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Spencer PS, Valdes Angues R, Palmer VS. Nodding syndrome: A role for environmental biotoxins that dysregulate MECP2 expression? J Neurol Sci 2024; 462:123077. [PMID: 38850769 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2024.123077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2023] [Revised: 05/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/10/2024]
Abstract
Nodding syndrome is an epileptic encephalopathy associated with neuroinflammation and tauopathy. This initially pediatric brain disease, which has some clinical overlap with Methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MECP2) Duplication Syndrome, has impacted certain impoverished East African communities coincident with local civil conflict and internal displacement, conditions that forced dependence on contaminated food and water. A potential role in Nodding syndrome for certain biotoxins (freshwater cyanotoxins plus/minus mycotoxins) with neuroinflammatory, excitotoxic, tauopathic, and MECP2-dysregulating properties, is considered here for the first time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter S Spencer
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine and Oregon Institute of Occupational Health Sciences, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA; Oregon Institute of Occupational Health Sciences, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA; Gulu University School of Medicine, Gulu, Uganda.
| | - Raquel Valdes Angues
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine and Oregon Institute of Occupational Health Sciences, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Valerie S Palmer
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine and Oregon Institute of Occupational Health Sciences, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA; Gulu University School of Medicine, Gulu, Uganda
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2
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Chambers C, Grimes S, Fire S, Reza MT. Influence of biochar on the removal of Microcystin-LR and Saxitoxin from aqueous solutions. Sci Rep 2024; 14:11058. [PMID: 38745050 PMCID: PMC11094018 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-61802-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Accepted: 05/09/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024] Open
Abstract
The present study assessed the effective use of biochar for the adsorption of two potent HAB toxins namely, Microcystin-LR (MCLR) and Saxitoxin (STX) through a combination of dosage, kinetic, equilibrium, initial pH, and competitive adsorption experiments. The adsorption results suggest that biochar has excellent capabilities for removing MCLR and STX, with STX reporting higher adsorption capacities (622.53-3507.46 µg/g). STX removal required a minimal dosage of 0.02 g/L, while MCLR removal needed 0.4 g/L for > 90%. Similarly, a shorter contact time was required for STX removal compared to MCLR for > 90% of toxin removed from water. Initial pH study revealed that for MCLR acidic conditions favored higher uptake while STX favored basic conditions. Kinetic studies revealed that the Elovich model to be most suitable for both toxins, while STX also showed suitable fittings for Pseudo-First Order and Pseudo-Second Order in individual toxin systems. Similarly, for the Elovich model the most suited kinetic model for both toxins in presence of each other. Isotherm studies confirmed the Langmuir-Freundlich model as the best fit for both toxins. These results suggest adsorption mechanisms including pore filling, hydrogen bonding, π-π interactions, hydrophobic interactions, electrostatic attraction, and dispersive interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cadianne Chambers
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL, 32901, USA
| | - Savannah Grimes
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL, 32901, USA
| | - Spencer Fire
- Department of Ocean Engineering and Marine Sciences, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL, 32901, USA
| | - M Toufiq Reza
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL, 32901, USA.
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3
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Drobac Backović D, Tokodi N. Cyanotoxins in food: Exposure assessment and health impact. Food Res Int 2024; 184:114271. [PMID: 38609248 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2024.114271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Revised: 03/08/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
The intricate nature of cyanotoxin exposure through food reveals a complex web of risks and uncertainties in our dietary choices. With the aim of starting to unravel this intricate nexus, a comprehensive review of 111 papers from the past two decades investigating cyanotoxin contamination in food was undertaken. It revealed a widespread occurrence of cyanotoxins in diverse food sources across 31 countries. Notably, 68% of the studies reported microcystin concentrations exceeding established Tolerable Daily Intake levels. Cyanotoxins were detected in muscles of many fish species, and while herbivorous fish exhibited the highest recorded concentration, omnivorous species displayed a higher propensity for cyanotoxin accumulation, exemplified by Oreochromis niloticus. Beyond fish, crustaceans and bivalves emerged as potent cyanotoxin accumulators. Gaps persist regarding contamination of terrestrial and exotic animals and their products, necessitating further exploration. Plant contamination under natural conditions remains underreported, yet evidence underscores irrigation-driven cyanotoxin accumulation, particularly affecting leafy vegetables. Finally, cyanobacterial-based food supplements often harbored cyanotoxins (57 % of samples were positive) warranting heightened scrutiny, especially for Aphanizomenon flos-aquae-based products. Uncertainties surround precise concentrations due to methodological variations (chemical and biochemical) and extraction limitations, along with the enigmatic fate of toxins during storage, processing, and digestion. Nonetheless, potential health consequences of cyanotoxin exposure via contaminated food include gastrointestinal and neurological disorders, organ damage (e.g. liver, kidneys, muscles), and even elevated cancer risks. While microcystins received significant attention, knowledge gaps persist regarding other cyanotoxins' accumulation, exposure, and effects, as well as combined exposure via multiple pathways. Intriguing and complex, cyanotoxin exposure through food beckons further research for our safer and healthier diets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damjana Drobac Backović
- University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biology and Ecology, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, Novi Sad 21000, Serbia
| | - Nada Tokodi
- University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biology and Ecology, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, Novi Sad 21000, Serbia; Jagiellonian University, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Laboratory of Metabolomics, Gronostajowa 7, Krakow 30387, Poland.
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4
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Van Hassel WHR, Abdallah MF, Gracia Guzman Velasquez M, Miles CO, Samdal IA, Masquelier J, Rajkovic A. Experimental accumulation and depuration kinetics and natural occurrence of microcystin-LR in basil (Ocimum basilicum L.). ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 347:123715. [PMID: 38462191 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.123715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2023] [Revised: 02/29/2024] [Accepted: 03/03/2024] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
Microcystin-LR (MC-LR) is a hepatotoxic metabolite that naturally occurs during some cyanobacterial blooms in eutrophic waterbodies, and irrigation of edible plants with MC-LR-contaminated water causes bioaccumulation of the toxin. However, sufficient information about accumulation and depuration mechanics in hydroculture-grown herb plants is still lacking. This work aimed at 1) investigating bioaccumulation and depuration of MC-LR in basil, 2) verifying the possible MC-LR detoxification mechanisms in the plant, and 3) detecting the natural occurrence of MC-LR in basil (n = 50) collected from the Belgian market. Basil plants grown in a hydroculture were exposed to MC-LR (5, 20, and 50 μg L-1) spiked in a Hoagland solution for seven days. MC-LR depuration was also studied by transferring the plants to a non-contaminated Hoagland solution after exposure to MC-LR for another seven days. MC-LR concentrations in Hoagland solution, basil leaves, and roots were quantified using a validated UHPLC-MS/MS method. In addition, ELISA and LC-HRMS (only basil leaves) were used for confirmation. The results showed an increase in the accumulated levels of MC-LR at higher exposure doses, with higher MC-LR levels in roots than in leaves for all the treatment conditions. For MC-LR depuration, significant reductions were observed in all the treatment conditions for roots only. No MC-LR conjugates, potentially related to metabolism, were detected by LC-HRMS. Finally, MC-LR was detected in one store-bought basil sample, representing the first occurrence of cyanotoxins in an edible crop from Belgium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wannes Hugo R Van Hassel
- Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, 9000, Belgium; Sciensano, Chemical and Physical Health Risks, Organic Contaminants and Additives, Leuvensesteenweg 17, Tervuren, 3080, Belgium; InBios- Centre for Protein Engineering, Department of Life Sciences, University of Liège, Allée du six Août 11, Liège, 4000, Belgium.
