An Update on Clostridioides difficile Binary Toxin

Structural and Functional Insights into the Delivery Systems of Bacillus and Clostridial Binary Toxins

Pathogenic Bacillus and clostridial (i.e., Clostridium and Clostridioides) bacteria express a diverse repertoire of effector proteins to promote disease. This includes production of binary toxins, which enter host epithelial cells and seriously damage the intestinal tracts of insects, animals, and humans. In particular, binary toxins form an AB-type complex composed of a catalytic subunit that is toxic (A) and an oligomeric cell-binding and delivery subunit (B), where upon delivery of A into the cytoplasm of the host cell it catalytically ADP-ribosylates actin and rapidly induces host cell death. In this review, binary toxins expressed by Bacillus thuringiensis, Clostridioides difficile, and Clostridium perfringens will be discussed, with particular focus placed upon the structural elucidations of their respective B subunits and how these findings help to deconvolute how toxic enzyme delivery into target host cells is achieved by these deadly bacteria.

Molecular Characterization and Potential Host-switching of Swine Farm associated Clostridioides difficile ST11

OBJECTIVE

To conduct molecular prevalence and genetic polymorphism analysis of 24 Swine Farm associated C. difficile ST11 strains, in addition to other representative sequenced ST strains.

METHODS

The collected C. difficile strains underwent whole genome sequencing and bioinformatic analysis using the illumina NovaSeq platform, SPAdes, Prokka, MOB-suite, and FastTree. Virulence and antibiotic resistance genes were identified through NCBI Pathogen Database. Cytotoxicity tests were conducted on HT-29 cells and Vero cells to verify the function of toxin A and toxin B.

RESULTS

The most prevalent resistance genes in ST11 were found to be against β-lactamases, aminoglycosides, and tetracycline. A C. difficile isolate (strain 27) with tcdA deletion and high antibiotic resistance genes was far apart from other swine farm associated ST11 isolates in the phylogenetic branch. The remarkable genetic similarity between animal and human C. difficile strains suggests potential transmission of ST11 strains between animals and humans. The plasmid replicon sequences repUS43 were identified in all ST11 strains except one variant (strain 27), and 91.67% (22/24) of these were assessed by MOB-typer as having mobilizable plasmids.

CONCLUSION

Swine farm associated C. difficile ST11 carried fewer virulence genes than ST11 strains collected from NCBI database. It is critical to monitor the evolution of C. difficile strains to understand their changing characteristics, host-switching, and develop effective control and prevention strategies.

Comparative genome analyses of clinical and non-clinical Clostridioides difficile strains

The pathogenic bacterium Clostridioides difficile is a worldwide health burden with increasing morbidity, mortality and antibiotic resistances. Therefore, extensive research efforts are made to unravel its virulence and dissemination. One crucial aspect for C. difficile is its mobilome, which for instance allows the spread of antibiotic resistance genes (ARG) or influence strain virulence. As a nosocomial pathogen, the majority of strains analyzed originated from clinical environments and infected individuals. Nevertheless, C. difficile can also be present in human intestines without disease development or occur in diverse environmental habitats such as puddle water and soil, from which several strains could already be isolated. We therefore performed comprehensive genome comparisons of closely related clinical and non-clinical strains to identify the effects of the clinical background. Analyses included the prediction of virulence factors, ARGs, mobile genetic elements (MGEs), and detailed examinations of the pan genome. Clinical-related trends were thereby observed. While no significant differences were identified in fundamental C. difficile virulence factors, the clinical strains carried more ARGs and MGEs, and possessed a larger accessory genome. Detailed inspection of accessory genes revealed higher abundance of genes with unknown function, transcription-associated, or recombination-related activity. Accessory genes of these functions were already highlighted in other studies in association with higher strain virulence. This specific trend might allow the strains to react more efficiently on changing environmental conditions in the human host such as emerging stress factors, and potentially increase strain survival, colonization, and strain virulence. These findings indicated an adaptation of the strains to the clinical environment. Further, implementation of the analysis results in pairwise genome comparisons revealed that the majority of these accessory genes were encoded on predicted MGEs, shedding further light on the mobile genome of C. difficile. We therefore encourage the inclusion of non-clinical strains in comparative analyses.

