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Ben Miri Y, Benabdallah A, Chentir I, Djenane D, Luvisi A, De Bellis L. Comprehensive Insights into Ochratoxin A: Occurrence, Analysis, and Control Strategies. Foods 2024; 13:1184. [PMID: 38672856 PMCID: PMC11049263 DOI: 10.3390/foods13081184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2024] [Revised: 04/04/2024] [Accepted: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a toxic mycotoxin produced by some mold species from genera Penicillium and Aspergillus. OTA has been detected in cereals, cereal-derived products, dried fruits, wine, grape juice, beer, tea, coffee, cocoa, nuts, spices, licorice, processed meat, cheese, and other foods. OTA can induce a wide range of health effects attributable to its toxicological properties, including teratogenicity, immunotoxicity, carcinogenicity, genotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and hepatotoxicity. OTA is not only toxic to humans but also harmful to livestock like cows, goats, and poultry. This is why the European Union and various countries regulate the maximum permitted levels of OTA in foods. This review intends to summarize all the main aspects concerning OTA, starting from the chemical structure and fungi that produce it, its presence in food, its toxicity, and methods of analysis, as well as control strategies, including both fungal development and methods of inactivation of the molecule. Finally, the review provides some ideas for future approaches aimed at reducing the OTA levels in foods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yamina Ben Miri
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences, Mohamed Boudiaf University, BP 166, M’sila 28000, Algeria;
| | - Amina Benabdallah
- Laboratory on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Pollution, Faculty of Life and Nature Sciences, University Chadli Bendjedid, El-Tarf 36000, Algeria;
| | - Imene Chentir
- Laboratory of Food, Processing, Control and Agri-Resources Valorization, Higher School of Food Science and Agri-Food Industry, Algiers 16200, Algeria;
| | - Djamel Djenane
- Food Quality and Safety Research Laboratory, Department of Food Sciences, Mouloud Mammeri University, BP 17, Tizi-Ouzou 15000, Algeria;
| | - Andrea Luvisi
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche ed Ambientali, Università del Salento Palazzina A—Centro Ecotekne via Prov, le Lecce Monteroni, 73100 Lecce, Italy;
| | - Luigi De Bellis
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche ed Ambientali, Università del Salento Palazzina A—Centro Ecotekne via Prov, le Lecce Monteroni, 73100 Lecce, Italy;
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Wang G, Liu Y, Hu Y, Pan J, Wei Z, Tai B, Yang B, Li E, Xing F. AwSclB regulates a network for Aspergillus westerdijkiae asexual sporulation and secondary metabolism independent of the fungal light control. Fungal Genet Biol 2024; 171:103865. [PMID: 38246260 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2024.103865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Revised: 01/02/2024] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024]
Abstract
As a prevalent pathogenic fungus, Aspergillus westerdijkiae poses a threat to both food safety and human health. The fungal growth, conidia production and ochratoxin A (OTA) in A. weterdijkiae are regulated by many factors especially transcription factors. In this study, a transcription factor AwSclB in A. westerdijkiae was identified and its function in asexual sporulation and OTA biosynthesis was investigated. In addition, the effect of light control on AwSclB regulation was also tested. The deletion of AwSclB gene could reduce conidia production by down-regulation of conidia genes and increase OTA biosynthesis by up-regulation of cluster genes, regardless under light or dark conditions. It is worth to note that the inhibitory effect of light on OTA biosynthesis was reversed by the knockout of AwSclB gene. The yeast one-hybrid assay indicated that AwSclB could interact with the promoters of BrlA, ConJ and OtaR1 genes. This result suggests that AwSclB in A. westerdijkiae can directly regulate asexual conidia formation by activating the central developmental pathway BrlA-AbaA-WetA through up-regulating the expression of AwBrlA, and promote the light response of the strain by activating ConJ. However, AwSclB itself is unable to respond to light regulation. This finding will deepen our understanding of the molecular regulation of A. westerdijkiae development and secondary metabolism, and provide potential targets for the development of new fungicides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Wang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yibing Liu
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yafan Hu
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Jiaqi Pan
- Horticulture and Landscape College, Tianjin Agricultural University, Tianjin, China
| | - Zifan Wei
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Bowen Tai
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Bolei Yang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Erfeng Li
- Horticulture and Landscape College, Tianjin Agricultural University, Tianjin, China
| | - Fuguo Xing
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China.
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Wang X, Jarmusch SA, Frisvad JC, Larsen TO. Current status of secondary metabolite pathways linked to their related biosynthetic gene clusters in Aspergillus section Nigri. Nat Prod Rep 2023; 40:237-274. [PMID: 35587705 DOI: 10.1039/d1np00074h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Covering: up to the end of 2021Aspergilli are biosynthetically 'talented' micro-organisms and therefore the natural products community has continually been interested in the wealth of biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) encoding numerous secondary metabolites related to these fungi. With the rapid increase in sequenced fungal genomes combined with the continuous development of bioinformatics tools such as antiSMASH, linking new structures to unknown BGCs has become much easier when taking retro-biosynthetic considerations into account. On the other hand, in most cases it is not as straightforward to prove proposed biosynthetic pathways due to the lack of implemented genetic tools in a given fungal species. As a result, very few secondary metabolite biosynthetic pathways have been characterized even amongst some of the most well studied Aspergillus spp., section Nigri (black aspergilli). This review will cover all known biosynthetic compound families and their structural diversity known from black aspergilli. We have logically divided this into sub-sections describing major biosynthetic classes (polyketides, non-ribosomal peptides, terpenoids, meroterpenoids and hybrid biosynthesis). Importantly, we will focus the review on metabolites which have been firmly linked to their corresponding BGCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinhui Wang
- DTU Bioengineering, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark.
| | - Scott A Jarmusch
- DTU Bioengineering, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark.
| | - Jens C Frisvad
- DTU Bioengineering, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark.
| | - Thomas O Larsen
- DTU Bioengineering, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark.
