1
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Mayer PM, Moran KD, Miller EL, Brander SM, Harper S, Garcia-Jaramillo M, Carrasco-Navarro V, Ho KT, Burgess RM, Thornton Hampton LM, Granek EF, McCauley M, McIntyre JK, Kolodziej EP, Hu X, Williams AJ, Beckingham BA, Jackson ME, Sanders-Smith RD, Fender CL, King GA, Bollman M, Kaushal SS, Cunningham BE, Hutton SJ, Lang J, Goss HV, Siddiqui S, Sutton R, Lin D, Mendez M. Where the rubber meets the road: Emerging environmental impacts of tire wear particles and their chemical cocktails. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 927:171153. [PMID: 38460683 PMCID: PMC11214769 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2023] [Revised: 02/18/2024] [Accepted: 02/19/2024] [Indexed: 03/11/2024]
Abstract
About 3 billion new tires are produced each year and about 800 million tires become waste annually. Global dependence upon tires produced from natural rubber and petroleum-based compounds represents a persistent and complex environmental problem with only partial and often-times, ineffective solutions. Tire emissions may be in the form of whole tires, tire particles, and chemical compounds, each of which is transported through various atmospheric, terrestrial, and aquatic routes in the natural and built environments. Production and use of tires generates multiple heavy metals, plastics, PAH's, and other compounds that can be toxic alone or as chemical cocktails. Used tires require storage space, are energy intensive to recycle, and generally have few post-wear uses that are not also potential sources of pollutants (e.g., crumb rubber, pavements, burning). Tire particles emitted during use are a major component of microplastics in urban runoff and a source of unique and highly potent toxic substances. Thus, tires represent a ubiquitous and complex pollutant that requires a comprehensive examination to develop effective management and remediation. We approach the issue of tire pollution holistically by examining the life cycle of tires across production, emissions, recycling, and disposal. In this paper, we synthesize recent research and data about the environmental and human health risks associated with the production, use, and disposal of tires and discuss gaps in our knowledge about fate and transport, as well as the toxicology of tire particles and chemical leachates. We examine potential management and remediation approaches for addressing exposure risks across the life cycle of tires. We consider tires as pollutants across three levels: tires in their whole state, as particulates, and as a mixture of chemical cocktails. Finally, we discuss information gaps in our understanding of tires as a pollutant and outline key questions to improve our knowledge and ability to manage and remediate tire pollution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul M Mayer
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, Pacific Ecological Systems Division, Corvallis, OR 97333, United States of America.
| | - Kelly D Moran
- San Francisco Estuary Institute, 4911 Central Ave, Richmond, CA 94804, United States of America.
| | - Ezra L Miller
- San Francisco Estuary Institute, 4911 Central Ave, Richmond, CA 94804, United States of America.
| | - Susanne M Brander
- Department of Fisheries, Wildlife, and Conservation Sciences, Coastal Oregon Marine Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, United States of America.
| | - Stacey Harper
- Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, School of Chemical, Biological and Environmental Engineering, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97333, United States of America.
| | - Manuel Garcia-Jaramillo
- Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, United States of America.
| | - Victor Carrasco-Navarro
- Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio Campus, Yliopistonranta 1 E, 70211 Kuopio, Finland.
| | - Kay T Ho
- US Environmental Protection Agency, ORD/CEMM Atlantic Coastal Environmental Sciences Division, Narragansett, RI 02882, United States of America.
| | - Robert M Burgess
- US Environmental Protection Agency, ORD/CEMM Atlantic Coastal Environmental Sciences Division, Narragansett, RI 02882, United States of America.
| | - Leah M Thornton Hampton
- Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, 3535 Harbor Blvd, Suite 110, Costa Mesa, CA 92626, United States of America.
| | - Elise F Granek
- Environmental Science & Management, Portland State University, Portland, OR 97201, United States of America.
| | - Margaret McCauley
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Region 10, Seattle, WA 98101, United States of America.
| | - Jenifer K McIntyre
- School of the Environment, Washington State University, Puyallup Research & Extension Center, Washington Stormwater Center, 2606 W Pioneer Ave, Puyallup, WA 98371, United States of America.
| | - Edward P Kolodziej
- Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences (UW Tacoma), Civil and Environmental Engineering (UW Seattle), Center for Urban Waters, University of Washington, Tacoma, WA 98402, United States of America.
| | - Ximin Hu
- Civil and Environmental Engineering (UW Seattle), University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, United States of America.
| | - Antony J Williams
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Center for Computational Toxicology and Exposure, Chemical Characterization and Exposure Division, Computational Chemistry & Cheminformatics Branch, 109 T.W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, United States of America.
| | - Barbara A Beckingham
- Department of Geology & Environmental Geosciences, College of Charleston, Charleston, SC, 66 George Street Charleston, SC 29424, United States of America.