Toxin genotypes, antibiotic resistance and their correlations in Clostridioides difficile isolated from hospitals in Xi'an, China

BACKGROUND

Clostridioides difficile is the main pathogen of antimicrobial-associated diarrhoea and health care facility-associated infectious diarrhoea. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence, toxin genotypes, and antibiotic resistance of C. difficile among hospitalized patients in Xi'an, China.

RESULTS

We isolated and cultured 156 strains of C. difficile, representing 12.67% of the 1231 inpatient stool samples collected. Among the isolates, tcdA + B + strains were predominant, accounting for 78.2% (122/156), followed by 27 tcdA-B + strains (27/156, 17.3%) and 6 binary toxin gene-positive strains. The positive rates of three regulatory genes, tcdC, tcdR, and tcdE, were 89.1% (139/156), 96.8% (151/156), and 100%, respectively. All isolates were sensitive to metronidazole, and the resistance rates to clindamycin and cephalosporins were also high. Six strains were found to be resistant to vancomycin.

CONCLUSION

Currently, the prevalence rate of C. difficile infection (CDI) in Xi'an is 12.67% (156/1231), with the major toxin genotype of the isolates being tcdA + tcdB + cdtA-/B-. Metronidazole and vancomycin were still effective drugs for the treatment of CDI, but we should pay attention to antibiotic management and epidemiological surveillance of CDI.

[Analysis of Clostridioides difficile infection characteristics and risk factors in patients hospitalized for diarrhea in 3 university hospitals in a mid-south city of China]

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the characteristics of Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) in patients hospitalized for diarrhea and analyze the risk factors for CDI.

METHODS

Stool samples were collected from 306 patients with diarrhea hospitalized in 3 university hospitals in a mid-south city of China from October to December, 2020. C. difficile was isolated by anaerobic culture, and qRT-PCR was used to detect the expressions of toxin A (tcdA) and B (tcdB) genes and the binary toxin genes (cdtA and cdtB). Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) was performed for the isolated strains without contaminating strains as confirmed by 16S rDNA sequencing. Etest strips were used to determine the drug resistance profiles of the isolated strains, and the risk factors of CDI in the patients were analyzed.

RESULTS

CDI was detected in 25 (8.17%) out of the 306 patients. All the patients tested positive for tcdA and tcdB but negative for the binary toxin genes. Seven noncontaminated C. difficile strains with 5 ST types were isolated, including 3 ST54 strains and one strain of ST129, ST98, ST53, and ST631 types each, all belonging to clade 1 and sensitive to metronidazole and vancomycin. Hospitalization within the past 6 months (OR= 3.675; 95% CI: 1.405-9.612), use of PPIs (OR=7.107; 95% CI: 2.575-19.613), antibiotics for ≥1 week (OR=7.306; 95% CI: 2.274-23.472), non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (OR=4.754; 95% CI: 1.504-15.031) in the past month, and gastrointestinal disorders (OR=5.050; 95% CI: 1.826-13.968) were all risk factors for CDI in the patients hospitalized for diarrhea.

CONCLUSION

The CDI rate remains low in the hospitalized patients with diarrhea in the investigated hospitals, but early precaution measures are recommended when exposure to the risk factors is reported to reduce the risk of CDI in the hospitalized patients.

"Primum, non nocere": The Epidemiology of Toxigenic Clostridioides difficile Strains in the Antibiotic Era-Insights from a Prospective Study at a Regional Infectious Diseases Hospital in Eastern Europe

Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI), though identified nearly five decades ago, still remains a major challenge, being associated with significant mortality rates. The strains classified as hypervirulent, notably 027/NAP1/BI, have garnered substantial attention from researchers and clinicians due to their direct correlation with the severity of the disease. Our study aims to elucidate the significance of toxigenic Clostridioides difficile (CD) strains in the clinical and therapeutic aspects of managing patients diagnosed with CDI. We conducted a single-center prospective study, including patients with CDI from north-eastern Romania. We subsequently conducted molecular biology testing to ascertain the prevalence of the presumptive 027/NAP1/BI strain within aforementioned geographic region. The patients were systematically compared and assessed both clinically and biologically, employing standardized and comparative methodologies. The study enrolled fifty patients with CDI admitted between January 2020 and June 2020. Among the investigated patients, 43 (86%) exhibited infection with toxigenic CD strains positive for toxin B genes (tcdB), binary toxin genes (cdtA and cdtB), and deletion 117 in regulatory genes (tcdC), while the remaining 7 (14%) tested negative for binary toxin genes (cdtA and cdtB) and deletion 117 in tcdC. The presence of the presumptive 027/NAP1/BI strains was linked to a higher recurrence rate (35.56%, p = 0.025), cardiovascular comorbidities (65.1% vs. 14.2%, p = 0.016), and vancomycin treatment (55.8% vs. 14.3%, p = 0.049). The findings of our investigation revealed an elevated incidence of colitis attributed to presumptive 027/NAP1/BI. Despite the prevalence of the presumptive 027 strain and its associated heightened inflammation among the patients studied, no significant differences were observed regarding the clinical course or mortality outcomes.

Exploring the Toxin-Mediated Mechanisms in Clostridioides difficile Infection

Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) is the leading cause of nosocomial antibiotic-associated diarrhea, and colitis, with increasing incidence and healthcare costs. Its pathogenesis is primarily driven by toxins produced by the bacterium C. difficile, Toxin A (TcdA) and Toxin B (TcdB). Certain strains produce an additional toxin, the C. difficile transferase (CDT), which further enhances the virulence and pathogenicity of C. difficile. These toxins disrupt colonic epithelial barrier integrity, and induce inflammation and cellular damage, leading to CDI symptoms. Significant progress has been made in the past decade in elucidating the molecular mechanisms of TcdA, TcdB, and CDT, which provide insights into the management of CDI and the future development of novel treatment strategies based on anti-toxin therapies. While antibiotics are common treatments, high recurrence rates necessitate alternative therapies. Bezlotoxumab, targeting TcdB, is the only available anti-toxin, yet limitations persist, prompting ongoing research. This review highlights the current knowledge of the structure and mechanism of action of C. difficile toxins and their role in disease. By comprehensively describing the toxin-mediated mechanisms, this review provides insights for the future development of novel treatment strategies and the management of CDI.

Clostridioides difficile infection in inflammatory bowel disease: a clinical review

INTRODUCTION

Strong clinical data demonstrate that inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is an independent risk factor for Clostridiodes difficile infection (CDI) and suggest a globally increased prevalence and severity of C. difficile coinfection in IBD patients (CDI-IBD). In addition to elderly individuals, children are also at higher risk of CDI-IBD. Rapid diagnosis is essential since the clinical manifestations of active IBD and CDI-IBD are indistinguishable. Antibiotics have been well established in the treatment of CDI-IBD, but they do not prevent recurrence.

AREAS COVERED

Herein, the authors focus on reviewing recent research advances on the new therapies of CDI-IBD. The novel therapies include gut microbiota restoration therapies (such as prebiotics, probiotics and FMT), immunotherapy (such as vaccines and monoclonal antibodies) and diet strategies (such as groningen anti-inflammatory diet and mediterranean diet). Future extensive prospective and placebo-controlled studies are required to evaluate their efficacy and long-term safety.

EXPERT OPINION

Available studies show that the prevalence of CDI-IBD is not optimistic. Currently, potential treatment options for CDI-IBD include a number of probiotics and novel antibiotics. This review updates the knowledge on the management of CDI in IBD patients, which is timely and important for GI doctors and scientists.

The Strain and the Clinical Outcome of Clostridioides difficile Infection: A Meta-analysis

Background

The association between bacterial strains and clinical outcomes in Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) has yielded conflicting results across studies. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analyses to assess the impact of these strains.

Methods

Five electronic databases were used to identify studies reporting CDI severity, complications, recurrence, or mortality according to strain type from inception to June 2022. Random effect meta-analyses were conducted to assess outcome proportions and risk ratios (RRs).