| | - Mohamed F Abdallah
- Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, 9000, Belgium; Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut, 71515, Egypt
| | - Maria Gracia Guzman Velasquez
- Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, 9000, Belgium; Sciensano, Chemical and Physical Health Risks, Organic Contaminants and Additives, Leuvensesteenweg 17, Tervuren, 3080, Belgium
| | - Christopher O Miles
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, Halifax, NS, B3H 3Z1, Canada; Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Postboks 64, 1431, Ås, Norway
| | - Ingunn A Samdal
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Postboks 64, 1431, Ås, Norway
| | - Julien Masquelier
- Sciensano, Chemical and Physical Health Risks, Organic Contaminants and Additives, Leuvensesteenweg 17, Tervuren, 3080, Belgium
| | - Andreja Rajkovic
- Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, 9000, Belgium
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Ubero-Pascal N, Aboal M. Cyanobacteria and Macroinvertebrate Relationships in Freshwater Benthic Communities beyond Cytotoxicity. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:190. [PMID: 38668615 PMCID: PMC11054157 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16040190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2024] [Revised: 04/01/2024] [Accepted: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Cyanobacteria are harmful algae that are monitored worldwide to prevent the effects of the toxins that they can produce. Most research efforts have focused on direct or indirect effects on human populations, with a view to gain easy accurate detection and quantification methods, mainly in planktic communities, but with increasing interest shown in benthos. However, cyanobacteria have played a fundamental role from the very beginning in both the development of our planet's biodiversity and the construction of new habitats. These organisms have colonized almost every possible planktic or benthic environment on earth, including the most extreme ones, and display a vast number of adaptations. All this explains why they are the most important or the only phototrophs in some habitats. The negative effects of cyanotoxins on macroinvertebrates have been demonstrated, but usually under conditions that are far from natural, and on forms of exposure, toxin concentration, or composition. The cohabitation of cyanobacteria with most invertebrate groups is long-standing and has probably contributed to the development of detoxification means, which would explain the survival of some species inside cyanobacteria colonies. This review focuses on benthic cyanobacteria, their capacity to produce several types of toxins, and their relationships with benthic macroinvertebrates beyond toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolás Ubero-Pascal
- Department of Zoology and Physical Anthropology, Faculty of Biology, Espinardo Campus, University of Murcia, E-30100 Murcia, Spain;
| | - Marina Aboal
- Laboratory of Algology, Faculty of Biology, Espinardo Campus, University of Murcia, E-30100 Murcia, Spain
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Metcalf JS, Banack SA, Cox PA. Cyanotoxin Analysis of Air Samples from the Great Salt Lake. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:659. [PMID: 37999522 PMCID: PMC10675144 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15110659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Revised: 11/09/2023] [Accepted: 11/10/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The Great Salt Lake in Utah is the largest saline lake in the Western hemisphere and one of the largest terminal lakes in the world. Situated at the eastern edge of the Great Basin, it is a remnant of the freshwater Lake Bonneville whose water level precipitously lowered about 12,000 years ago due to a natural break in Red Rock pass to the north. It contains a diverse assemblage of cyanobacteria which vary spatially dependent on salinity. In 1984, the waters of the Great Salt Lake occupied 8500 km2. Nearly four decades later, the waters occupy 2500 km2-a reduction in surface area of 71%. With predominantly westerly winds, there is a potential for the adjacent metropolitan residents to the east to be exposed to airborne cyanobacteria- and cyanotoxin-containing dust. During the summer and fall months of 2022, air and dried sediment samples were collected and assessed for the presence of BMAA which has been identified as a risk factor for ALS. Collection of air samples equivalent to a person breathing for 1 h resulted in BMAA and isomers being found in some air samples, along with their presence in exposed lakebed samples. There was no clear relationship between the presence of these toxins in airborne and adjacent lakebed samples, suggesting that airborne toxins may originate from diffuse rather than point sources. These findings confirm that continued low water levels in the Great Salt Lake may constitute an increasing health hazard for the 2.5 million inhabitants of communities along the Wasatch Front.
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Affiliation(s)
- James S. Metcalf
- Brain Chemistry Labs, Jackson, WY 83001, USA; (S.A.B.); (P.A.C.)
- Department of Biological Sciences, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403, USA
| | | | - Paul Alan Cox
- Brain Chemistry Labs, Jackson, WY 83001, USA; (S.A.B.); (P.A.C.)
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Metcalf JS, Banack SA, Wyatt PB, Nunn PB, Cox PA. A Direct Analysis of β- N-methylamino-l-alanine Enantiomers and Isomers and Its Application to Cyanobacteria and Marine Mollusks. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:639. [PMID: 37999501 PMCID: PMC10674937 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15110639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Revised: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Of the wide variety of toxic compounds produced by cyanobacteria, the neurotoxic amino acid β-N-methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA) has attracted attention as a result of its association with chronic human neurodegenerative diseases such as ALS and Alzheimer's. Consequently, specific detection methods are required to assess the presence of BMAA and its isomers in environmental and clinical materials, including cyanobacteria and mollusks. Although the separation of isomers such as β-amino-N-methylalanine (BAMA), N-(2-aminoethyl)glycine (AEG) and 2,4-diaminobutyric acid (DAB) from BMAA has been demonstrated during routine analysis, a further compounding factor is the potential presence of enantiomers for some of these isomers. Current analytical methods for BMAA mostly do not discriminate between enantiomers, and the chiral configuration of BMAA in cyanobacteria is still largely unexplored. To understand the potential for the occurrence of D-BMAA in cyanobacteria, a chiral UPLC-MS/MS method was developed to separate BMAA enantiomers and isomers and to determine the enantiomeric configuration of endogenous free BMAA in a marine Lyngbya mat and two mussel reference materials. After extraction, purification and derivatization with N-(4-nitrophenoxycarbonyl)-l-phenylalanine 2-methoxyethyl ester ((S)-NIFE), both L- and D-BMAA were identified as free amino acids in cyanobacterial materials, whereas only L-BMAA was identified in mussel tissues. The finding of D-BMAA in biological environmental materials raises questions concerning the source and role of BMAA enantiomers in neurological disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- James S. Metcalf
- Brain Chemistry Labs, Box 3464, Jackson, WY 83001, USA; (S.A.B.); (P.A.C.)