| | - Miranda E Jackson
- Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, United States of America.
| | - Rhea D Sanders-Smith
- Washington State Department of Ecology, 300 Desmond Drive SE, Lacey, WA 98503, United States of America.
| | - Chloe L Fender
- Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, United States of America.
| | - George A King
- CSS, Inc., 200 SW 35th St, Corvallis, OR 97333, United States of America.
| | - Michael Bollman
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, Pacific Ecological Systems Division, Corvallis, OR 97333, United States of America.
| | - Sujay S Kaushal
- Department of Geology and Earth System Science Interdisciplinary Center, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20740, United States of America.
| | - Brittany E Cunningham
- Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97333, United States of America.
| | - Sara J Hutton
- GSI Environmental, Inc., Olympia, Washington 98502, USA.
| | - Jackelyn Lang
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Cell Biology, Department of Medicine and Epidemiology and the Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, University of California, Davis School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, CA 95616, United States of America.
| | - Heather V Goss
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, Office of Wastewater Management, Washington, DC 20004, United States of America.
| | - Samreen Siddiqui
- Department of Fisheries, Wildlife, and Conservation Sciences, Coastal Oregon Marine Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, United States of America.
| | - Rebecca Sutton
- San Francisco Estuary Institute, 4911 Central Ave, Richmond, CA 94804, United States of America.
| | - Diana Lin
- San Francisco Estuary Institute, 4911 Central Ave, Richmond, CA 94804, United States of America.
| | - Miguel Mendez
- San Francisco Estuary Institute, 4911 Central Ave, Richmond, CA 94804, United States of America.
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2
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Ebbesen LG, Strange MV, Gunaalan K, Paulsen ML, Herrera A, Nielsen TG, Shashoua Y, Lindegren M, Almeda R. Do weathered microplastics impact the planktonic community? A mesocosm approach in the Baltic Sea. WATER RESEARCH 2024; 255:121500. [PMID: 38554636 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2024.121500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2023] [Revised: 03/18/2024] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
Microplastics (MPs) are ubiquitous pollutants of increasing concern in aquatic systems. However, little is still known about the impacts of weathered MPs on plankton at the community level after long-term exposure. In this study, we investigated the effects of weathered MPs on the structure and dynamics of a Baltic Sea planktonic community during ca. 5 weeks of exposure using a mesocosm approach (2 m3) mimicking natural conditions. MPs were obtained from micronized commercial materials of polyvinyl chloride, polypropylene, polystyrene, and polyamide (nylon) previously weathered by thermal ageing and sunlight exposure. The planktonic community was exposed to 2 μg L-1 and 2 mg L-1 of MPs corresponding to measured particle concentrations (10-120 μm) of 680 MPs L-1 and 680 MPs mL-1, respectively. The abundance and composition of all size classes and groups of plankton and chlorophyll concentrations were periodically analyzed throughout the experiment. The population dynamics of the studied groups showed some variations between treatments, with negative and positive effects of MPs exhibited depending on the group and exposure time. The abundance of heterotrophic bacteria, pico- and nanophytoplankton, cryptophytes, and ciliates was lower in the treatment with the higher MP concentration than in the control at the last weeks of the exposure. The chlorophyll concentration and the abundances of heterotrophic nanoflagellates, Astromoeba, dinoflagellate, diatom, and metazooplankton were not negatively affected by the exposure to MPs and, in some cases, some groups showed even higher abundances in the MP treatments. Despite these tendencies, statistical analyses indicate that in most cases there were no statistically significant differences between treatments over the exposure period, even at very high exposure concentrations. Our results show that weathered MPs of the studied conventional plastic materials have minimal or negligible impact on planktonic communities after long-term exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linea Gry Ebbesen
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark; National Institute of Aquatic Resources (DTU AQUA) Technical University of Denmark, Denmark
| | - Markus Varlund Strange
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark; National Institute of Aquatic Resources (DTU AQUA) Technical University of Denmark, Denmark
| | - Kuddithamby Gunaalan
- National Institute of Aquatic Resources (DTU AQUA) Technical University of Denmark, Denmark
| | | | - Alicia Herrera
- EOMAR, ECOAQUA, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
| | - Torkel Gissel Nielsen
- National Institute of Aquatic Resources (DTU AQUA) Technical University of Denmark, Denmark
| | - Yvonne Shashoua
- Environmental Archaeology and Materials Science, National Museum of Denmark, Denmark
| | - Martin Lindegren
- National Institute of Aquatic Resources (DTU AQUA) Technical University of Denmark, Denmark
| | - Rodrigo Almeda
- National Institute of Aquatic Resources (DTU AQUA) Technical University of Denmark, Denmark; EOMAR, ECOAQUA, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain.
