gain, feed intake, and feed conversion ratio), carcass traits, lactic acid bacteria, and total coliforms were determined. Physicochemical parameters, proximate composition, fatty acid profiles, lipid oxidation index, and sensory characteristics of broiler thigh and breast muscles were determined. Dietary supplementation with carob pulp powder did not show an effect (P > 0.05) on growth performance and carcass traits except for slaughter yield and breast relative weight. An increase in sum lactic acid bacteria count and a decrease in total coliforms were observed in the experimental group. No effect (P > 0.05) of dietary carob was observed on pH, cooking losses, ash, mineral, and protein contents in breast and thigh muscles from broilers. However, the experimental diet decreased (P < 0.05) moisture and fat contents in thigh muscles but not in breast muscles. Both muscles from the experimental group of birds exhibited lower palmitic and oleic acids contents, and higher linoleic and linolenic acids levels than those from the control group. Whereas the polyunsaturated fatty acid contents in broiler breast and thigh meat was increased by dietary carob, the concentration of lipid oxidation products decreased in this group. The dietary intervention had no significant effect on the sensory profile of breast and thigh muscles. Thus, carob pulp powder can be applied to broiler diet at 7% as a nonconventional feed with no negative impact on growth performance and carcass traits and to increase the degree of unsaturation with no negative impact on oxidative stability or sensory traits.

Carob: A Sustainable Opportunity for Metabolic Health

Carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) is an evergreen tree that belongs to the Leguminosae family and grows in the arid and semi-arid regions of the Mediterranean basin. The carob tree is resistant to droughts and salinity, while its deep root systems allow CO₂ to sink, mitigating global warming effects. Traditionally, carob has been used to produce animal feed, but for many years, it was excluded from the human diet. Nowadays, agricultural and industrial sectors exploit carob fruit, also referred to as carob pod, and its primary products (i.e., flour, powder and syrup) to develop a variety of foods and beverages. The nutritional composition varies depending on the carob part but also on genetic, cultivar, seasonal and environmental factors. Despite the high sugar content, the carob pod is rich in insoluble fiber and microconstituents including phenolic compounds, inositols (mainly d-pinitol) and vitamins. In the present review article, we aimed to (a) highlight the role of carob cultivation in addressing climate change challenges and the need for sustainability, and (b) summarize the effects of carob consumption on obesity and related metabolic disorders.

Particle Size Effect of Integral Carob Flour on Bioaccessibility of Bioactive Compounds during Simulated Gastrointestinal Digestion

Carob fruit is native to the Mediterranean region and produced mainly in Portugal, Italy, Morocco and Turkey. The production of the carob fruit in Portugal is highly extensive and sustainable. Currently, carob flour (CF) production is mainly achieved after pulp separation, despite it having been demonstrated that the seeds improve the extraction efficiency of bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, promoting human health. This study aimed to produce an integral CF through an innovative process and assess its physicochemical and bioactive properties at different particle sizes throughout simulated gastrointestinal tract (GIT) digestion. The sugar content profile obtained throughout GIT digestion indicated that sucrose, the sugar present at the highest concentration in undigested CF, was digested and broken down into simple sugars, namely glucose and fructose. The total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activity obtained for the ≤100 µm fraction were in accordance and gastric digestion promoted an increase in the TPC value compared to the undigested sample. The >100 µm fractions displayed a distinct profile from the ≤100 µm fraction. This study showed that the particle size affects the sugar, antioxidant and total phenolic content of CFs and also their gastrointestinal tract digestion. The ≤100 µm fraction demonstrated the most suitable profile as a functional food ingredient.

Linking the Dynamic Changes in the In Vitro Antioxidant Activity of Carob Kibbles upon Roasting to the Chemical and Structural Changes Revealed by FTIR Spectroscopy

Recent studies have highlighted the potential of utilizing carob kibbles as a bioactive-rich food ingredient associated with substantial health benefits. Roasting is a key process in enhancing the sensory characteristics of carob kibbles, also affecting the bioactive polyphenols and leading to the formation of Maillard reaction products (MRPs), including the polymeric melanoidins that are associated with a high antioxidant potential but remain unexplored in carob. In this work, we employed for the first time attenuated total reflectance-Fourier Transform Infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy to probe the dynamic chemical and structural changes upon the roasting of carob kibbles, along with the investigation of the in vitro antioxidant activity through the 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity and the determination of the total polyphenolic, proanthocyanidin, gallic acid and cinnamic acid contents. Roasting significantly enhanced the in vitro antioxidant activity of the polyphenolic carob extracts, with different rates at distinct roasting temperatures. The ATR-FTIR analysis enabled the identification of the changes in the structural features of polyphenolic compounds that were related to the improved antioxidant activity upon roasting. Furthermore, the detection of characteristic signatures for the polymeric melanoidins in the infrared (IR) fingerprint region provided the first evidence for the formation and structural properties of these complex, diverse compounds in roasted carob kibbles.

Condensed Tannins as Antioxidants in Ruminants-Effectiveness and Action Mechanisms to Improve Animal Antioxidant Status and Oxidative Stability of Products

Condensed tannins (CTs) are widely distributed in plants, and due to their recognized antioxidant activity are considered as possible natural antioxidants for application in ruminant diets. A wide range of CT-rich sources has been tested in ruminant diets, and their effects on animal antioxidant status and oxidative stability of their products are reviewed in the present work. Possible mechanisms underlying the CT antioxidant effects in ruminants are also discussed, and the CT chemical structure is briefly presented. Utilization of CT-rich sources in ruminant feeding can improve the animals' antioxidant status and oxidative stability of their products. However, the results are still inconsistent. Although poorly understood, the evidence suggests that CTs can induce an antioxidant effect in living animals and in their products through direct and indirect mechanisms, which can occur by an integrated and synergic way involving: (i) absorption of CTs with low molecular weight or metabolites, despite CTs' poor bioavailability; (ii) antioxidant action on the gastrointestinal tract; and (iii) interaction with other antioxidant agents. Condensed tannins are alternative dietary antioxidants for ruminants, but further studies should be carried out to elucidate the mechanism underlying the antioxidant activity of each CT source to design effective antioxidant strategies based on the use of CTs in ruminant diets.