- Department of Biological Sciences, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403, USA
| | - Sandra Anne Banack
- Brain Chemistry Labs, Box 3464, Jackson, WY 83001, USA; (S.A.B.); (P.A.C.)
| | - Peter B. Wyatt
- The School of Physical and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, UK; (P.B.W.); (P.B.N.)
| | - Peter B. Nunn
- The School of Physical and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, UK; (P.B.W.); (P.B.N.)
| | - Paul A. Cox
- Brain Chemistry Labs, Box 3464, Jackson, WY 83001, USA; (S.A.B.); (P.A.C.)
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8
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Ricciardelli A, Pollio A, Costantini M, Zupo V. Harmful and beneficial properties of cyanotoxins: Two sides of the same coin. Biotechnol Adv 2023; 68:108235. [PMID: 37567398 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2023.108235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2022] [Revised: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023]
Abstract
Cyanotoxins are by definition "harmful agents" produced by cyanobacteria. Their toxicity has been extensively studied and reviewed over the years. Cyanotoxins have been commonly classified, based on their poisonous effects on mammals, into three main classes, neurotoxins, hepatotoxins and dermatotoxins, and, considering their chemical features, mainly identified as peptides, alkaloids and lipopolysaccharides. Here we propose a broader subdivision of cyanotoxins into eight distinct classes, taking into account their molecular structures, biosynthesis and modes of action: alkaloids, non-ribosomal peptides, polyketides, non-protein amino acids, indole alkaloids, organophosphates, lipopeptides and lipoglycans. For each class, the structures and primary mechanisms of toxicity of the main representative cyanotoxins are reported. Despite their powerful biological activities, only recently scientists have considered the biotechnological potential of cyanotoxins, and their applications both in medical and in industrial settings, even if only a few of these have reached the biotech market. In this perspective, we discuss the potential uses of cyanotoxins as anticancer, antimicrobial, and biocidal agents, as common applications for cytotoxic compounds. Furthermore, taking into account their mechanisms of action, we describe peculiar potential bioactivities for several cyanotoxin classes, such as local anaesthetics, antithrombotics, neuroplasticity promoters, immunomodulating and antifouling agents. In this review, we aim to stimulate research on the potential beneficial roles of cyanotoxins, which require interdisciplinary cooperation to facilitate the discovery of innovative biotechnologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annarita Ricciardelli
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Complesso Universitario Monte S. Angelo, via Cinthìa, 80125 Naples, Italy.
| | - Antonino Pollio
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Complesso Universitario Monte S. Angelo, via Cinthìa, 80125 Naples, Italy.
| | - Maria Costantini
- Ecosustainable Marine Biotechnology Department, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Via Ammiraglio Ferdinando Acton, 80133 Naples, Italy.
| | - Valerio Zupo
- Ecosustainable Marine Biotechnology Department, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Ischia Marine Centre, Punta San Pietro, 80077 Naples, Italy.
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Bai J, Chen C, Sun Y, Li S, He R, Zhang Q, Sun Q, Huang Y, Tan A, Yuan L, Huang Y, Lan Y, Han Z. α-LA attenuates microcystin-LR-induced hepatocellular oxidative stress in mice through Nrf2-mediated antioxidant and detoxifying enzymes. Toxicon 2023; 235:107313. [PMID: 37832850 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2023] [Revised: 10/03/2023] [Accepted: 10/04/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023]
Abstract
Microcystins constitute a class of toxins synthesized by cyanobacteria and are known to inflict significant damage on the antioxidant defense system of living organisms, primarily targeting the liver. α-Lipoic acid (α-LA) is universally recognized as a potent antioxidant in biological systems. It exerts its beneficial effects through multiple mechanisms-directly neutralizing reactive oxygen species (ROS) and free radicals, and indirectly enhancing antioxidant defenses by facilitating the regeneration of glutathione (GSH). However, the precise modus operandi of α-LA's protective effect against Microcystin-LR-induced hepatotoxicity remains incompletely elucidated. The present study, therefore, employed α-LA to explore its protective role against Microcystin-LR exposure in mice. A model of Microcystin-LR-induced hepatic injury was established by administering Microcystin-LR into the peritoneal cavity of BALB/c mice daily over a two-week period. Thereafter, BALB/c mice were pre-treated with varying concentrations of α-LA via oral gavage for a duration of 7 days, followed by a 7-day exposure to Microcystin-LR. Our findings reveal that α-LA pre-treatment significantly mitigated hepatic pathologies in Microcystin-LR-exposed mice. Furthermore, α-LA administration led to a notable elevation in the activities and expression levels of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione S-transferase, and glutathione-indicative of its antioxidative capacity. Concurrently, a significant decrease was observed in the activities and expression levels of malondialdehyde and cytochrome P450 2E1. Consequently, α-LA emerges as a promising therapeutic candidate for the amelioration of liver oxidative damage subsequent to Microcystin-LR exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Bai
- School of Public Health, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, China; Environmental Health Effects and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Luzhou, School of Public Health, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, China.
| | - Chaoyun Chen
- School of Public Health, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, China.
| | - Yaochuan Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Coal Mine Disaster Dynamics and Control, Chongqing University, Chongqing, 404100, China
| | - Shangchun Li
- School of Public Health, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, China; Environmental Health Effects and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Luzhou, School of Public Health, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, China
| | - Renjiang He
- School of Public Health, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, China; Environmental Health Effects and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Luzhou, School of Public Health, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, China
| | - Qingbi Zhang
- School of Public Health, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, China; Environmental Health Effects and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Luzhou, School of Public Health, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, China.
| | - Qian Sun
- Luzhou Ecological Environment Monitoring Center of Sichuan Province, Luzhou, 646000, China
| | - Yu Huang
- School of Public Health, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, China
| | - Ailin Tan
- School of Public Health, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, China
| | - Li Yuan
- School of Public Health, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, China
| | - Yinxing Huang
- School of Public Health, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, China
| | - Yuanyuan Lan
- School of Public Health, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, China
| | - Zhixia Han
- School of Public Health, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, China; Environmental Health Effects and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Luzhou, School of Public Health, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, China.