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3
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Jimenez-Guri E, Paganos P, La Vecchia C, Annona G, Caccavale F, Molina MD, Ferrández-Roldán A, Donnellan RD, Salatiello F, Johnstone A, Eliso MC, Spagnuolo A, Cañestro C, Albalat R, Martín-Durán JM, Williams EA, D'Aniello E, Arnone MI. Developmental toxicity of pre-production plastic pellets affects a large swathe of invertebrate taxa. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 356:141887. [PMID: 38583530 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.141887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2024] [Revised: 03/14/2024] [Accepted: 04/01/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024]
Abstract
Microplastics pose risks to marine organisms through ingestion, entanglement, and as carriers of toxic additives and environmental pollutants. Plastic pre-production pellet leachates have been shown to affect the development of sea urchins and, to some extent, mussels. The extent of those developmental effects on other animal phyla remains unknown. Here, we test the toxicity of environmental mixed nurdle samples and new PVC pellets for the embryonic development or asexual reproduction by regeneration of animals from all the major animal superphyla (Lophotrochozoa, Ecdysozoa, Deuterostomia and Cnidaria). Our results show diverse, concentration-dependent impacts in all the species sampled for new pellets, and for molluscs and deuterostomes for environmental samples. Embryo axial formation, cell specification and, specially, morphogenesis seem to be the main processes affected by plastic leachate exposure. Our study serves as a proof of principle for the potentially catastrophic effects that increasing plastic concentrations in the oceans and other ecosystems can have across animal populations from all major animal superphyla.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Jimenez-Guri
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms, Naples, Italy; Center for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Cornwall Campus, Penryn, UK.
| | - Periklis Paganos
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms, Naples, Italy
| | - Claudia La Vecchia
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms, Naples, Italy
| | - Giovanni Annona
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Department of Research Infrastructures for Marine Biological Resources, Naples, Italy
| | - Filomena Caccavale
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms, Naples, Italy
| | - Maria Dolores Molina
- Department of Genetica, Microbiologia i Estadística, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain; Institute of Biomedicine of the University of Barcelona (IBUB), Catalunya, Spain
| | - Alfonso Ferrández-Roldán
- Department of Genetica, Microbiologia i Estadística, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain; Institut de Recerca de la Biodiversitat (IRBio), Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain
| | - Rory Daniel Donnellan
- School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Federica Salatiello
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms, Naples, Italy
| | - Adam Johnstone
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Maria Concetta Eliso
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms, Naples, Italy
| | - Antonietta Spagnuolo
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms, Naples, Italy
| | - Cristian Cañestro
- Department of Genetica, Microbiologia i Estadística, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain; Institut de Recerca de la Biodiversitat (IRBio), Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain
| | - Ricard Albalat
- Department of Genetica, Microbiologia i Estadística, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain; Institut de Recerca de la Biodiversitat (IRBio), Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain
| | - José María Martín-Durán
- School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Elizabeth A Williams
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Enrico D'Aniello
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms, Naples, Italy
| | - Maria Ina Arnone
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms, Naples, Italy
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4
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Ding J, Liang Z, Lv M, Li X, Lu S, Ren S, Yang X, Li X, Tu C, Zhu D, Chen L. Aging in soil increases the disturbance of microplastics to the gut microbiota of soil fauna. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 461:132611. [PMID: 37748304 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2023] [Revised: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 09/27/2023]
Abstract
Microplastics (MPs) in the soil environment inevitably experience aging processes. However, how aging in soil affects MP toxicity to soil fauna remains poorly understood. In this study, two types of widely distributed MPs (polypropylene and tire wear particles) were aged in different soils, and their surface properties, morphology, leaching features of additives, biofilm colonization and toxicity to the typical soil fauna Enchytraeus crypticus were investigated. Results showed that aging in soil slightly changed the surface properties and morphology for both types of MPs, but significantly affected the release of additives, especially for those MPs aged in soil amended with manure. Moreover, a distinct and less diverse microbial community than the surrounding soils was formed on the surface of MPs, and MP type was a determinant of the biofilm microbial community. Exposure experiments indicated that aged MPs, especially those aged in soil with manure significantly affected the reproduction of soil worms with a more obvious disturbance to their gut microbiota, and biofilm features and changes in the leaching properties of MPs during aging were the main factors for these shifts. This study is the first attempt to reveal the role of aging in soil in MP toxicity to soil fauna.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Ding
- School of Environmental and Material Engineering, Yantai University, Yantai 264005, China
| | - Zhaoqin Liang
- School of Environmental and Material Engineering, Yantai University, Yantai 264005, China
| | - Min Lv
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai 264003, China.
| | - Xiuyu Li
- School of Environmental and Material Engineering, Yantai University, Yantai 264005, China
| | - Shuang Lu
- School of Environmental and Material Engineering, Yantai University, Yantai 264005, China
| | - Suyu Ren
- School of Environmental and Material Engineering, Yantai University, Yantai 264005, China
| | - Xiaoyong Yang
- School of Environmental and Material Engineering, Yantai University, Yantai 264005, China
| | - Xiaoqiang Li
- School of Environmental and Material Engineering, Yantai University, Yantai 264005, China
| | - Chen Tu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai 264003, China
| | - Dong Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Lingxin Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai 264003, China; Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China.