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Yuan X, Li Y, Luo T, Bi W, Yu J, Wang Y. Genomic Analysis of the Xanthoria elegans and Polyketide Synthase Gene Mining Based on the Whole Genome. MYCOBIOLOGY 2023; 51:36-48. [PMID: 36846628 PMCID: PMC9946308 DOI: 10.1080/12298093.2023.2175428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Revised: 12/29/2022] [Accepted: 12/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Xanthoria elegans is a lichen symbiosis, that inhabits extreme environments and can absorb UV-B. We reported the de novo sequencing and assembly of X. elegans genome. The whole genome was approximately 44.63 Mb, with a GC content of 40.69%. Genome assembly generated 207 scaffolds with an N50 length of 563,100 bp, N90 length of 122,672 bp. The genome comprised 9,581 genes, some encoded enzymes involved in the secondary metabolism such as terpene, polyketides. To further understand the UV-B absorbing and adaptability to extreme environments mechanisms of X. elegans, we searched the secondary metabolites genes and gene-cluster from the genome using genome-mining and bioinformatics analysis. The results revealed that 7 NR-PKSs, 12 HR-PKSs and 2 hybrid PKS-PKSs from X. elegans were isolated, they belong to Type I PKS (T1PKS) according to the domain architecture; phylogenetic analysis and BGCs comparison linked the putative products to two NR-PKSs and three HR-PKSs, the putative products of two NR-PKSs were emodin xanthrone (most likely parietin) and mycophelonic acid, the putative products of three HR-PKSs were soppilines, (+)-asperlin and macrolactone brefeldin A, respectively. 5 PKSs from X. elegans build a correlation between the SMs carbon skeleton and PKS genes based on the domain architecture, phylogenetic and BGC comparison. Although the function of 16 PKSs remains unclear, the findings emphasize that the genes from X. elegans represent an unexploited source of novel polyketide and utilization of lichen gene resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolong Yuan
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Economic Forest Germplasm Improvement and Resources Comprehensive Utilization, Huanggang Normal University, Huanggang, Hubei, People’ Republic of China
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Forest Plant Cultivation and Utilization/National Forestry and Grassland Administration Key Laboratory of Yunnan Rare and Endangered Species Conservation and Propagation, Yunnan Academy of Forestry and Grassland, Kunming, Yunnan, People’ Republic of China
| | - Yunqing Li
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Forest Plant Cultivation and Utilization/National Forestry and Grassland Administration Key Laboratory of Yunnan Rare and Endangered Species Conservation and Propagation, Yunnan Academy of Forestry and Grassland, Kunming, Yunnan, People’ Republic of China
| | - Ting Luo
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Forest Plant Cultivation and Utilization/National Forestry and Grassland Administration Key Laboratory of Yunnan Rare and Endangered Species Conservation and Propagation, Yunnan Academy of Forestry and Grassland, Kunming, Yunnan, People’ Republic of China
| | - Wei Bi
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Forest Plant Cultivation and Utilization/National Forestry and Grassland Administration Key Laboratory of Yunnan Rare and Endangered Species Conservation and Propagation, Yunnan Academy of Forestry and Grassland, Kunming, Yunnan, People’ Republic of China
| | - Jiaojun Yu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Economic Forest Germplasm Improvement and Resources Comprehensive Utilization, Huanggang Normal University, Huanggang, Hubei, People’ Republic of China
| | - Yi Wang
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Forest Plant Cultivation and Utilization/National Forestry and Grassland Administration Key Laboratory of Yunnan Rare and Endangered Species Conservation and Propagation, Yunnan Academy of Forestry and Grassland, Kunming, Yunnan, People’ Republic of China
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Singh G. Linking Lichen Metabolites to Genes: Emerging Concepts and Lessons from Molecular Biology and Metagenomics. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:jof9020160. [PMID: 36836275 PMCID: PMC9964704 DOI: 10.3390/jof9020160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2023] [Accepted: 01/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Lichen secondary metabolites have tremendous pharmaceutical and industrial potential. Although more than 1000 metabolites have been reported from lichens, less than 10 have been linked to the genes coding them. The current biosynthetic research focuses strongly on linking molecules to genes as this is fundamental to adapting the molecule for industrial application. Metagenomic-based gene discovery, which bypasses the challenges associated with culturing an organism, is a promising way forward to link secondary metabolites to genes in non-model, difficult-to-culture organisms. This approach is based on the amalgamation of the knowledge of the evolutionary relationships of the biosynthetic genes, the structure of the target molecule, and the biosynthetic machinery required for its synthesis. So far, metagenomic-based gene discovery is the predominant approach by which lichen metabolites have been linked to their genes. Although the structures of most of the lichen secondary metabolites are well-documented, a comprehensive review of the metabolites linked to their genes, strategies implemented to establish this link, and crucial takeaways from these studies is not available. In this review, I address the following knowledge gaps and, additionally, provide critical insights into the results of these studies, elaborating on the direct and serendipitous lessons that we have learned from them.