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Yao EK, Ahoutou MK, Olokotum M, Hamlaoui S, Lance E, Marie B, Bernard C, Djeha RY, Quiblier C, Humbert JF, Coulibaly JK. Assessment of cyanotoxins in water and fish in an African freshwater lagoon (Lagoon Aghien, Ivory Coast) and the application of WHO guidelines. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:97857-97871. [PMID: 37603248 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-29025-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023]
Abstract
In comparison with northern countries, limited data are available on the occurrence and potential toxicity of cyanobacterial blooms in lakes and ponds in sub-Saharan countries. With the aim of enhancing our knowledge on cyanobacteria and their toxins in Africa, we performed a 17-month monitoring of a freshwater ecosystem, Lagoon Aghien (Ivory Coast), which is used for multiple practices by riverine populations and for drinking water production in Abidjan city. The richness and diversity of the cyanobacterial community were high and displayed few variations during the entire survey. The monthly average abundances ranged from 4.1 × 104 to 1.8 × 105 cell mL-1, with higher abundances recorded during the dry seasons. Among the five cyanotoxin families analyzed (anatoxin-a, cylindrospermopsin, homoanatoxin, microcystins, saxitoxin), only microcystins (MC) were detected with concentrations ranging from 0 to 0.364 μg L-1 in phytoplankton cells, from 32 to 1092 μg fresh weight (FW) kg-1 in fish intestines, and from 33 to 383 μg FW kg-1 in fish livers. Even if the MC concentrations in water and fish are low, usually below the thresholds defined in WHO guidelines, these data raise the issue of the relevance of these WHO guidelines for sub-Saharan Africa, where local populations are exposed throughout the year to these toxins in multiple ways.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mathias Koffi Ahoutou
- Institut Pasteur de Côte d'Ivoire, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire
- Université Jean Lorougnon Guédé, Daloa, Côte d'Ivoire
| | - Mark Olokotum
- National Fisheries Resources Research Institute, Jinja, Uganda
- Department of Zoology, Entomology and Fisheries Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Sahima Hamlaoui
- UMR Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Emilie Lance
- UMR Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris, Paris, France
- UMR Stress environnementaux et biosurveillance des milieux aquatiques, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Reims, France
| | - Benjamin Marie
- UMR Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Cécile Bernard
- UMR Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris, Paris, France
| | | | - Catherine Quiblier
- UMR Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris, Paris, France
- Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Jean-François Humbert
- Centre Île-de-France-Versailles-Grignon, Institut National de Recherche pour l'Agriculture l'Alimentation et l'Environnement, Paris, France.
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11
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Feng J, Li X, Manzi HP, Kiki C, Lin L, Hong J, Zheng W, Zhang C, Wang S, Zeng Q, Sun Q. Chlorination of microcystin-LR in natural water: Kinetics, transformation products, and genotoxicity. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2023; 338:117774. [PMID: 36989953 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.117774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Revised: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 03/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Microcystin-LR (MC-LR), a type of cyanotoxin commonly found in natural water bodies (sources of drinking water), poses a threat to human health due to its high toxicity. It is essential to successfully remove this cyanotoxin from drinking water sources. In this study, chlorine was used to oxidize MC-LR in Milli-Q water (MQ) (control test) and natural water collected from Lake Longhu (LLW) as a drinking water source. The removal efficiency, proposed transformation pathways, and genotoxicity were investigated. In the chlorine dose range investigated (4.0 mg L-1 - 8.0 mg L-1), the apparent second-order rate constants for MC-LR chlorination varied from 21.3 M-1s-1 to 31.9 M-1s-1 in MQ, higher than that in LLW (9.06 M-1s-1 to 17.7 M-1s-1) due to a faster chlorine decay attributed to the water matrix (e.g., natural organic matter) of LLW. Eleven transformation products (TPs) of MC-LR were identified in the two waters. The conjugated diene moieties and benzene ring of Adda moiety (3-amino-9-methoxy-2,6,8-trimethyl-10-phenyldeca-4,6-dienoic acid), and the double bond of Mdha moiety (N-methyldehydroalanine) were the major susceptible reaction sites. Attacking unsaturated bonds by hydroxyl and chlorine radicals to generate monochloro-hydroxy-MC-LR was the primary initial transformation pathway, followed by nucleophilic substitution, dehydration, and cleavage in MC-LR. Chlorine substitution on the benzene ring was also observed. Based on the bacterial reverse-mutation assay (Ames assay), TPs in treated natural water did not induce genotoxicity/mutagenicity. These findings shed light on the role of chlorination in controlling the risk of cyanotoxins in drinking water treatment plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinlu Feng
- CAS Key Laboratory of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Fujian Key Laboratory of Watershed Ecology, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Xi Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Fujian Key Laboratory of Watershed Ecology, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China.
| | - Habasi Patrick Manzi
- CAS Key Laboratory of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Fujian Key Laboratory of Watershed Ecology, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Claude Kiki
- CAS Key Laboratory of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Fujian Key Laboratory of Watershed Ecology, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Lifeng Lin
- CAS Key Laboratory of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Fujian Key Laboratory of Watershed Ecology, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China
| | - Jiaxing Hong
- Fujian Jinjin Water Supply Co., LTD, Quanzhou, 362200, China
| | - Wenzhen Zheng
- Fujian Jinjin Water Supply Co., LTD, Quanzhou, 362200, China
| | - Chuchu Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Fujian Key Laboratory of Watershed Ecology, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China
| | - Shengda Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Fujian Key Laboratory of Watershed Ecology, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China
| | - Qiaoting Zeng
- CAS Key Laboratory of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Fujian Key Laboratory of Watershed Ecology, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China
| | - Qian Sun
- CAS Key Laboratory of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Fujian Key Laboratory of Watershed Ecology, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China.
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Niture S, Gadi S, Qi Q, Rios-Colon L, Khatiwada S, Vandana, Fernando RA, Levine KE, Kumar D. Cyanotoxins Increase Cytotoxicity and Promote Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Progression by Enhancing Cell Steatosis. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:411. [PMID: 37505679 PMCID: PMC10467139 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15070411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2023] [Revised: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Freshwater prokaryotic cyanobacteria within harmful algal blooms produce cyanotoxins which are considered major pollutants in the aquatic system. Direct exposure to cyanotoxins through inhalation, skin contact, or ingestion of contaminated drinking water can target the liver and may cause hepatotoxicity. In the current study, we investigated the effect of low concentrations of cyanotoxins on cytotoxicity, inflammation, modulation of unfolded protein response (UPR), steatosis, and fibrosis signaling in human hepatocytes and liver cell models. Exposure to low concentrations of microcystin-LR (MC-LR), microcystin-RR (MC-RR), nodularin (NOD), and cylindrospermopsin (CYN) in human bipotent progenitor cell line HepaRG and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cell lines HepG2 and SK-Hep1 resulted in increased cell toxicity. MC-LR, NOD, and CYN differentially regulated inflammatory signaling, activated UPR signaling and lipogenic gene expression, and induced cellular steatosis and fibrotic signaling in HCC cells. MC-LR, NOD, and CYN also regulated AKT/mTOR signaling and inhibited autophagy. Chronic exposure to MC-LR, NOD, and CYN upregulated the expression of lipogenic and fibrosis biomarkers. Moreover, RNA sequencing (RNA seq) data suggested that exposure of human hepatocytes, HepaRG, and HCC HepG2 cells to MC-LR and CYN modulated expression levels of several genes that regulate non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Our data suggest that low concentrations of cyanotoxins can cause hepatotoxicity and cell steatosis and promote NAFLD progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suryakant Niture
- Julius L. Chambers Biomedical Biotechnology Research Institute, North Carolina Central University, Durham, NC 27707, USA
| | - Sashi Gadi
- Julius L. Chambers Biomedical Biotechnology Research Institute, North Carolina Central University, Durham, NC 27707, USA
| | - Qi Qi
- Julius L. Chambers Biomedical Biotechnology Research Institute, North Carolina Central University, Durham, NC 27707, USA
| | - Leslimar Rios-Colon
- Julius L. Chambers Biomedical Biotechnology Research Institute, North Carolina Central University, Durham, NC 27707, USA
| | - Sabin Khatiwada
- Julius L. Chambers Biomedical Biotechnology Research Institute, North Carolina Central University, Durham, NC 27707, USA
| | - Vandana
- Julius L. Chambers Biomedical Biotechnology Research Institute, North Carolina Central University, Durham, NC 27707, USA
| | - Reshan A. Fernando
- NCCU-RTI Center for Applied Research in Environmental Sciences (CARES), RTI International, Durham, NC 27707, USA
| | - Keith E. Levine
- NCCU-RTI Center for Applied Research in Environmental Sciences (CARES), RTI International, Durham, NC 27707, USA
| | - Deepak Kumar
- Julius L. Chambers Biomedical Biotechnology Research Institute, North Carolina Central University, Durham, NC 27707, USA