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5
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Nielsen AF, Polesel F, Ahonen T, Palmqvist A, Baun A, Hartmann NB. Assessing the Biodegradability of Tire Tread Particles and Influencing Factors. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2024; 43:31-41. [PMID: 37753867 DOI: 10.1002/etc.5757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 06/15/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
Abrasion of tire tread, caused by friction between vehicle tires and road surfaces, causes release of tire wear particles (TWPs) into various environmental compartments. These TWPs contribute to chemical, microplastic, and particulate matter pollution. Their fate remains largely unknown, especially regarding the extent and form in which they persist in the environment. The present study investigated (1) the biodegradability of tread particles (TPs) in the form of ground tire tread, (2) how accelerated ultraviolet (UV) weathering affects their biodegradability, and (3) which TP constituents are likely contributors to TP biodegradability based on their individual biodegradability. A series of closed-bottle tests, with aerobic aqueous medium inoculated with activated sludge, were carried out for pristine TPs, UV-weathered TPs, and selected TP constituents; natural rubber (NR), isoprene rubber (IR), butadiene rubber (BR), and treated distillate aromatic extracts (TDAE). Biodegradation was monitored by manometric respirometry, quantifying biological oxygen consumption over 28 days. Pristine TP biodegradability was found to be 4.5%; UV-weathered TPs showed higher biodegradability of 6.7% and 8.0% with similar and increased inoculum concentrations, respectively. The observed TP biodegradation was mainly attributed to biodegradation of NR and TDAE, with individual biodegradability of 35.4% and 8.0%, respectively; IR and BR showed negligible biodegradability. These findings indicate that biodegradability of individual constituents is decreased by a factor of 2 to 5 when compounded into TPs. Through scanning electron microscopy analysis, biodegradation was found to cause surface erosion. Processes of TP biodegradation are expected to change throughout their lifetime as new constituents are incorporated from the road and others degrade and/or leach out. Tire emissions likely persist as particles with an increased fraction of synthetic rubbers and carbon black. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;43:31-41. © 2023 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann Flemming Nielsen
- Department of Environmental and Resource Engineering (DTU Sustain), Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Fabio Polesel
- Department of Environmental and Resource Engineering (DTU Sustain), Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
- DHI A/S, Hørsholm, Denmark
| | - Tiia Ahonen
- Department of Environmental and Resource Engineering (DTU Sustain), Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
- AFRY Finland Oy, Vantaa, Finland
| | - Annemette Palmqvist
- Department of Science and Environment, Roskilde University, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Anders Baun
- Department of Environmental and Resource Engineering (DTU Sustain), Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Nanna B Hartmann
- Department of Environmental and Resource Engineering (DTU Sustain), Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
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6
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Ni X, Song J, Lu D, Tong H, Zhou H, Liu Y, Zhan J, Yi X. Effect of bioturbation of the mitten crab on distribution of tire wear particles and their combined effect on sediment ecosystem. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 346:140603. [PMID: 37918532 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.140603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2023] [Revised: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023]
Abstract
Tire wear particles (TWPs) are a major source of environmental microplastic pollution which gradually settle and accumulate in sediments after entering the aquatic environment, which can affect the behaviors of benthic organisms. Bioturbation of benthic species could affect the fate, impacts and potential risks of TWPs by altering the properties and structure of sediments. Therefore, in this study, the effect of TWPs on the burrowing activity of Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis) was investigated. In addition, the effects of crab bioturbation on the distribution of TWPs and their additives were studied. The combined effects of TWPs and crab bioturbation on the microbial communities in the sediments were also explored. The results of this study showed that both TWPs and the leachate significantly inhibited the burrowing activity of crabs. TWPs in the surface layer of sediments were re-distributed by crab bioturbation and enriched mainly in the sediments near the burrow walls. Meanwhile, the heavy metals (i.e., Zn, Ca, Mg, Ba and Al) used as additives during the tire production in the burrow walls significantly increased as the accumulation of TWPs near burrow walls. In this study, TWP exposure decreased the bacterial diversity and abundance, as well as the functional genes related to carbon and nitrogen cycling process, but crab bioturbation increased them in the sediments of burrow walls by constructing a unique habitat. However, after TWPs entering into burrows, they were significantly decreased in the sediments near the burrow walls like the effects of TWPs, suggesting the negative effects of TWPs could play a dominant role in this combined system. Overall, this study is important for evaluating the distribution and effects of TWP pollution in the sediment ecosystem under biological factors such as bioturbation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoming Ni
- School of Ocean Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Panjin Campus, Panjin City, Liaoning, China
| | - Jinbo Song
- School of Ocean Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Panjin Campus, Panjin City, Liaoning, China
| | - Dongliang Lu
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Change and Disaster in Beibu Gulf, Qinzhou, Guangxi, China
| | - Huiyan Tong
- School of Ocean Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Panjin Campus, Panjin City, Liaoning, China
| | - Hao Zhou
- School of Ocean Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Panjin Campus, Panjin City, Liaoning, China
| | - Yang Liu
- School of Ocean Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Panjin Campus, Panjin City, Liaoning, China
| | - Jingjing Zhan
- School of Ocean Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Panjin Campus, Panjin City, Liaoning, China
| | - Xianliang Yi
- School of Ocean Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Panjin Campus, Panjin City, Liaoning, China.