Results

A total of 93 studies were included: 44 reported recurrences, 50 reported severity or complications, and 55 reported deaths. Pooled proportions of complications were statistically comparable between NAP1/BI/R027 and R001, R078, and R106. Pooled attributable mortality was 4.8% with a gradation in patients infected with R014/20 (1.7%), R001 (3.8%), R078 (5.3%), and R027 (10.2%). Higher 30-day all-cause mortality was observed in patients infected with R001, R002, R027, and R106 (range, 20%-25%).NAP1/BI/R027 was associated with several unfavorable outcomes: recurrence 30 days after the end of treatment (pooled RR, 1.98; 95% CI, 1.02-3.84); admission to intensive care, colectomy, or CDI-associated death (1.88; 1.09-3.25); and 30-day attributable mortality (1.96; 1.23-3.13). The association between harboring the binary toxin gene and 30-day all-cause mortality did not reach significance (RR, 1.6 [0.9-2.9]; 7 studies).

Conclusions

Numerous studies were excluded due to discrepancies in the definition of the outcomes and the lack of reporting of important covariates. NAP1/BI/R027, the most frequently reported and assessed strain, was associated with unfavorable outcomes. However, there were not sufficient data to reach significant conclusions on other strains.

Fight or flee, a vital choice for Clostridioides difficile

Clostridioides difficile is a leading cause of healthcare-associated infections, causing billions of economic losses every year. Its symptoms range from mild diarrhea to life-threatening damage to the colon. Transmission and recurrence of C. difficile infection (CDI) are mediated by the metabolically dormant spores, while the virulence of C. difficile is mainly due to the two large clostridial toxins, TcdA and TcdB. Producing toxins or forming spores are two different strategies for C. difficile to cope with harsh environmental conditions. It is of great significance to understand the molecular mechanisms for C. difficile to skew to either of the cellular processes. Here, we summarize the current understanding of the regulation and connections between toxin production and sporulation in C. difficile and further discuss the potential solutions for yet-to-be-answered questions.

Clostridioides difficile Infection: Diagnosis and Treatment Challenges

Clostridioides difficile is the most important cause of healthcare-associated diarrhea in the United States. The high incidence and recurrence rates of C. difficile infection (CDI), associated with high morbidity and mortality, pose a public health challenge. Although antibiotics targeting C. difficile bacteria are the first treatment choice, antibiotics also disrupt the indigenous gut flora and, therefore, create an environment that is favorable for recurrent CDI. The challenge of treating CDI is further exacerbated by the rise of antibiotic-resistant strains of C. difficile, placing it among the top five most urgent antibiotic resistance threats in the USA. The evolution of antibiotic resistance in C. difficile involves the acquisition of new resistance mechanisms, which can be shared among various bacterial species and different C. difficile strains within clinical and community settings. This review provides a summary of commonly used diagnostic tests and antibiotic treatment strategies for CDI. In addition, it discusses antibiotic treatment and its resistance mechanisms. This review aims to enhance our current understanding and pinpoint knowledge gaps in antimicrobial resistance mechanisms in C. difficile, with an emphasis on CDI therapies.

Cellular Uptake and Cytotoxicity of Clostridium perfringens Iota-Toxin

Clostridium perfringens iota-toxin is composed of two separate proteins: a binding protein (Ib) that recognizes a host cell receptor and promotes the cellular uptake of a catalytic protein and (Ia) possessing ADP-ribosyltransferase activity that induces actin cytoskeleton disorganization. Ib exhibits the overall structure of bacterial pore-forming toxins (PFTs). Lipolysis-stimulated lipoprotein receptor (LSR) is defined as a host cell receptor for Ib. The binding of Ib to LSR causes an oligomer formation of Ib in lipid rafts of plasma membranes, mediating the entry of Ia into the cytoplasm. Ia induces actin cytoskeleton disruption via the ADP-ribosylation of G-actin and causes cell rounding and death. The binding protein alone disrupts the cell membrane and induces cytotoxicity in sensitive cells. Host cells permeabilized by the pore formation of Ib are repaired by a Ca2+-dependent plasma repair pathway. This review shows that the cellular uptake of iota-toxin utilizes a pathway of plasma membrane repair and that Ib alone induces cytotoxicity.

A Colonic Organoid Model Challenged with the Large Toxins of Clostridioides difficile TcdA and TcdB Exhibit Deregulated Tight Junction Proteins

BACKGROUND

Clostridioides difficile toxins TcdA and TcdB are responsible for diarrhea and colitis. Lack of functional studies in organoid models of the gut prompted us to elucidate the toxin's effects on epithelial barrier function and the molecular mechanisms for diarrhea and inflammation.