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13
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España Amórtegui JC, Pekar H, Retrato MDC, Persson M, Karlson B, Bergquist J, Zuberovic-Muratovic A. LC-MS/MS Analysis of Cyanotoxins in Bivalve Mollusks-Method Development, Validation and First Evidence of Occurrence of Nodularin in Mussels ( Mytilus edulis) and Oysters ( Magallana gigas) from the West Coast of Sweden. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:toxins15050329. [PMID: 37235362 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15050329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Revised: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
In this paper, an LC-MS/MS method for the simultaneous identification and quantification of cyanotoxins with hydrophilic and lipophilic properties in edible bivalves is presented. The method includes 17 cyanotoxins comprising 13 microcystins (MCs), nodularin (NOD), anatoxin-a (ATX-a), homoanatoxin (h-ATX) and cylindrospermopsin (CYN). A benefit to the presented method is the possibility for the MS detection of MC-LR-[Dha7] and MC-LR-[Asp3] as separately identified and MS-resolved MRM signals, two congeners which were earlier detected together. The performance of the method was evaluated by in-house validation using spiked mussel samples in the quantification range of 3.12-200 µg/kg. The method was found to be linear over the full calibration range for all included cyanotoxins except CYN for which a quadratic regression was used. The method showed limitations for MC-LF (R2 = 0.94), MC-LA (R2 ≤ 0.98) and MC-LW (R2 ≤ 0.98). The recoveries for ATX-a, h-ATX, CYN, NOD, MC-LF and MC-LW were lower than desired (<70%), but stable. Despite the given limitations, the validation results showed that the method was specific and robust for the investigated parameters. The results demonstrate the suitability of the method to be applied as a reliable monitoring tool for the presented group of cyanotoxins, as well as highlight the compromises that need to be included if multi-toxin methods are to be used for the analysis of cyanotoxins with a broader range of chemical properties. Furthermore, the method was used to analyze 13 samples of mussels (Mytilus edulis) and oysters (Magallana gigas) collected in the 2020-2022 summers along the coast of Bohuslän (Sweden). A complementary qualitative analysis for the presence of cyanotoxins in phytoplankton samples collected from marine waters around southern Sweden was performed with the method. Nodularin was identified in all samples and quantified in bivalve samples in the range of 7-397 µg/kg. Toxins produced by cyanobacteria are not included in the European Union regulatory monitoring of bivalves; thus, the results presented in this study can be useful in providing the basis for future work including cyanotoxins within the frame of regulatory monitoring to increase seafood safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julio César España Amórtegui
- Science Department, Swedish Food Agency, Box 622, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
- Chemistry Department, Science Faculty, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Cr. 45 N° 26-85, Bogotá P.O. Box 111321, Colombia
| | - Heidi Pekar
- Science Department, Swedish Food Agency, Box 622, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
- Stockholm Water and Waste Company, Bryggerivägen 10, SE-106 36 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Mark Dennis Chico Retrato
- Department of Chemistry, Biomedical Center, Analytical Chemistry and Neurochemistry, Uppsala University, Box 599, SE-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Malin Persson
- Science Department, Swedish Food Agency, Box 622, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Bengt Karlson
- Research and Development, Oceanography, Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute, Sven Källfelts Gata 15, SE-426 71 Västra Frölunda, Sweden
| | - Jonas Bergquist
- Department of Chemistry, Biomedical Center, Analytical Chemistry and Neurochemistry, Uppsala University, Box 599, SE-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Aida Zuberovic-Muratovic
- Science Department, Swedish Food Agency, Box 622, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
- Department of Chemistry, Biomedical Center, Analytical Chemistry and Neurochemistry, Uppsala University, Box 599, SE-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
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14
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Nugumanova G, Ponomarev ED, Askarova S, Fasler-Kan E, Barteneva NS. Freshwater Cyanobacterial Toxins, Cyanopeptides and Neurodegenerative Diseases. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:toxins15030233. [PMID: 36977124 PMCID: PMC10057253 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15030233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2022] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/19/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyanobacteria produce a wide range of structurally diverse cyanotoxins and bioactive cyanopeptides in freshwater, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems. The health significance of these metabolites, which include genotoxic- and neurotoxic agents, is confirmed by continued associations between the occurrence of animal and human acute toxic events and, in the long term, by associations between cyanobacteria and neurodegenerative diseases. Major mechanisms related to the neurotoxicity of cyanobacteria compounds include (1) blocking of key proteins and channels; (2) inhibition of essential enzymes in mammalian cells such as protein phosphatases and phosphoprotein phosphatases as well as new molecular targets such as toll-like receptors 4 and 8. One of the widely discussed implicated mechanisms includes a misincorporation of cyanobacterial non-proteogenic amino acids. Recent research provides evidence that non-proteinogenic amino acid BMAA produced by cyanobacteria have multiple effects on translation process and bypasses the proof-reading ability of the aminoacyl-tRNA-synthetase. Aberrant proteins generated by non-canonical translation may be a factor in neuronal death and neurodegeneration. We hypothesize that the production of cyanopeptides and non-canonical amino acids is a more general mechanism, leading to mistranslation, affecting protein homeostasis, and targeting mitochondria in eukaryotic cells. It can be evolutionarily ancient and initially developed to control phytoplankton communities during algal blooms. Outcompeting gut symbiotic microorganisms may lead to dysbiosis, increased gut permeability, a shift in blood-brain-barrier functionality, and eventually, mitochondrial dysfunction in high-energy demanding neurons. A better understanding of the interaction between cyanopeptides metabolism and the nervous system will be crucial to target or to prevent neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Galina Nugumanova
- Department of Biology, School of Sciences and Humanities, Nazarbayev University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan
| | - Eugene D Ponomarev
- Department of Biology, School of Sciences and Humanities, Nazarbayev University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan
| | - Sholpan Askarova
- Center for Life Sciences, National Laboratory Astana, Nazarbayev University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan
| | - Elizaveta Fasler-Kan
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, Children's Hospital, Inselspital Bern, University of Bern, 3010 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Natasha S Barteneva
- Department of Biology, School of Sciences and Humanities, Nazarbayev University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan
- The Environment & Resource Efficiency Cluster (EREC), Nazarbayev University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan
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15
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Zhang H, Li Y, Abdallah MF, Tan H, Li J, Liu S, Zhang R, Sun F, Li Y, Yang S. Novel one-point calibration strategy for high-throughput quantitation of microcystins in freshwater using LC-MS/MS. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 858:159345. [PMID: 36270352 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Revised: 10/05/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Precise quantification of microcystins (MCs) in freshwater is crucial for environmental monitoring and human health. However, the preparation of traditional multi-sample external calibration curve (MSCC) is time consuming and prone to error. Here, a novel one-point calibration strategy including one sample multi-point calibration curve (OSCC) and in sample calibration curve (ISCC) is proposed for the quantitation of eight MCs in freshwater lakes using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The multiple isotopologue reaction monitoring (MIRM) of MCs and its 15N-labelled internal standards were used for OSCC and ISCC, respectively. The isotopic abundance of each MIRM channel could be calculated and measured accurately. Additionally, this strategy was comprehensively validated and showed good performance in selectivity, sensitivity, accuracy and precision as the traditional MSCC. Interestingly, OSCC could realize sample dilution by monitoring the less abundant MIRM transitions, while ISCC remove blank matrixes and generate calibration curve in each study samples. Furthermore, the proposed methodology was successfully applied to analyze several freshwater lake samples contaminated by MCs. Considering the advantages of excluding the MSCC preparation, simplified workflows and improved throughput, OSCC and ISCC will be favored for MCs monitoring and as an emerging approach in environmental pollutant control and prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huiyan Zhang
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China; Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Yanshen Li
- College of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong 264005, PR China
| | - Mohamed F Abdallah
- Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut 71515, Egypt
| | - Haiguang Tan
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Jianxun Li
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Shuyan Liu
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Rong Zhang
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Feifei Sun
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei 230036, PR China
| | - Yi Li
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China.