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7
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Vlaanderen EJ, Ghaly TM, Moore LR, Focardi A, Paulsen IT, Tetu SG. Plastic leachate exposure drives antibiotic resistance and virulence in marine bacterial communities. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2023; 327:121558. [PMID: 37019264 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2022] [Revised: 03/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Plastic pollution is a serious global problem, with more than 12 million tonnes of plastic waste entering the oceans every year. Plastic debris can have considerable impacts on microbial community structure and functions in marine environments, and has been associated with an enrichment in pathogenic bacteria and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) genes. However, our understanding of these impacts is largely restricted to microbial assemblages on plastic surfaces. It is therefore unclear whether these effects are driven by the surface properties of plastics, providing an additional niche for certain microbes residing in biofilms, and/or chemicals leached from plastics, the effects of which could extend to surrounding planktonic bacteria. Here, we examine the effects of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic leachate exposure on the relative abundance of genes associated with bacterial pathogenicity and AMR within a seawater microcosm community. We show that PVC leachate, in the absence of plastic surfaces, drives an enrichment in AMR and virulence genes. In particular, leachate exposure significantly enriches AMR genes that confer multidrug, aminoglycoside and peptide antibiotic resistance. Additionally, enrichment of genes involved in the extracellular secretion of virulence proteins was observed among pathogens of marine organisms. This study provides the first evidence that chemicals leached from plastic particles alone can enrich genes related to microbial pathogenesis within a bacterial community, expanding our knowledge of the environmental impacts of plastic pollution with potential consequences for human and ecosystem health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric J Vlaanderen
- College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, Australia
| | - Timothy M Ghaly
- School of Natural Sciences Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia; ARC Centre of Excellence in Synthetic Biology, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
| | - Lisa R Moore
- School of Natural Sciences Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
| | - Amaranta Focardi
- Climate Change Cluster (C3), University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Ian T Paulsen
- School of Natural Sciences Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia; ARC Centre of Excellence in Synthetic Biology, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
| | - Sasha G Tetu
- School of Natural Sciences Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia; ARC Centre of Excellence in Synthetic Biology, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia.
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8
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Ding T, Huang X, Wei L, Li J. Size-dependent effect of microplastics on toxicity and fate of diclofenac in two algae. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 451:131071. [PMID: 36889078 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Revised: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Microplastics (MPs) are frequently detected in natural waters and usually acted as vectors for other pollutants, leading to possible threats to aquatic organisms. This study investigated the impact of polystyrene MPs (PS MPs) with different diameters on two algae Phaeodactylum tricornutum and Euglena sp., and the combined toxicity of PS MPs and diclofenac (DCF) in two algae was also studied. Significant inhibition of P. tricornutum was observed after 1 d exposure of 0.03 µm MPs at 1 mg L-1, whereas the decreased growth rate of Euglena sp. was recovered after 2 d exposure. However, their toxicity decreased in the presence of MPs with larger diameters. The oxidative stress contributed a major for the size-dependent toxicity of PS MPs in P. tricornutum, while in Euglena sp. the toxicity was mainly caused by a combination of oxidative damage and hetero-aggregation. Also, PS MPs alleviated the toxicity of DCF in P. tricornutum and the DCF toxicity continually decreased as their diameter increased, whereas the DCF at environmentally concentration could weaken the toxicity of MPs in Euglena sp. Moreover, the Euglena sp. revealed a higher removal for DCF, especially in the presence of MPs, but the higher accumulation and bioaccumulation factors (BCFs) indicated a possible ecological risk in natural waters. The present study explored discrepancy on the size-dependent toxicity and removal of MPs associated with DCF in two algae, providing valuable data for risk assessment and pollution control of MPs associated with DCF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tengda Ding
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen University, 518060 Shenzhen, China
| | - Xiaotong Huang
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen University, 518060 Shenzhen, China
| | - Liyan Wei
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen University, 518060 Shenzhen, China
| | - Juying Li
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen University, 518060 Shenzhen, China.