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Munusamy M, Tan K, Nge CE, Gakuubi MM, Crasta S, Kanagasundaram Y, Ng SB. Diversity and Biosynthetic Potential of Fungi Isolated from St. John's Island, Singapore. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24021033. [PMID: 36674548 PMCID: PMC9861175 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24021033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2022] [Revised: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Adaptation to a wide variety of habitats allows fungi to develop unique abilities to produce diverse secondary metabolites with diverse bioactivities. In this study, 30 Ascomycetes fungi isolated from St. John's Island, Singapore were investigated for their general biosynthetic potential and their ability to produce antimicrobial secondary metabolites (SMs). All the 30 fungal isolates belong to the Phylum Ascomycota and are distributed into 6 orders and 18 genera with Order Hypocreales having the highest number of representative (37%). Screening for polyketide synthase (PKS) and nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) genes using degenerate PCR led to the identification of 23 polyketide synthases (PKSs) and 5 nonribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPSs) grouped into nine distinct clades based on their reduction capabilities. Some of the identified PKSs genes share high similarities between species and known reference genes, suggesting the possibility of conserved biosynthesis of closely related compounds from different fungi. Fungal extracts were tested for their antimicrobial activity against S. aureus, Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), and Candida albicans. Bioassay-guided fractionation of the active constituents from two promising isolates resulted in the isolation of seven compounds: Penilumamides A, D, and E from strain F4335 and xanthomegnin, viomellein, pretrichodermamide C and vioxanthin from strain F7180. Vioxanthin exhibited the best antibacterial activity with IC50 values of 3.0 μM and 1.6 μM against S. aureus and MRSA respectively. Viomellein revealed weak antiproliferative activity against A549 cells with an IC50 of 42 μM. The results from this study give valuable insights into the diversity and biosynthetic potential of fungi from this unique habitat and forms a background for an in-depth analysis of the biosynthetic capability of selected strains of interest with the aim of discovering novel fungal natural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madhaiyan Munusamy
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 31 Biopolis Way, #01-02 Nanos, Singapore 138669, Singapore
| | - Kenneth Tan
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 31 Biopolis Way, #01-02 Nanos, Singapore 138669, Singapore
| | - Choy Eng Nge
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 31 Biopolis Way, #01-02 Nanos, Singapore 138669, Singapore
| | - Martin Muthee Gakuubi
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 31 Biopolis Way, #01-02 Nanos, Singapore 138669, Singapore
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637551, Singapore
| | - Sharon Crasta
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 31 Biopolis Way, #01-02 Nanos, Singapore 138669, Singapore
| | - Yoganathan Kanagasundaram
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 31 Biopolis Way, #01-02 Nanos, Singapore 138669, Singapore
| | - Siew Bee Ng
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 31 Biopolis Way, #01-02 Nanos, Singapore 138669, Singapore
- Correspondence:
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Liang L, Yang H, Wei S, Zhang S, Chen L, Hu Y, Lv Y. Putative C 2H 2 Transcription Factor AflZKS3 Regulates Aflatoxin and Pathogenicity in Aspergillus flavus. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14120883. [PMID: 36548780 PMCID: PMC9786134 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14120883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2022] [Revised: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Aflatoxin is a carcinogenic secondary metabolite that poses a serious threat to human and animal health. Some C2H2 transcription factors are associated with fungal growth and secondary metabolic regulation. In this study, we characterized the role of AflZKS3, a putative C2H2 transcription factor based on genome annotation, in the growth and aflatoxin biosynthesis of A. flavus and explored its possible mechanisms of action. Surprisingly, the protein was found to be located in the cytoplasm, and gene deletion in A. flavus resulted in defective growth and conidia formation, as well as increased sensitivity to the fluorescent brightener Calcofluor white, Congo red, NaCl, and sorbitol stress. Notably, the biosynthesis of aflatoxin B1 was completely inhibited in the ΔAflZKS3 deletion strain, and its ability to infect peanut and corn seeds was also reduced. RNA sequencing showed that differentially expressed genes in the ΔAflZKS3 strain compared with the control and complementation strains were mainly associated with growth, aflatoxin biosynthesis, and oxidative stress. Thus, AflZKS3 likely contributes to growth, cell development, and aflatoxin synthesis in A. flavus. These findings lay the foundation for a deeper understanding of the roles of C2H2 transcription factors in A. flavus and provide a potential biocontrol target for preventing aflatoxin contamination.
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The Natural Product Domain Seeker version 2 (NaPDoS2) webtool relates ketosynthase phylogeny to biosynthetic function. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:102480. [PMID: 36108739 PMCID: PMC9582728 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.102480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Revised: 09/06/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
The Natural Product Domain Seeker (NaPDoS) webtool detects and classifies ketosynthase (KS) and condensation domains from genomic, metagenomic, and amplicon sequence data. Unlike other tools, a phylogeny-based classification scheme is used to make broader predictions about the polyketide synthase (PKS) and nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) genes in which these domains are found. NaPDoS is particularly useful for the analysis of incomplete biosynthetic genes or gene clusters, as are often observed in poorly assembled genomes and metagenomes, or when loci are not clustered, as in eukaryotic genomes. To help support the growing interest in sequence-based analyses of natural product biosynthetic diversity, here we introduce version 2 of the webtool, NaPDoS2, available at http://napdos.ucsd.edu/napdos2. This update includes the addition of 1417 KS sequences, representing a major expansion of the taxonomic and functional diversity represented in the webtool database. The phylogeny-based KS classification scheme now recognizes 41 class and subclass assignments, including new type II PKS subclasses. Workflow modifications accelerate run times, allowing larger datasets to be analyzed. In addition, default parameters were established using statistical validation tests to maximize KS detection and classification accuracy while minimizing false positives. We further demonstrate the applications of NaPDoS2 to assess PKS biosynthetic potential using genomic, metagenomic, and PCR amplicon datasets. These examples illustrate how NaPDoS2 can be used to predict biosynthetic potential and detect genes involved in the biosynthesis of specific structure classes or new biosynthetic mechanisms.
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Production and Functionalities of Specialized Metabolites from Different Organic Sources. Metabolites 2022; 12:metabo12060534. [PMID: 35736468 PMCID: PMC9228302 DOI: 10.3390/metabo12060534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 06/02/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Medicinal plants are rich sources of specialized metabolites that are of great importance to plants, animals, and humans. The usefulness of active biological compounds cuts across different fields, such as agriculture, forestry, food processing and packaging, biofuels, biocatalysts, and environmental remediation. In recent years, research has shifted toward the use of microbes, especially endophytes (bacteria, fungi, and viruses), and the combination of these organisms with other alternatives to optimize the production and regulation of these compounds. This review reinforces the production of specialized metabolites, especially by plants and microorganisms, and the effectiveness of microorganisms in increasing the production/concentration of these compounds in plants. The study also highlights the functions of these compounds in plants and their applications in various fields. New research areas that should be explored to produce and regulate these compounds, especially in plants and microbes, have been identified. Methods involving molecular studies are yet to be fully explored, and next-generation sequencing possesses an interesting and reliable approach.
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High Diversity of Type I Polyketide Genes in Bacidia rubella as Revealed by the Comparative Analysis of 23 Lichen Genomes. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:jof8050449. [PMID: 35628705 PMCID: PMC9146135 DOI: 10.3390/jof8050449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Revised: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Fungi involved in lichen symbioses produce a large array of secondary metabolites that are often diagnostic in the taxonomic delimitation of lichens. The most common lichen secondary metabolites—polyketides—are synthesized by polyketide synthases, particularly by Type I PKS (TI-PKS). Here, we present a comparative genomic analysis of the TI-PKS gene content of 23 lichen-forming fungal genomes from Ascomycota, including the de novo sequenced genome of Bacidia rubella. Firstly, we identify a putative atranorin cluster in B. rubella. Secondly, we provide an overview of TI-PKS gene diversity in lichen-forming fungi, and the most comprehensive Type I PKS phylogeny of lichen-forming fungi to date, including 624 sequences. We reveal a high number of biosynthetic gene clusters and examine their domain composition in the context of previously characterized genes, confirming that PKS genes outnumber known secondary substances. Moreover, two novel groups of reducing PKSs were identified. Although many PKSs remain without functional assignments, our findings highlight that genes from lichen-forming fungi represent an untapped source of novel polyketide compounds.