| | - Shupeng Yang
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China.
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16
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Pinheiro Menescal MTA, Almeida EDS, Sales EA, Méjean A, Yéprémian C. Identification of Cyanobacteria and Its Potential Toxins in the Joanes I Reservoir, Bahia, Brazil. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:51. [PMID: 36668871 PMCID: PMC9865514 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15010051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Revised: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 12/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The Joanes I Reservoir is responsible for 40% of the drinking water supply of the Metropolitan Region of Salvador, Bahia, Brazil. For water sources such as this, there is concern regarding the proliferation of potentially toxin-producing cyanobacteria, which can cause environmental and public health impacts. To evaluate the presence of cyanobacteria and their cyanotoxins in the water of this reservoir, the cyanobacteria were identified by microscopy; the presence of the genes of the cyanotoxin-producing cyanobacteria was detected by molecular methods (polymerase chain reaction (PCR)/sequencing); and the presence of toxins was determined by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The water samples were collected at four sampling points in the Joanes I Reservoir in a monitoring campaign conducted during the occurrence of phytoplankton blooms, and the water quality parameters were also analysed. Ten cyanobacteria species/genera were identified at the monitoring sites, including five potentially cyanotoxin-producing species, such as Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii, Cylindrospermopsis cf. acuminato-crispa, Aphanocapsa sp., Phormidium sp., and Pseudanabaena sp. A positive result for the presence of the cylindrospermopsin toxin was confirmed at two sampling points by LC-MS/MS, which indicated that the populations are actively producing toxins. The analysis of the PCR products using the HEPF/HEPR primer pair for the detection of the microcystin biosynthesis gene mcyE was positive for the analysed samples. The results of this study point to the worrisome condition of this reservoir, from which water is collected for public supply, and indicate the importance of the joint use of different methods for the analysis of cyanobacteria and their toxins in reservoir monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Teresa Araujo Pinheiro Menescal
- Laboratory of Bioenergy and Catalysis (LABEC), Polytechnic School, Federal University of Bahia—UFBA, Rua Aristides Novis, 2, 2nd Floor, Federação, Salvador 40210-910, BA, Brazil
- Industrial Engineering Post-Graduation Program (PEI), Polytechnic School, Federal University of Bahia—UFBA, Rua Aristides Novis, 2, 6th Floor, Federação, Salvador 40210-910, BA, Brazil
| | | | - Emerson Andrade Sales
- Laboratory of Bioenergy and Catalysis (LABEC), Polytechnic School, Federal University of Bahia—UFBA, Rua Aristides Novis, 2, 2nd Floor, Federação, Salvador 40210-910, BA, Brazil
- Industrial Engineering Post-Graduation Program (PEI), Polytechnic School, Federal University of Bahia—UFBA, Rua Aristides Novis, 2, 6th Floor, Federação, Salvador 40210-910, BA, Brazil
| | - Annick Méjean
- LIED, UMR 8236 CNRS, Université Paris Cité, 75205 Paris, France
| | - Claude Yéprémian
- UMR 7245 Molécules de Communication et Adaptations des Microorganismes (MCAM), Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, CP 39, 57 rue Cuvier, 75005 Paris, France
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17
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Abdallah MF, Xu W, Abdeen A. Editorial: Environmental contaminants and animal health: Analysis, toxicity, and mitigation. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:1102836. [PMID: 36570504 PMCID: PMC9773822 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.1102836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed F. Abdallah
- Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium,*Correspondence: Mohamed F. Abdallah
| | - Wang Xu
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues, Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory for the Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues in Foods, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Ahmed Abdeen
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Toukh, Egypt,Center of Excellence in Screening of Environmental Contaminants (CESEC), Benha University, Toukh, Egypt
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18
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Casas Rodríguez A, Diez-Quijada L, Prieto AI, Jos A, Cameán AM. Effect of cold food storage techniques on the contents of Microcystins and Cylindrospermopsin in leaves of spinach (Spinacia oleracea) and lettuce (Lactuca sativa). Food Chem Toxicol 2022; 170:113507. [PMID: 36334728 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2022.113507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2022] [Revised: 10/25/2022] [Accepted: 10/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The presence of Cylindrospermopsin (CYN) and Microcystins (MCs) in vegetables is considered as a significant worldwide toxicological risk. Thus, this work aims to assess for the first time the impact of refrigeration (4 °C) and freezing (-20 °C) on the levels of CYN, MCs and their mixtures (CYN + MCs) in lettuce and spinach. Samples were spiked with 750 μg cyanotoxins/g dry weight (d.w.). Several storage conditions were studied: refrigeration after 24, 48 h and 7 days, and freezing for 7 days, 1 and 3 months. Cyanotoxin concentrations were determined by Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). For CYN, refrigeration at 48 h and 7 days was effective to decrease its concentrations up to 26% and 32%, respectively, in spinach. For MCs, refrigeration was only effective in lettuce compared to spinach, showing an important decrease of 80.3% MC-LR and 85.1% MC-YR. In spinach, CYN was stable after 3 months freezing, whereas MC contents were still reduced up to 44%. Overall, cyanotoxins were less stable in the mixture compared to individual toxins for both processes, and the effect of these storage techniques were toxin and food-specific. Further studies of cyanotoxins in foods are required for evaluating the risk for humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Casas Rodríguez
- Area of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sevilla, Profesor García González Nº2, Spain
| | - Leticia Diez-Quijada
- Area of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sevilla, Profesor García González Nº2, Spain
| | - Ana I Prieto
- Area of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sevilla, Profesor García González Nº2, Spain.