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9
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Lin WH, Wang HY, Kuo J, Lo SL. Adsorption and desorption characteristics of heavy metals onto conventional and biodegradable plastics. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 333:138920. [PMID: 37178936 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.138920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2022] [Revised: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Biodegradable plastics have been widely used to replace conventional plastics to minimize environmental impacts of plastic packaging. However, before biodegradable plastics decompose in the environment, they could pose a threat to terrestrial and aquatic creatures by acting as vectors of contaminants in the food chain. In this study, conventional plastic bags (CPBs) made of polyethylene and biodegradable plastic bags (BPBs) made of polylactic acid were examined for their heavy metal adsorption. Effects of solution pHs and temperatures on adsorption reactions were investigated. Because of a larger BET surface area, presence of oxygen-containing function groups, and smaller crystallinity, the heavy metal adsorption capacities of BPBs are significantly larger than those of CPBs. Among Cu (up to 791.48 mg⋅kg-1), Ni (up to 60.88 mg⋅kg-1), Pb (up to 1414.58 mg⋅kg-1), and Zn (up to 295.17 mg⋅kg-1), Pb and Ni show the largest and the lowest extents of adsorption onto the plastic bags, respectively. In the different waterbodies in nature, Pb adsorption on the CPBs and the BPBs were 318.08-379.91 and 528.41-764.22 mg⋅kg-1, respectively. Consequently, Pb was selected as the target contaminant in the desorption experiments. After Pb was adsorbed onto the CPBs and the BPBs, Pb could be completely desorbed and released into simulated digestive systems in 10 h. In conclusion, BPBs could be potential vectors of heavy metals, and their suitability as a substitute for CPBs must be thoroughly investigated and confirmed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Hong Lin
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, 71 Chou-Shan Rd., Taipei, 10673, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Hsi-Yen Wang
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, 71 Chou-Shan Rd., Taipei, 10673, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Jeff Kuo
- Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, California State University, 800 N. State College Blvd, CA, 92831, Fullerton, United States
| | - Shang-Lien Lo
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, 71 Chou-Shan Rd., Taipei, 10673, Taiwan, ROC.
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10
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Rasmussen LA, Lykkemark J, Andersen TR, Vollertsen J. Permeable pavements: A possible sink for tyre wear particles and other microplastics? THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 869:161770. [PMID: 36708844 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.161770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Revised: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
In this study, seven roads and parking lots were sampled by a road surface cleaning truck and approximately 100 kg of particulate material was collected per site. Thereafter, the samples were analysed for microplastics, including tyre wear particles. The analyses revealed that tyre wear constituted 0.09 % of the dry mass of the samples on average. Other plastic types were also identified in the samples, but at on average 49 times lower concentrations compared to tyre wear particles. Although the roads and parking lots were used for residential, industrial, and commercial purposes, no correlation between land use and the total concentrations of microplastics was identified. Of microplastics other than tyre wear particles, polypropylene constituted an important fraction in all samples, whereas other polymers were present at various degrees. The contents of heavy metals, sulphur, and total organic carbon were also measured in the samples, but no correlation between them and microplastics was determined. A back-of-the-envelope estimation indicated that the tyre wear material retained by permeable pavements constituted a non-negligible fraction of the total mass of microplastics released on roads and parking lots. Therefore, permeable pavements can serve as a tool for the management of this pollutant.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jeanette Lykkemark
- Department of the Built Environment, Aalborg University, 9220 Aalborg Øst, Denmark
| | - Theis Raaschou Andersen
- VIA University College, Research Centre for Built Environment, Energy, Water and Climate, Banegårdsgade 2, 8700 Horsens, Denmark
| | - Jes Vollertsen
- Department of the Built Environment, Aalborg University, 9220 Aalborg Øst, Denmark
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11
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Zantis LJ, Borchi C, Vijver MG, Peijnenburg W, Di Lonardo S, Bosker T. Nano- and microplastics commonly cause adverse impacts on plants at environmentally relevant levels: A systematic review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 867:161211. [PMID: 36634785 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.161211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Revised: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Over the last years there has been significant research on the presence and effects of plastics in terrestrial systems. Here we summarize current research findings on the effects of nano- and microplastics (NMPs) on terrestrial plants, with the aim to determine patterns of response and sensitive endpoints. We conducted a systematic review (based on 78 studies) on the effects of NMPs on germination, plant growth and biochemical biomarkers. This review highlights that the majority of studies to date have used pristine polystyrene or polyethylene particles, either in a hydroponic or pot-plant setup. Based on these studies we found that effects on plants are widespread. We noted similar responses between and within monocots and dicots to NMPs, except for consistent lower germination seen in dicots exposed to NMPs. During early development, germination and root growth are more strongly affected compared to shoot growth. NMPs induced similar adverse growth effects on plant biomass and length in the most tested plant species (lettuce, wheat, corn, and rice) irrespective of the polymer type and size used. Moreover, biomarker responses were consistent across species; chlorophyll levels were commonly negatively affected, while stress indicators (e.g., ROS or free radicals) and stress respondents (e.g., antioxidant enzymes) were consistently upregulated. In addition, effects were commonly observed at environmentally relevant levels. These findings provide clear evidence that NMPs have wide-ranging impacts on plant performance. However, as most studies have been conducted under highly controlled conditions and with pristine plastics, there is an urgent need to test under more environmentally realistic conditions to ensure the lab-based studies can be extrapolated to the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura J Zantis
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, the Netherlands.