METHODS

Human adult colon organoids were cultured on membrane inserts. Tight junction (TJ) proteins and actin cytoskeleton were analyzed for expression via Western blotting and via confocal laser-scanning microscopy for subcellular localization.

RESULTS

Polarized intestinal organoid monolayers were established from stem cell-containing colon organoids to apply toxins from the apical side and to perform functional measurements in the organoid model. The toxins caused a reduction in transepithelial electrical resistance in human colonic organoid monolayers with sublethal concentrations. Concomitantly, we detected increased paracellular permeability fluorescein and FITC-dextran-4000. Human colonic organoid monolayers exposed to the toxins exhibited redistribution of barrier-forming TJ proteins claudin-1, -4 and tricellulin, whereas channel-forming claudin-2 expression was increased. Perijunctional F-actin cytoskeleton organization was affected.

CONCLUSIONS

Adult stem cell-derived human colonic organoid monolayers were applicable as a colon infection model for electrophysiological measurements. The TJ changes noted can explain the epithelial barrier dysfunction and diarrhea in patients, as well as increased entry of luminal antigens triggering inflammation.

Update on Commonly Used Molecular Typing Methods for Clostridioides difficile

This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the significant Clostridioides difficile molecular typing techniques currently employed in research and medical communities. The main objectives of this review are to describe the key molecular typing methods utilized in C. difficile studies and to highlight the epidemiological characteristics of the most prevalent strains on a global scale. Geographically distinct regions exhibit distinct strain types of C. difficile, with notable concordance observed among various typing methodologies. The advantages that next-generation sequencing (NGS) offers has changed epidemiology research, enabling high-resolution genomic analyses of this pathogen. NGS platforms offer an unprecedented opportunity to explore the genetic intricacies and evolutionary trajectories of C. difficile strains. It is relevant to acknowledge that novel routes of transmission are continually being unveiled and warrant further investigation, particularly in the context of zoonotic implications and environmental contamination.

A leaky human colon model reveals uncoupled apical/basal cytotoxicity in early Clostridioides difficile toxin exposure

Clostridioides difficile (C. difficile) toxins A (TcdA) and B (TcdB) cause antibiotic-associated colitis in part by disrupting epithelial barrier function. Accurate in vitro models are necessary to detect early toxicity kinetics, investigate disease etiology, and develop preclinical models for new therapies. Properties of cancer cell lines and organoids inherently limit these efforts. We developed adult stem cell-derived monolayers of differentiated human colonic epithelium (hCE) with barrier function, investigated the impact of toxins on apical/basal aspects of monolayers, and evaluated whether a leaky epithelial barrier enhances toxicity. Single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNAseq) mapped C. difficile-relevant genes to human lineages. Transcriptomics compared hCE to Caco-2, informed timing of in vitro stem cell differentiation, and revealed transcriptional responses to TcdA. Transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) and fluorescent permeability assays measured cytotoxicity. Contribution of TcdB toxicity was evaluated in a diclofenac-induced leaky gut model. scRNAseq demonstrated broad and variable toxin receptor expression. Absorptive colonocytes in vivo displayed increased toxin receptor, Rho GTPase, and cell junction gene expression. Advanced TcdA toxicity generally decreased cytokine/chemokine and increased tight junction and death receptor genes. Differentiated Caco-2 cells remained immature whereas hCE monolayers were similar to mature colonocytes in vivo. Basal exposure of TcdA/B caused greater toxicity and apoptosis than apical exposure. Apical exposure to toxins was enhanced by diclofenac. Apical/basal toxicities are uncoupled with more rapid onset and increased magnitude postbasal toxin exposure. Leaky junctions enhance toxicity of apical TcdB exposure. hCE monolayers represent a physiologically relevant and sensitive system to evaluate the impact of microbial toxins on gut epithelium.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Novel human colonocyte monolayer cultures, benchmarked by transcriptomics for physiological relevance, detect early cytopathic impacts of Clostridioides difficile toxins TcdA and TcdB. A fluorescent ZO-1 reporter in primary human colonocytes is used to track epithelial barrier disruption in response to TcdA. Basal TcdA/B exposure generally caused more rapid onset and cytotoxicity than apical exposure. Transcriptomics demonstrate changes in tight junction, chemokine, and cytokine receptor gene expression post-TcdA exposure. Diclofenac-induced leaky epithelium enhanced apical exposure toxicity.