| | - Angeles Jos
- Area of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sevilla, Profesor García González Nº2, Spain
| | - Ana M Cameán
- Area of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sevilla, Profesor García González Nº2, Spain
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19
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Tavelli R, Callens M, Grootaert C, Abdallah MF, Rajkovic A. Foodborne pathogens in the plastisphere: Can microplastics in the food chain threaten microbial food safety? Trends Food Sci Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2022.08.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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20
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Towards a Better Quantification of Cyanotoxins in Fruits and Vegetables: Validation and Application of an UHPLC-MS/MS-Based Method on Belgian Products. SEPARATIONS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/separations9100319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Vegetables and fruits can potentially accumulate cyanotoxins after water contaminated with cyanobacteria is used for irrigation. We developed and validated an analytical method to quantify eight microcystin congeners (MCs) and nodularin (NOD) using ultra high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) in three different matrices. Strawberries, carrots and lettuce are selected as model matrices to represent the fruits/berries, leafy and root vegetables, sequentially. The validation of a UHPLC-MS/MS method in the strawberry matrix is novel. Matrix effects are observed in all three matrices. Our methodology uses matrix-matched calibration curves to compensate for the matrix effect. The implementation of our method on 103 samples, containing nine different sorts of fruits and vegetables from the Belgian market, showed no presence of MCs or NOD. However, the recoveries of our quality controls showed the effectiveness of our method, illustrating that the use of this method in future research or monitoring as well as in official food controls in fruit and vegetable matrices is valid.
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21
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Abdallah M, Muda E, Grootaert C, Rajkovic A. LP-68 Subtoxic doses of polystyrene nanoplastics and microcystin-LR affect the bioenergetic status of Caco-2 and HepG2 cells. Toxicol Lett 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2022.07.799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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22
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Anam GB, Govarthanan M, Ahn YH. Assessment of nitrogen interaction with temperature on the growth and toxin production of mat-forming toxin-producing Anagnostidinema carotinosum. J Appl Microbiol 2022; 133:2851-2863. [PMID: 35983987 DOI: 10.1111/jam.15784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2022] [Revised: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 08/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Global warming and eutrophication contribute to the severity of cyanobacteria blooms. However, it is unclear how these factors influence the growth and toxin production of Anagnostidinema carotinosum. METHODS AND RESULTS Based on morphological and molecular analysis, this is the first time A. carotinosum was identified in South Korea. The interactive effect of temperature (25, 30 or 34 °C) and nitrogen (2.5, 3.5 or 4.5 mg NO3 -N l-1 ) on A. carotinosum growth and toxin production were studied. Increasing nitrogen limitation reflects reduced growth and chlorophyll-a content at all temperatures. However, the growth was effective under nitrogen limitation when temperatures exceeded 25 °C. The maximum growth was found at 30 °C, followed by 34 °C under higher nitrate levels (3.5 and 4.5 mg l-1 ). In addition, the cell microcystin and anatoxin-a quota increased significantly at 25 °C with increasing nitrate limitation, decreasing considerably at 30 °C in the same nitrate gradient. CONCLUSION These results suggested temperatures stimulate A. carotinosum growth at 30 and 34 °C and cellular toxin quota at 25 and 34 °C with increasing NO3 -N levels. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY These findings imply that limiting nitrogen input alone can effectively reduce biomass; however, controlling A. carotinosum and its toxins at higher temperatures under nitrate limitation is necessary for water quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giridhar Babu Anam
- Department of Civil Engineering, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea
| | - Muthusamy Govarthanan
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Kyungpook National University, Deagu, South Korea.,Department of Biomaterials, Saveetha Dental College and Hospital, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Chennai, India
| | - Young-Ho Ahn
- Department of Civil Engineering, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea
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Mugani R, El Khalloufi F, Redouane EM, Haida M, Zerrifi SEA, Campos A, Kasada M, Woodhouse J, Grossart HP, Vasconcelos V, Oudra B. Bacterioplankton Associated with Toxic Cyanobacteria Promote Pisum sativum (Pea) Growth and Nutritional Value through Positive Interactions. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10081511. [PMID: 35893569 PMCID: PMC9394358 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10081511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Revised: 07/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Research on Plant Growth-Promoting Bacteria (PGPB) has focused much more on rhizospheric bacteria. However, PGPB associated with toxic cyanobacterial bloom (TCB) could enter the rhizosphere through irrigation water, helping plants such as Pisum sativum L. (pea) overcome oxidative stress induced by microcystin (MC) and improve plant growth and nutritional value. This study aimed to isolate bacteria associated with toxic cyanobacteria, test PGPB properties, and inoculate them as a consortium to pea seedlings irrigated with MC to investigate their role in plant protection as well as in improving growth and nutritional value. Two bacterioplankton isolates and one rhizosphere isolate were isolated and purified on a mineral salt medium supplemented with 1000 μg/L MC and identified via their 16S rRNA gene. The mixed strains were inoculated to pea seedlings in pots irrigated with 0, 50, and 100 μg/L MC. We measured the morphological and physiological parameters of pea plants at maturity and evaluated the efficiency of the plant’s enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant responses to assess the role and contribution of PGPB. Both bacterioplankton isolates were identified as Starkeya sp., and the rhizobacterium was identified as Brevundimonas aurantiaca. MC addition significantly (p < 0.05) reduced all the growth parameters of the pea, i.e., total chlorophyll content, leaf quantum yield, stomatal conductance, carotenoids, and polyphenol contents, in an MC concentration-dependent manner, while bacterial presence positively affected all the measured parameters. In the MC treatment, the levels of the pea’s antioxidant traits, including SOD, CAT, POD, PPO, GST, and ascorbic acid, were increased in the sterile pots. In contrast, these levels were reduced with double and triple PGPB addition. Additionally, nutritional values such as sugars, proteins, and minerals (Ca and K) in pea fruits were reduced under MC exposure but increased with PGPB addition. Overall, in the presence of MC, PGPB seem to positively interact with pea plants and thus may constitute a natural alternative for soil fertilization when irrigated with cyanotoxin-contaminated water, increasing the yield and nutritional value of crops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Mugani
- Water, Biodiversity and Climate Change Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, Av. Prince My Abdellah, P.O. Box 2390, Marrakech 40000, Morocco; (R.M.); (E.M.R.); (M.H.); (S.E.A.Z.); (B.O.)