| | - Caterina Borchi
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, the Netherlands; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Florence, Via di S. Marta 3, 50139 Firenze, Italy.
| | - Martina G Vijver
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, the Netherlands.
| | - Willie Peijnenburg
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, the Netherlands; National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Center for Safety of Substances and Products, P.O. Box 1, Bilthoven, the Netherlands.
| | - Sara Di Lonardo
- Research Institute on Terrestrial Ecosystems (IRET), National Research Council (CNR), Via Madonna del Piano 10, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy; National Biodiversity Future Center (NBFC), Piazza Marina 61, 90133 Palermo, Italy.
| | - Thijs Bosker
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, the Netherlands; Leiden University College, Leiden University, P.O. Box 13228, 2501 EE The Hague, the Netherlands.
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12
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Soltani N, Keshavarzi B, Moore F, Busquets R, Nematollahi MJ, Javid R, Gobert S. Effect of land use on microplastic pollution in a major boundary waterway: The Arvand River. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 830:154728. [PMID: 35331773 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Revised: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence of microplastics (MPs) was investigated in the Arvand River (Iran). The Arvand River (200 Km) is a major water body that flows through land with diverse use and it meets the Persian Gulf. This study constitutes the first assessment of MP pollution (prevalence and physico-chemical characteristics) in the Arvand river, both in the sediment and in the water. MP monitoring has been carried out in 24 stations located along the river. The MP pollution found ranged between 1 and 291 items·L-1 and 70 to 15,620 items·kg-1 (dw), in water and sediment, respectively. The majority of MPs were fibres, black/grey and yellow/orange in colour, and mainly 250-500 μm and >1000 μm in size. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), nylon (NYL), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), and polystyrene (PS) were found in sediment samples. All these polymers, except HDPE, were also identified in the water samples. PET and PP were dominant in the water samples; whereas PET and PS were the most abundant in the sediments. The vicinity of urban wastewater effluents could be behind MP pollution in both water and sediments. Significant differences (p < 0.05) of MP concentrations were affected by different land uses when comparing MP levels in undisturbed natural area with urban areas. A strong correlation between MP fibres and fragments found with PCA biplots revealed their similar distribution in water. In the sediment samples, fibre and fragment MP particles were significantly correlated with colloidal particles (e.g., clay and organic matter) suggesting a relevant role of colloidal particles in the aquatic ecosystem of the Arvand River in transporting MPs. This study contributes to the better understanding of the presence of MP in major rivers, which are systems that have been scarcely investigated for this type of pollution, and it can inform interventions to reduce MP inputs to the river and sea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naghmeh Soltani
- Department of Earth Sciences, College of Science, Shiraz University, 71454 Shiraz, Iran.
| | - Behnam Keshavarzi
- Department of Earth Sciences, College of Science, Shiraz University, 71454 Shiraz, Iran.