The burden of CDI in the United States: a multifactorial challenge

Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) affects approximately 500,000 patients annually in the United States, of these around 30,000 will die. CDI carries significant burdens including clinical, social and economic. While healthcare-associated CDI has declined in recent years, community-associated CDI is on the rise. Many patients are also impacted by recurrent C. difficile infections (rCDI); up to 35% of index CDI will recur and of these up to 60% will further recur with multiple recurrences observed. The range of outcomes adversely affected by rCDI is significant and current standard of care does not alter these recurrence rates due to the damaged gut microbiome and subsequent dysbiosis. The clinical landscape of CDI is changing, we discuss the impact of CDI, rCDI, and the wide range of financial, social, and clinical outcomes by which treatments should be evaluated.

Targeting the Inside of Cells with Biologicals: Toxin Routes in a Therapeutic Context

Numerous toxins translocate to the cytosol in order to fulfil their function. This demonstrates the existence of routes for proteins from the extracellular space to the cytosol. Understanding these routes is relevant to multiple aspects related to therapeutic applications. These include the development of anti-toxin treatments, the potential use of toxins as shuttles for delivering macromolecular cargo to the cytosol or the use of drugs based on toxins. Compared with other strategies for delivery, such as chemicals as carriers for macromolecular delivery or physical methods like electroporation, toxin routes present paths into the cell that potentially cause less damage and can be specifically targeted. The efficiency of delivery via toxin routes is limited. However, low-delivery efficiencies can be entirely sufficient, if delivered cargoes possess an amplification effect or if very few molecules are sufficient for inducing the desired effects. This is known for example from RNA-based vaccines that have been developed during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic as well as for other approved RNA-based drugs, which elicited the desired effect despite their typically low delivery efficiencies. The different mechanisms by which toxins enter cells may have implications for their technological utility. We review the mechanistic principles of the translocation pathway of toxins from the extracellular space to the cytosol, the delivery efficiencies, and therapeutic strategies or applications that exploit toxin routes for intracellular delivery.

A profile of the live biotherapeutic product RBX2660 and its role in preventing recurrent Clostridioides difficile infection

INTRODUCTION

Clostridiodes difficile infection (CDI) is a life-threatening illness that has been labelled as an urgent threat by the Centers for Disease prevention (CDC).

AREAS COVERED

RBX2660, a live biotherapeutic product offers a very promising treatment option for patients with recurrent Clostridiodes difficile infection(rCDI). RBX2660 restores the healthy gut microbiome and shows clinically meaningful benefits for patients suffering from rCDI. Safety, efficacy, and tolerability of RBX2660 have been thoroughly assessed .

EXPERT OPINION

An FDA-approved, standardized, and accessible microbiota restoration product like RBX2660 would provide a new option for patients in need of treatment for rCDI by breaking the cycle of disease recurrence.

The Urgent Threat of Clostridioides difficile Infection: A Glimpse of the Drugs of the Future, with Related Patents and Prospects

Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) is an urgent threat and unmet medical need. The current treatments for CDI are not enough to fight the burden of CDI and recurrent CDI (r-CDI). This review aims to highlight the future drugs for CDI and their related patented applications. The non-patent literature was collected from PubMed and various authentic websites of pharmaceutical industries. The patent literature was collected from free patent databases. Many possible drugs of the future for CDI, with diverse mechanisms of action, are in development in the form of microbiota-modulating agents (e.g., ADS024, CP101, RBX2660, RBX7455, SYN-004, SER-109, VE303, DAV132, MET-2, and BB128), small molecules (e.g., ridinilazole, ibezapolstat, CRS3123, DNV3837, MGB-BP-3, alanyl-L-glutamine, and TNP-2198), antibodies (e.g., IM-01 and LMN-201), and non-toxic strains of CD (e.g., NTCD-M3). The development of some therapeutic agents (e.g., DS-2969b, OPS-2071, cadazolid, misoprostol, ramoplanin, KB109, LFF571, and Ramizol) stopped due to failed clinical trials or unknown reasons. The patent literature reveals some important inventions for the existing treatments of CDI and supports the possibility of developing more and better CDI-treatment-based inventions, including patient-compliant dosage forms, targeted drug delivery, drug combinations of anti-CDI drugs possessing diverse mechanisms of action, probiotic and enzymatic supplements, and vaccines. The current pipeline of anti-CDI medications appears promising. However, it will be fascinating to see how many of the cited are successful in gaining approval from drug regulators such as the US FDA and becoming medicines for CDI and r-CDI.