- Department of Plankton and Microbial Ecology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Zur alten Fischerhuette 2, 14775 Stechlin, Germany; (M.K.); (J.W.); (H.-P.G.)
| | - Fatima El Khalloufi
- Natural Resources Engineering and Environmental Impacts Team, Multidisciplinary Research and Innovation Laboratory, Polydisciplinary Faculty of Khouribga, Sultan Moulay Slimane University of Beni Mellal, P.O. Box 145, Khouribga 25000, Morocco;
| | - El Mahdi Redouane
- Water, Biodiversity and Climate Change Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, Av. Prince My Abdellah, P.O. Box 2390, Marrakech 40000, Morocco; (R.M.); (E.M.R.); (M.H.); (S.E.A.Z.); (B.O.)
| | - Mohammed Haida
- Water, Biodiversity and Climate Change Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, Av. Prince My Abdellah, P.O. Box 2390, Marrakech 40000, Morocco; (R.M.); (E.M.R.); (M.H.); (S.E.A.Z.); (B.O.)
| | - Soukaina El Amrani Zerrifi
- Water, Biodiversity and Climate Change Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, Av. Prince My Abdellah, P.O. Box 2390, Marrakech 40000, Morocco; (R.M.); (E.M.R.); (M.H.); (S.E.A.Z.); (B.O.)
| | - Alexandre Campos
- CIIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Av. General Norton de Matos, s/n, 4450-208 Porto, Portugal;
| | - Minoru Kasada
- Department of Plankton and Microbial Ecology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Zur alten Fischerhuette 2, 14775 Stechlin, Germany; (M.K.); (J.W.); (H.-P.G.)
- Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Aoba, Sendai 980-8578, Japan
| | - Jason Woodhouse
- Department of Plankton and Microbial Ecology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Zur alten Fischerhuette 2, 14775 Stechlin, Germany; (M.K.); (J.W.); (H.-P.G.)
| | - Hans-Peter Grossart
- Department of Plankton and Microbial Ecology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Zur alten Fischerhuette 2, 14775 Stechlin, Germany; (M.K.); (J.W.); (H.-P.G.)
- Institute for Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Maulbeeralle 2, 14469 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Vitor Vasconcelos
- CIIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Av. General Norton de Matos, s/n, 4450-208 Porto, Portugal;
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +351-223-401-817
| | - Brahim Oudra
- Water, Biodiversity and Climate Change Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, Av. Prince My Abdellah, P.O. Box 2390, Marrakech 40000, Morocco; (R.M.); (E.M.R.); (M.H.); (S.E.A.Z.); (B.O.)
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Duan X, Zhang C, Struewing I, Li X, Allen J, Lu J. Cyanotoxin-encoding genes as powerful predictors of cyanotoxin production during harmful cyanobacterial blooms in an inland freshwater lake: Evaluating a novel early-warning system. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 830:154568. [PMID: 35302035 PMCID: PMC9698223 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Revised: 02/26/2022] [Accepted: 03/10/2022] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Freshwater harmful cyanobacterial blooms (HCBs) potentially produce excessive cyanotoxins, mainly microcystins (MCs), significantly threatening aquatic ecosystems and public health. Accurately predicting HCBs is thus essential to developing effective HCB mitigation and prevention strategies. We previously developed a novel early-warning system that uses cyanotoxin-encoding genes to predict cyanotoxin production in Harsha Lake, Ohio, USA, in 2015. In this study, we evaluated the efficacy of the early-warning system in forecasting the 2016 HCB in the same lake. We also examined potential HCB drivers and cyanobacterial community composition. Our results revealed that the cyanobacterial community was stable at the phylum level but changed dynamically at the genus level over time. Microcystis and Planktothrix were the major MC-producing genera that thrived in June and July and produced high concentrations of MCs (peak level 10.22 μg·L-1). The abundances of the MC-encoding gene cluster mcy and its transcript levels significantly correlated with total MC concentrations (before the MC concentrations peaked) and accurately predicted MC production as revealed by logistic equations. When the Microcystis-specific gene mcyG reached approximately 1.5 × 103 copies·mL-1 or when its transcript level reached approximately 2.4 copies·mL-1, total MC level exceeded 0.3 μg L-1 (a health advisory limit) approximately one week later (weekly sampling scheme). This study suggested that cyanotoxin-encoding genes are promising predictors of MC production in inland freshwater lakes, such as Harsha Lake. The evaluated early-warning system can be a useful tool to assist lake managers in predicting, mitigating, and/or preventing HCBs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaodi Duan
- Pegasus Technical Services, Inc., Cincinnati, OH 45219, USA
| | - Chiqian Zhang
- Pegasus Technical Services, Inc., Cincinnati, OH 45219, USA
| | - Ian Struewing
- Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA
| | - Xiang Li
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education at the United States Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA
| | - Joel Allen
- Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA
| | - Jingrang Lu
- Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA.
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Park H, Kim G, Seo Y, Yoon Y, Min J, Park C, Lee T. Improving Biosensors by the Use of Different Nanomaterials: Case Study with Microcystins as Target Analytes. BIOSENSORS 2021; 11:525. [PMID: 34940282 PMCID: PMC8699174 DOI: 10.3390/bios11120525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Revised: 10/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The eutrophication of lakes and rivers without adequate rainfall leads to excessive growth of cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms (CyanoHABs) that produce toxicants, green tides, and unpleasant odors. The rapid growth of CyanoHABs owing to global warming, climate change, and the development of rainforests and dams without considering the environmental concern towards lakes and rivers is a serious issue. Humans and livestock consuming the toxicant-contaminated water that originated from CyanoHABs suffer severe health problems. Among the various toxicants produced by CyanoHABs, microcystins (MCs) are the most harmful. Excess accumulation of MC within living organisms can result in liver failure and hepatocirrhosis, eventually leading to death. Therefore, it is essential to precisely detect MCs in water samples. To date, the liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) have been the standard methods for the detection of MC and provide precise results with high reliability. However, these methods require heavy instruments and complicated operation steps that could hamper the portability and field-readiness of the detection system. Therefore, in order for this goal to be achieved, the biosensor has been attracted to a powerful alternative for MC detection. Thus far, several types of MC biosensor have been proposed to detect MC in freshwater sample. The introduction of material is a useful option in order to improve the biosensor performance and construct new types of biosensors. Introducing nanomaterials to the biosensor interface provides new phenomena or enhances the sensitivity. In recent times, different types of nanomaterials, such as metallic, carbon-based, and transition metal dichalcogenide-based nanomaterials, have been developed and used to fabricate biosensors for MC detection. This study reviews the recent advancements in different nanomaterial-based MC biosensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanbin Park
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Kwangwoon University, Seoul 01897, Korea; (H.P.); (G.K.); (Y.S.); (Y.Y.)
| | - Gahyeon Kim
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Kwangwoon University, Seoul 01897, Korea; (H.P.); (G.K.); (Y.S.); (Y.Y.)
| | - Yoseph Seo
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Kwangwoon University, Seoul 01897, Korea; (H.P.); (G.K.); (Y.S.); (Y.Y.)
| | - Yejin Yoon
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Kwangwoon University, Seoul 01897, Korea; (H.P.); (G.K.); (Y.S.); (Y.Y.)
| | - Junhong Min
- School of Integrative Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Korea
| | - Chulhwan Park
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Kwangwoon University, Seoul 01897, Korea; (H.P.); (G.K.); (Y.S.); (Y.Y.)
| | - Taek Lee
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Kwangwoon University, Seoul 01897, Korea; (H.P.); (G.K.); (Y.S.); (Y.Y.)
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