| | - Farid Moore
- Department of Earth Sciences, College of Science, Shiraz University, 71454 Shiraz, Iran
| | - Rosa Busquets
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University, Kingston Upon Thames, Surrey KT1 2EE, UK
| | | | - Reza Javid
- Khorramshahr Environmental Protection Office, Khorramshahr 6491846783, Iran; Department of Marine Biology, Faculty of Marine Science and Oceanography, Khorramshahr University of Marine Science and Technology, Khorramshahr, Iran
| | - Sylvie Gobert
- STAtion de REcherche Sous-Marineset Océanographiques (STARESO), 20260 Calvi, France; Université de Liège, Centre MARE, Laboratoire d'Océanologie, Sart-Tilman, B6c, 4000 Liège, Belgium
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13
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Tallec K, Huvet A, Yeuc'h V, Le Goïc N, Paul-Pont I. Chemical effects of different types of rubber-based products on early life stages of Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 427:127883. [PMID: 34863561 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.127883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Revised: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Rubber products and debris with specific chemical signatures can release their constitutive compounds into the surrounding environment. We investigated the chemical toxicity of different types of new and used rubber products (tires, crumb rubber granulates, aquaculture rubber bands) on early life stages of a model marine organism, Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas. Leachates obtained from used products were generally less toxic than those from new ones. Leachates from new products induced embryotoxicity at different concentrations: oyster-farming rubber bands (lowest observed effect concentration, LOEC = 1 g L-1) and crumb rubber granulates (LOEC = 1 g L-1) > tires (LOEC = 10 g L-1). Moreover, new oyster-farming rubber bands induced spermiotoxicity at 10 g L-1 (-29% survival) resulting in decreased oyster reproductive output (-17% fertilization yield). Targeted chemical analyses revealed some compounds (2 mineral contaminants, 15 PAHs, 2 PCBs) in leachates, which may have played a role. Rubber used in marine aquaculture (rubber bands) or present at sea as waste (tire, crumb rubber granulates) therefore release hazardous chemical molecules under realistic conditions, which may affect oyster development. Aquaculture development work is necessary to improve practices for eco-safety, as efforts to limit the contamination of marine environments by terrestrial rubber debris.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Tallec
- Univ Brest, Ifremer, CNRS, IRD, LEMAR, F-29280, Plouzané, France.
| | - Arnaud Huvet
- Univ Brest, Ifremer, CNRS, IRD, LEMAR, F-29280, Plouzané, France
| | - Valérie Yeuc'h
- LABOCEA, 120 avenue de Rochon, CS10052, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Nelly Le Goïc
- Univ Brest, Ifremer, CNRS, IRD, LEMAR, F-29280, Plouzané, France
| | - Ika Paul-Pont
- Univ Brest, Ifremer, CNRS, IRD, LEMAR, F-29280, Plouzané, France.
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14
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Schwarzer M, Brehm J, Vollmer M, Jasinski J, Xu C, Zainuddin S, Fröhlich T, Schott M, Greiner A, Scheibel T, Laforsch C. Shape, size, and polymer dependent effects of microplastics on Daphnia magna. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 426:128136. [PMID: 34974383 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.128136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Revised: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The effects of microplastic (MP) pollution on organisms are gaining increasing attention. To date, a variety of polymers of different shapes and sizes are used in ecotoxicology. Although polystyrene (PS) is the predominant polymer type used in effect studies, it is still unclear whether the observed effects derive from the polymer itself or from a certain particle shape and size. To elucidate whether the effects are polymer specific, we conducted a systematic study on Daphnia magna by comparing various PS-MPs to nonplastic control particles with similar properties. In chronic exposure experiments, we used PS beads (6 µm; 20 µm), fibers (Ø 3 µm, length: 75.5 µm), and fragments (5.7 µm; 17.7 µm) in two different size classes and two different concentrations (500 and 5000 particles ml-1) and in-house-produced control particles of comparable size, shape, concentration and, if possible, density. Although most PS properties did not elicit effects on the tested endpoints, we observed sublethal effects on D. magna life history and morphology for small PS beads and fragments. Interestingly, no adverse effects were detected for any of the control particles. Hence, the observed effects are polymer-specific, related to the size and shape of the polymer, and do not result from particle exposure per se.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Julian Brehm
- Animal Ecology 1, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany
| | | | - Julia Jasinski
- Process Biotechnology, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Chengzhang Xu
- Macromolecular Chemistry II, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Shakir Zainuddin
- Process Biotechnology, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Thomas Fröhlich
- Gene Center Munich, Laboratory for Functional Genome Analysis (LAFUGA), LMU München, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Andreas Greiner
- Macromolecular Chemistry II, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Thomas Scheibel
- Process Biotechnology, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany
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15
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Non-Negligible Effects of UV Irradiation on Transformation and Environmental Risks of Microplastics in the Water Environment. J Xenobiot 2021; 12:1-12. [PMID: 35076549 PMCID: PMC8788448 DOI: 10.3390/jox12010001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Microplastics (MPs) are ubiquitous in environmental media, and their harmful effects on MPs on the ecosystem have attracted more and more attention. Once released into the environment, MPs can trigger oxidative degradation through ultraviolet (UV) to cause photoaging. Photoaging significantly affects the properties of MPs, which leads to changing their environmental behaviors and increasing environmental risks. In this review, the generation of MPs under UV irradiation and the influence of environmental factors on the photoaging of MPs were discussed. Photoaging of MPs is an important process affecting the migration, transformation and interaction of pollutants in water and soil. In order to fully predict the fate and environmental interaction of MPs, more researches are needed in the future to explore the photoaging behavior of different types of MPs under natural environmental conditions.
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