CDT of Clostridioides difficile Induces MLC-Dependent Intestinal Barrier Dysfunction in HT-29/B6 Epithelial Cell Monolayers

Background: Clostridioides difficile binary toxin (CDT) defines the hypervirulence of strains in nosocomial antibiotic-induced colitis with the highest mortality. The objective of our study was to investigate the impact of CDT on the intestinal epithelial barrier and to enlighten the underlying molecular mechanisms. Methods: Functional measurements of epithelial barrier function by macromolecular permeability and electrophysiology were performed in human intestinal HT-29/B6 cell monolayers. Molecular analysis of the spatial distribution of tight junction protein and cytoskeleton was performed by super-resolution STED microscopy. Results: Sublethal concentrations of CDT-induced barrier dysfunction with decreased TER and increased permeability for 332 Da fluorescein and 4 kDa FITC-dextran. The molecular correlate to the functional barrier defect by CDT was found to be a tight junction protein subcellular redistribution with tricellulin, occludin, and claudin-4 off the tight junction domain. This redistribution was shown to be MLCK-dependent. Conclusions: CDT compromised epithelial barrier function in a human intestinal colonic cell model, even in sublethal concentrations, pointing to barrier dysfunction in the intestine and leak flux induction as a diarrheal mechanism. However, this cannot be attributed to the appearance of apoptosis and necrosis, but rather to an opening of the paracellular leak pathway as the result of epithelial tight junction alterations.

Clostridioides difficile in Foods with Animal Origins; Prevalence, Toxigenic Genes, Ribotyping Profile, and Antimicrobial Resistance

Clostridioides difficile is an important nosocomial pathogen and is considered as a reason of diarrhea and gastrointestinal infections. As a majority of community-originated C. difficile cases are not related to antibiotic prescription and hospitalization, the food portion as a vector of infection transmission has been raised. An existing survey was aimed evaluating the prevalence, antimicrobial resistance, profile of toxigenic genes, and ribotypes of C. difficile isolated from raw meat and carcass surface swab samples. In total, 485 raw meat and carcass surface swab samples were collected. C. difficile was isolated via culture and a diverse biochemical examination. The assessment of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was addressed to evaluate the antibiotic resistance of isolates. Toxin genes detection and ribotyping were used for isolates characterization. The prevalence of C. difficile contamination in all examined samples was 3.71%. The bacterium was detected in 2.91% of raw meat and 4.48% of carcass surface swab samples. Raw sheep meat (5%) and sheep carcass swab (7.50%) samples harbored the highest C. difficile prevalence. The highest rate of antibiotic resistance was observed toward clindamycin (38.88%), ciprofloxacin (38.88%), metronidazole (44.44%), erythromycin (72.22%), and tetracycline (77.77%). C. difficile bacteria showed the minimum rate of resistance meropenem (16.66%) and chloramphenicol (16.66%). TcdA, tcdB, cdtA, and cdtB toxigenic genes were detected in 22.22%, 44.44%, and 16.66% of isolates, respectively. TcdB + tcdA (27.77%) were the most prevalent combined toxigenic gene profile. Both 027 and 078 ribotypes were identified in C. difficile isolates. The role of raw meat and carcass surface swab samples as toxigenic and antibiotic-resistant C. difficile strains vectors was signified. This study authorizes that food animals, particularly sheep and cattle, are C. difficile carriers at slaughter stages and ribotypes are equal in human cases. Subsequently, contamination of carcasses occurs inside the slaughterhouse.