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Navarro-Muñoz JC, Collemare J. A Bioinformatics Workflow for Investigating Fungal Biosynthetic Gene Clusters. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2489:1-21. [PMID: 35524042 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2273-5_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Predicting secondary metabolite biosynthetic gene clusters is a routine analysis performed for each newly sequenced fungal genome. Yet, the usefulness of such predictions remains restricted as they provide total numbers of biosynthetic pathways with only very limited biological significance. In this chapter, we describe a workflow to predict and analyze biosynthetic gene clusters in fungal genomes. It relies on similarity networking and phylogeny to perform genetic dereplication and to prioritize candidate gene clusters that potentially produce new compounds. This basic workflow includes the generation of high-quality figures for publication.
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Álvarez M, Delgado J, Núñez F, Cebrián E, Andrade MJ. Proteomic analyses reveal mechanisms of action of biocontrol agents on ochratoxin A repression in Penicillium nordicum. Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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13
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Liu Q, Xu Y, Zhang X, Li K, Li X, Wang F, Xu F, Dong C. Infection Process and Genome Assembly Provide Insights into the Pathogenic Mechanism of Destructive Mycoparasite Calcarisporium cordycipiticola with Host Specificity. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:918. [PMID: 34829206 PMCID: PMC8620734 DOI: 10.3390/jof7110918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 10/23/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Calcarisporium cordycipiticola is the pathogen in the white mildew disease of Cordyceps militaris, one of the popular mushrooms. This disease frequently occurs and there is no effective method for disease prevention and control. In the present study, C. militaris is found to be the only host of C. cordycipiticola, indicating strict host specificity. The infection process was monitored by fluorescent labeling and scanning and transmission electron microscopes. C. cordycipiticola can invade into the gaps among hyphae of the fruiting bodies of the host and fill them gradually. It can degrade the hyphae of the host by both direct contact and noncontact. The parasitism is initially biotrophic, and then necrotrophic as mycoparasitic interaction progresses. The approximate chromosome-level genome assembly of C. cordycipiticola yielded an N50 length of 5.45 Mbp and a total size of 34.51 Mbp, encoding 10,443 proteins. Phylogenomic analysis revealed that C. cordycipiticola is phylogenetically close to its specific host, C. militaris. A comparative genomic analysis showed that the number of CAZymes of C. cordycipiticola was much less than in other mycoparasites, which might be attributed to its host specificity. Secondary metabolite cluster analysis disclosed the great biosynthetic capabilities and potential mycotoxin production capability. This study provides insights into the potential pathogenesis and interaction between mycoparasite and its host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; (Q.L.); (Y.X.); (X.Z.); (K.L.); (X.L.); (F.W.)
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yanyan Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; (Q.L.); (Y.X.); (X.Z.); (K.L.); (X.L.); (F.W.)
| | - Xiaoling Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; (Q.L.); (Y.X.); (X.Z.); (K.L.); (X.L.); (F.W.)
| | - Kuan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; (Q.L.); (Y.X.); (X.Z.); (K.L.); (X.L.); (F.W.)
| | - Xiao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; (Q.L.); (Y.X.); (X.Z.); (K.L.); (X.L.); (F.W.)
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Fen Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; (Q.L.); (Y.X.); (X.Z.); (K.L.); (X.L.); (F.W.)
| | - Fangxu Xu
- Experimental Teaching Center, Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang 110034, China;
| | - Caihong Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; (Q.L.); (Y.X.); (X.Z.); (K.L.); (X.L.); (F.W.)
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14
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Pizarro D, Divakar PK, Grewe F, Crespo A, Dal Grande F, Lumbsch HT. Genome-Wide Analysis of Biosynthetic Gene Cluster Reveals Correlated Gene Loss with Absence of Usnic Acid in Lichen-Forming Fungi. Genome Biol Evol 2021; 12:1858-1868. [PMID: 33151307 PMCID: PMC7643366 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evaa189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Lichen-forming fungi are known to produce a large number of secondary metabolites. Some metabolites are deposited in the cortical layer of the lichen thallus where they exert important ecological functions, such as UV filtering. The fact that closely related lineages of lichen-forming fungi can differ in cortical chemistry suggests that natural product biosynthesis in lichens can evolve independent from phylogenetic constraints. Usnic acid is one of the major cortical pigments in lichens. Here we used a comparative genomic approach on 46 lichen-forming fungal species of the Lecanoromycetes to elucidate the biosynthetic gene content and evolution of the gene cluster putatively responsible for the biosynthesis of usnic acid. Whole-genome sequences were gathered from taxa belonging to different orders and families of Lecanoromycetes, where Parmeliaceae is the most well-represented taxon, and analyzed with a variety of genomic tools. The highest number of biosynthetic gene clusters was found in Evernia prunastri, Pannoparmelia angustata, and Parmotrema austrosinense, respectively, and lowest in Canoparmelia nairobiensis, Bulbothrix sensibilis, and Hypotrachyna scytodes. We found that all studied species producing usnic acid contain the putative usnic acid biosynthetic gene cluster, whereas the cluster was absent in all genomes of species lacking usnic acid. The absence of the gene cluster was supported by an additional unsuccessful search for ß-ketoacylsynthase, the most conserved domain of the gene cluster, in the genomes of species lacking usnic acid. The domain architecture of this PKS cluster—homologous to the already known usnic acid PKS cluster (MPAS) and CYT450 (MPAO)—varies within the studied species, whereas the gene arrangement is highly similar in closely related taxa. We hypothesize that the ancestor of these lichen-forming fungi contained the putative usnic acid producing PKS cluster and that the gene cluster was lost repeatedly during the evolution of these groups. Our study provides insight into the genomic adaptations to the evolutionary success of these lichen-forming fungal species and sets a baseline for further exploration of biosynthetic gene content and its evolutionary significance.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Pizarro
- Departamento de Farmacología, Farmacognosia y Botánica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid 28040, Spain
| | - Pradeep K Divakar
- Departamento de Farmacología, Farmacognosia y Botánica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid 28040, Spain
| | - Felix Grewe
- Department of Science & Education, The Field Museum, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Ana Crespo
- Departamento de Farmacología, Farmacognosia y Botánica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid 28040, Spain
| | - Francesco Dal Grande
- Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre, Frankfurt am Main D-60325, Germany.,LOEWE Center for Translational Biodiversity Genomics, Frankfurt am Main D-60325, Germany
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15
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Zhang D, Yu J, Ma C, Kong L, He C, Li J. Genomic Analysis of the Mycoparasite Pestalotiopsis sp. PG52. Pol J Microbiol 2021; 70:189-199. [PMID: 34349810 PMCID: PMC8326988 DOI: 10.33073/pjm-2021-016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 03/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Pestalotiopsis sp. is a mycoparasite of the plant pathogen Aecidium wenshanense. To further understand the mycoparasitism mechanism of Pestalotiopsis sp., we assembled and analyzed its genome. The genome of Pestalotiopsis sp. strain PG52 was assembled into 335 scaffolds and had a size of 58.01 Mb. A total of 20,023 predicted genes and proteins were annotated. This study compared PG52 with the mycoparasites Trichoderma harzianum, Trichoderma atroviride, and Trichoderma virens. This study reveals the entirely different mycoparasitism mechanism of Pestalotiopsis compared to Trichoderma and reveals this mycoparasite’s strong ability to produce secondary metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dengyun Zhang
- College of Life Science, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming, China
| | - Jinde Yu
- College of Life Science, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming, China
| | - Changle Ma
- School of Landscape Architecture and Horticulture Science, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming, China
| | - Lei Kong
- College of Life Science, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming, China
| | - Chengzhong He
- College of Life Science, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming, China
| | - Jing Li
- College of Life Science, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming, China
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16
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A safety assessment of hot aqueous mycelium extracts from Trametes versicolor and Lepista nuda as a food supplement. Biologia (Bratisl) 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11756-021-00761-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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17
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Brown R, Priest E, Naglik JR, Richardson JP. Fungal Toxins and Host Immune Responses. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:643639. [PMID: 33927703 PMCID: PMC8076518 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.643639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Fungi are ubiquitous organisms that thrive in diverse natural environments including soils, plants, animals, and the human body. In response to warmth, humidity, and moisture, certain fungi which grow on crops and harvested foodstuffs can produce mycotoxins; secondary metabolites which when ingested have a deleterious impact on health. Ongoing research indicates that some mycotoxins and, more recently, peptide toxins are also produced during active fungal infection in humans and experimental models. A combination of innate and adaptive immune recognition allows the host to eliminate invading pathogens from the body. However, imbalances in immune homeostasis often facilitate microbial infection. Despite the wide-ranging effects of fungal toxins on health, our understanding of toxin-mediated modulation of immune responses is incomplete. This review will explore the current understanding of fungal toxins and how they contribute to the modulation of host immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Jonathan P. Richardson
- Centre for Host-Microbiome Interactions, Faculty of Dentistry, Oral & Craniofacial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
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18
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Girija A, Vijayanathan M, Sreekumar S, Basheer J, Menon TG, Krishnankutty RE, Soniya EV. Harnessing the natural pool of polyketide and non-ribosomal peptide family: A route map towards novel drug development. Curr Mol Pharmacol 2021; 15:265-291. [PMID: 33745440 DOI: 10.2174/1874467214666210319145816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Revised: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Emergence of communicable and non-communicable diseases possess health challenge to millions of people worldwide and is a major threat to the economic and social development in the coming century. The occurrence of recent pandemic, SARS-CoV-2 caused by lethal severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 is one such example. Rapid research and development of drugs for the treatment and management of these diseases has been an incredibly challenging task for the pharmaceutical industry. Although, substantial focus has been made in the discovery of therapeutic compounds from natural sources having significant medicinal potential, their synthesis has shown a slow progress. Hence, the discovery of new targets by the application of the latest biotechnological and synthetic biology approaches is very much the need of the hour. Polyketides (PKs) and non-ribosomal peptides (NRPs) found in bacteria, fungi and plants are a large diverse family of natural products synthesized by two classes of enzymes: polyketide synthases (PKS) and non-ribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPS). These enzymes possess immense biomedical potential due to their simple architecture, catalytic capacity, as well as diversity. With the advent of latest in-silico and in-vitro strategies, these enzymes and their related metabolic pathways, if targeted, can contribute highly towards the biosynthesis of an array of potentially natural drug leads that have antagonist effects on biopolymers associated with various human diseases. In the face of the rising threat from the multidrug-resistant pathogens, this will further open new avenues for the discovery of novel and improved drugs by combining the natural and the synthetic approaches. This review discusses the relevance of polyketides and non-ribosomal peptides and the improvement strategies for the development of their derivatives and scaffolds, and how they will be beneficial to the future bioprospecting and drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aiswarya Girija
- Transdisciplinary Biology, Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology (RGCB), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India.,Institute of Biological Environmental Rural Sciences (IBERS), Aberystwyth University, United Kingdom
| | - Mallika Vijayanathan
- Transdisciplinary Biology, Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology (RGCB), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India.,Biology Centre - Institute of Plant Molecular Biology, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, 370 05, Czech Republic
| | - Sweda Sreekumar
- Transdisciplinary Biology, Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology (RGCB), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India.,Research Centre, University of Kerala, India
| | - Jasim Basheer
- School of Biosciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, PD Hills, Kottayam, Kerala, India.,Department of Cell Biology, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Palacky University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Tara G Menon
- Transdisciplinary Biology, Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology (RGCB), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
| | | | - Eppurathu Vasudevan Soniya
- Transdisciplinary Biology, Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology (RGCB), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
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19
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Waglechner N, Culp EJ, Wright GD. Ancient Antibiotics, Ancient Resistance. EcoSal Plus 2021; 9:eESP-0027-2020. [PMID: 33734062 PMCID: PMC11163840 DOI: 10.1128/ecosalplus.esp-0027-2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
As the spread of antibiotic resistance threatens our ability to treat infections, avoiding the return of a preantibiotic era requires the discovery of new drugs. While therapeutic use of antibiotics followed by the inevitable selection of resistance is a modern phenomenon, these molecules and the genetic determinants of resistance were in use by environmental microbes long before humans discovered them. In this review, we discuss evidence that antibiotics and resistance were present in the environment before anthropogenic use, describing techniques including direct sampling of ancient DNA and phylogenetic analyses that are used to reconstruct the past. We also pay special attention to the ecological and evolutionary forces that have shaped the natural history of antibiotic biosynthesis, including a discussion of competitive versus signaling roles for antibiotics, proto-resistance, and substrate promiscuity of biosynthetic and resistance enzymes. Finally, by applying an evolutionary lens, we describe concepts governing the origins and evolution of biosynthetic gene clusters and cluster-associated resistance determinants. These insights into microbes' use of antibiotics in nature, a game they have been playing for millennia, can provide inspiration for discovery technologies and management strategies to combat the growing resistance crisis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Waglechner
- M.G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, David Braley Centre for Antibiotic Discovery, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Elizabeth J. Culp
- M.G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, David Braley Centre for Antibiotic Discovery, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Gerard D. Wright
- M.G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, David Braley Centre for Antibiotic Discovery, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 4K1, Canada
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20
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Erken MT, Cansaran-Duman D, Tanman U. In silico prediction of type I PKS gene modules in nine lichenized fungi. BIOTECHNOL BIOTEC EQ 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/13102818.2021.1879679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Demet Cansaran-Duman
- System Biotechnology Advance Research Unit, Biotechnology Institute, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Ummugulsum Tanman
- System Biotechnology Advance Research Unit, Biotechnology Institute, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey
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21
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Urbaniak M, Waśkiewicz A, Stępień Ł. Fusarium Cyclodepsipeptide Mycotoxins: Chemistry, Biosynthesis, and Occurrence. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12120765. [PMID: 33287253 PMCID: PMC7761704 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12120765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2020] [Revised: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Most of the fungi from the Fusarium genus are pathogenic to cereals, vegetables, and fruits and the products of their secondary metabolism mycotoxins may accumulate in foods and feeds. Non-ribosomal cyclodepsipeptides are one of the main mycotoxin groups and include beauvericins (BEAs), enniatins (ENNs), and beauvenniatins (BEAEs). When ingested, even small amounts of these metabolites significantly affect human and animal health. On the other hand, in view of their antimicrobial activities and cytotoxicity, they may be used as components in drug discovery and processing and are considered as suitable candidates for anti-cancer drugs. Therefore, it is crucial to expand the existing knowledge about cyclodepsipeptides and to search for new analogues of these compounds. The present manuscript aimed to highlight the extensive variability of cyclodepsipeptides by describing chemistry, biosynthesis, and occurrence of BEAs, ENNs, and BEAEs in foods and feeds. Moreover, the co-occurrence of Fusarium species was compared to the amounts of toxins in crops, vegetables, and fruits from different regions of the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Urbaniak
- Plant-Pathogen Interaction Team, Department of Pathogen Genetics and Plant Resistance, Institute of Plant Genetics of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Strzeszyńska 34, 60-479 Poznań, Poland
- Correspondence: (M.U.); (Ł.S.); Tel.: +48-616-55-02-34 (M.U.)
| | - Agnieszka Waśkiewicz
- Department of Chemistry, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 75, 60-625 Poznań, Poland;
| | - Łukasz Stępień
- Plant-Pathogen Interaction Team, Department of Pathogen Genetics and Plant Resistance, Institute of Plant Genetics of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Strzeszyńska 34, 60-479 Poznań, Poland
- Correspondence: (M.U.); (Ł.S.); Tel.: +48-616-55-02-34 (M.U.)
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22
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Venice F, Desirò A, Silva G, Salvioli A, Bonfante P. The Mosaic Architecture of NRPS-PKS in the Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungus Gigaspora margarita Shows a Domain With Bacterial Signature. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:581313. [PMID: 33329443 PMCID: PMC7732545 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.581313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
As obligate biotrophic symbionts, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) live in association with most land plants. Among them, Gigaspora margarita has been deeply investigated because of its peculiar features, i.e., the presence of an intracellular microbiota with endobacteria and viruses. The genome sequencing of this fungus revealed the presence of some hybrid non-ribosomal peptide synthases-polyketide synthases (NRPS-PKS) that have been rarely identified in AMF. The aim of this study is to describe the architecture of these NRPS-PKS sequences and to understand whether they are present in other fungal taxa related to G. margarita. A phylogenetic analysis shows that the ketoacyl synthase (KS) domain of one G. margarita NRPS-PKS clusters with prokaryotic sequences. Since horizontal gene transfer (HGT) has often been advocated as a relevant evolutionary mechanism for the spread of secondary metabolite genes, we hypothesized that a similar event could have interested the KS domain of the PKS module. The bacterial endosymbiont of G. margarita, Candidatus Glomeribacter gigasporarum (CaGg), was the first candidate as a donor, since it possesses a large biosynthetic cluster involving an NRPS-PKS. However, bioinformatics analyses do not confirm the hypothesis of a direct HGT from the endobacterium to the fungal host: indeed, endobacterial and fungal sequences show a different evolution and potentially different donors. Lastly, by amplifying a NRPS-PKS conserved fragment and mining the sequenced AMF genomes, we demonstrate that, irrespective of the presence of CaGg, G. margarita, and some other related Gigasporaceae possess such a sequence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Venice
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy.,Institute for Sustainable Plant Protection (IPSP)-SS Turin-National Research Council (CNR), Turin, Italy
| | - Alessandro Desirò
- Department of Plant, Soil and Microbial Sciences, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Gladstone Silva
- Department of Mycology, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
| | - Alessandra Salvioli
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Paola Bonfante
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
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23
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Divergence of Beauvericin Synthase Gene among Fusarium and Trichoderma Species. J Fungi (Basel) 2020; 6:jof6040288. [PMID: 33203083 PMCID: PMC7712144 DOI: 10.3390/jof6040288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Beauvericin (BEA) is a cyclodepsipeptide mycotoxin, showing insecticidal, antibiotic and antimicrobial activities, as well as inducing apoptosis of cancer cell lines. BEA can be produced by multiple fungal species, including saprotrophs, plant, insect and human pathogens, particularly belonging to Fusarium, Beauveria and Isaria genera. The ability of Trichoderma species to produce BEA was until now uncertain. Biosynthesis of BEA is governed by a non-ribosomal peptide synthase (NRPS), known as beauvericin synthase (BEAS), which appears to present considerable divergence among different fungal species. In the present study we compared the production of beauvericin among Fusarium and Trichoderma strains using UPLC methods. BEAS fragments were sequenced and analyzed to examine the level of the gene’s divergence between these two genera and confirm the presence of active BEAS copy in Trichoderma. Seventeen strains of twelve species were studied and phylogenetic analysis showed distinctive grouping of Fusarium and Trichoderma strains. The highest producers of beauvericin were F. proliferatum and F. nygamai. Trichoderma strains of three species (T. atroviride, T. viride, T. koningiopsis) were minor BEA producers. The study showed beauvericin production by Fusarium and Trichoderma species and high variance of the non-ribosomal peptide synthase gene among fungal species from the Hypocreales order.
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24
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Buitimea-Cantúa GV, Marsch-Martinez N, Ríos-Chavez P, Méndez-Bravo A, Molina-Torres J. Global gene expression analyses of the alkamide-producing plant Heliopsis longipes supports a polyketide synthase-mediated biosynthesis pathway. PeerJ 2020; 8:e10074. [PMID: 33033663 PMCID: PMC7521342 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.10074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alkamides are plant-specific bioactive molecules. They are low molecular weight N-substituted α-unsaturated acyl amides that display biological explicit activities in different organisms from bacteria, fungi, insects to mammals and plants. The acyl chain has been proposed to be biosynthesized from a fatty acid; however, this has not been demonstrated yet. Heliopsis longipes (Asteraceae) accumulates in root a C10 alkamide called affinin in its roots, but not in leaves. The closely related species Heliopsis annua does not produce alkamides. To elucidate the biosynthetic pathway of the alkamides acyl chain, a comparative global gene expression analysis contrasting roots and leaves of both species was performed. METHODS Transcriptomics analysis allowed to identify genes highly expressed in H. longipes roots, but not in tissues and species that do not accumulate alkamides. The first domain searched was the Ketosynthase (KS) domain. The phylogenetic analysis using sequences of the KS domain of FAS and PKS from different organisms, revealed that KS domains of the differentially expressed transcripts in H. longipes roots and the KS domain found in transcripts of Echinacea purpurea, another alkamides producer species, were grouped together with a high bootstrap value of 100%, sharing great similarity. Among the annotated transcripts, we found some coding for the enzymatic domains KS, AT, ACP, DH, OR and TE, which presented higher expression in H. longipes roots than in leaves. The expression level of these genes was further evaluated by qRT-PCR. All unigenes tested showed higher expression in H. longipes roots than in any the other samples. Based on this and considering that the acyl chain of affinin presents unsaturated bonds at even C numbers, we propose a new putative biosynthesis pathway mediated by a four modules polyketide synthase (PKS). RESULTS The global gene expression analysis led to the selection of a set of candidate genes involved in the biosynthesis of the acyl chain of affinin, suggesting that it may be performed by a non-iterative, partially reductive, four module type I PKS complex (PKS alk) previously thought to be absent from the plant kingdom.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nayelli Marsch-Martinez
- Department of Biotecnologia y Bioquímica, CINVESTAV Unidad Irapuato, Irapuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
| | - Patricia Ríos-Chavez
- Instituto de Investigaciones Químico-Biológicas, Universidad de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Morelia, Michoacan, Mexico
| | - Alfonso Méndez-Bravo
- Laboratorio Nacional de Análisis y Síntesis Ecológica, CONACYT – Escuela Nacional de Estudios Superiores, Morelia, Michoacan, Mexico
| | - Jorge Molina-Torres
- Department of Biotecnologia y Bioquímica, CINVESTAV Unidad Irapuato, Irapuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
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25
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De novo Transcriptome of the Non-saxitoxin Producing Alexandrium tamutum Reveals New Insights on Harmful Dinoflagellates. Mar Drugs 2020; 18:md18080386. [PMID: 32722301 PMCID: PMC7460133 DOI: 10.3390/md18080386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 07/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Many dinoflagellates species, especially of the Alexandrium genus, produce a series of toxins with tremendous impacts on human and environmental health, and tourism economies. Alexandrium tamutum was discovered for the first time in the Gulf of Naples, and it is not known to produce saxitoxins. However, a clone of A. tamutum from the same Gulf showed copepod reproduction impairment and antiproliferative activity. In this study, the full transcriptome of the dinoflagellate A. tamutum is presented in both control and phosphate starvation conditions. RNA-seq approach was used for in silico identification of transcripts that can be involved in the synthesis of toxic compounds. Phosphate starvation was selected because it is known to induce toxin production for other Alexandrium spp. Results showed the presence of three transcripts related to saxitoxin synthesis (sxtA, sxtG and sxtU), and others potentially related to the synthesis of additional toxic compounds (e.g., 44 transcripts annotated as "polyketide synthase"). These data suggest that even if this A. tamutum clone does not produce saxitoxins, it has the potential to produce toxic metabolites, in line with the previously observed activity. These data give new insights into toxic microalgae, toxin production and their potential applications for the treatment of human pathologies.
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26
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Noor AI, Neyaz M, Cook D, Creamer R. Molecular Characterization of a Fungal Ketide Synthase Gene Among Swainsonine-Producing Alternaria Species in the USA. Curr Microbiol 2020; 77:2554-2563. [PMID: 32647979 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-020-02111-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2020] [Accepted: 06/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Locoweeds are toxic leguminous plants in Astragalus and Oxytropis genera that contain fungal endophytes of Alternaria section Undifilum species. These fungi produce swainsonine, an alkaloid α-mannosidase inhibitor that causes a neurological syndrome, locoism in grazing animals. A SWN gene cluster has been identified in many swainsonine-producing fungi. The swnK gene, which is an essential component of the swainsonine biosynthetic pathway, encodes a polyketide synthase-nonribosomal peptide synthase (PKS-NRPS). To determine if swnK was conserved among Alternaria section Undifilum endophytes of locoweed, the sequence of the KS region of swnK was compared between various swainsonine-producing fungi. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS), and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPD) regions from the same fungi were also assessed. Sequences were examined at the nucleotide and protein levels. Alternaria oxytropis, A. fulva, A. cinerea, and Alternaria sp. from Swainsona species produced distinct clades for all multigene data sets. swnK-KS sequence did not differ among fungi isolated from Astragalus mollissimus varieties or A. lentiginosus varieties. The swnK-KS amino acid sequence was essentially identical among all swainsonine-producing Alternaria sp. Two low swainsonine-producing fungi, Alternaria bornmuelleri and A. gansuense, clustered together, as did non-pathogen Alternaria endophytes. The swnK-KS sequence comparisons were effective in identifying swainsonine production capability and differentiating among swainsonine-producing fungal species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aziza I Noor
- Molecular Biology Program, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM, 88001, USA
| | - Marwa Neyaz
- Department of Entomology, Plant Pathology, and Weed Science, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM, 88003, USA
| | - Daniel Cook
- Poisonous Plant Laboratory, US Department of Agriculture, 1150 East 1400 North, Logan, UT, 84321, USA
| | - Rebecca Creamer
- Molecular Biology Program, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM, 88001, USA. .,Department of Entomology, Plant Pathology, and Weed Science, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM, 88003, USA.
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27
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Cyclodepsipeptide Biosynthesis in Hypocreales Fungi and Sequence Divergence of The Non-Ribosomal Peptide Synthase Genes. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9070552. [PMID: 32660015 PMCID: PMC7400199 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9070552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Revised: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 07/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Fungi from the Hypocreales order synthesize a range of toxic non-ribosomal cyclic peptides with antimicrobial, insecticidal and cytotoxic activities. Entomopathogenic Beauveria, Isaria and Cordyceps as well as phytopathogenic Fusarium spp. are known producers of beauvericins (BEAs), beauvenniatins (BEAEs) or enniatins (ENNs). The compounds are synthesized by beauvericin/enniatin synthase (BEAS/ESYN1), which shows significant sequence divergence among Hypocreales members. We investigated ENN, BEA and BEAE production among entomopathogenic (Beauveria, Cordyceps, Isaria) and phytopathogenic (Fusarium) fungi; BEA and ENNs were quantified using an LC-MS/MS method. Phylogenetic analysis of partial sequences of putative BEAS/ESYN1 amplicons was also made. Nineteen fungal strains were identified based on sequence analysis of amplified ITS and tef-1α regions. BEA was produced by all investigated fungi, with F. proliferatum and F. concentricum being the most efficient producers. ENNs were synthesized mostly by F. acuminatum, F. avenaceum and C. confragosa. The phylogeny reconstruction suggests that ancestral BEA biosynthesis independently diverged into biosynthesis of other compounds. The divergent positioning of three Fusarium isolates raises the possibility of parallel acquisition of cyclic depsipeptide synthases in ancient complexes within Fusarium genus. Different fungi have independently evolved NRPS genes involved in depsipeptide biosynthesis, with functional adaptation towards biosynthesis of overlapping yet diversified metabolite profiles.
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Qiao L, Fang J, Zhu P, Huang H, Dang C, Pang J, Gao W, Qiu X, Huang L, Li Y. A Novel Chemoenzymatic Approach to Produce Cilengitide Using the Thioesterase Domain from Microcystis aeruginosa Microcystin Synthetase C. Protein J 2020; 38:658-666. [PMID: 31435810 DOI: 10.1007/s10930-019-09864-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Modern organic chemistry faces many difficulties in the reliable production of cyclopeptides, such as poor yields and insufficient regio- and stereoselectivity. Thioesterase (TE) shows impressive stereospecificity, region- and chemoselectivity during the cyclization of peptide substrates. The biocatalytic properties of TE provide high value for industrial applications. Herein, a novel chemoenzymatic method to synthesize cilengitide is described based on the cyclic activity of the TE domain from microcystin synthetase C (McyC) of Microcystis aeruginosa. In addition, a single active site mutation in the McyC TE was engineered to generate a more effective macrocyclization catalyst. Compared to the chemical approach to synthesize cilengitide, this novel enzyme-catalysed methodology exhibits a higher synthetic efficiency with an approximately 3.4-fold higher yield (49.2%).
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Affiliation(s)
- Longliang Qiao
- College of Food and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315832, China
| | - Jian Fang
- College of Medicine, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing, 312000, China
| | - Peng Zhu
- College of Food and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315832, China. .,Ningbo Institute of Oceanography, Ningbo, 315832, China.
| | - Hailong Huang
- College of Food and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315832, China
| | - Chenyang Dang
- College of Food and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315832, China
| | - Jianhu Pang
- College of Food and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315832, China
| | - Weifang Gao
- Ningbo Institute of Oceanography, Ningbo, 315832, China
| | - Xiaoting Qiu
- College of Food and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315832, China
| | - Lili Huang
- Ningbo Institute of Oceanography, Ningbo, 315832, China
| | - Yanrong Li
- Ningbo Institute of Oceanography, Ningbo, 315832, China
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29
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Mullis MM, Rambo IM, Baker BJ, Reese BK. Diversity, Ecology, and Prevalence of Antimicrobials in Nature. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:2518. [PMID: 31803148 PMCID: PMC6869823 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.02518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Microorganisms possess a variety of survival mechanisms, including the production of antimicrobials that function to kill and/or inhibit the growth of competing microorganisms. Studies of antimicrobial production have largely been driven by the medical community in response to the rise in antibiotic-resistant microorganisms and have involved isolated pure cultures under artificial laboratory conditions neglecting the important ecological roles of these compounds. The search for new natural products has extended to biofilms, soil, oceans, coral reefs, and shallow coastal sediments; however, the marine deep subsurface biosphere may be an untapped repository for novel antimicrobial discovery. Uniquely, prokaryotic survival in energy-limited extreme environments force microbial populations to either adapt their metabolism to outcompete or produce novel antimicrobials that inhibit competition. For example, subsurface sediments could yield novel antimicrobial genes, while at the same time answering important ecological questions about the microbial community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan M. Mullis
- Department of Life Sciences, Texas A&M University Corpus Christi, Corpus Christi, TX, United States
| | - Ian M. Rambo
- Department of Marine Science, University of Texas Marine Science Institute, Port Aransas, TX, United States
| | - Brett J. Baker
- Department of Marine Science, University of Texas Marine Science Institute, Port Aransas, TX, United States
| | - Brandi Kiel Reese
- Department of Life Sciences, Texas A&M University Corpus Christi, Corpus Christi, TX, United States
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Theobald S, Vesth TC, Andersen MR. Genus level analysis of PKS-NRPS and NRPS-PKS hybrids reveals their origin in Aspergilli. BMC Genomics 2019; 20:847. [PMID: 31722662 PMCID: PMC6854747 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-019-6114-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Accepted: 09/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Filamentous fungi produce a vast amount of bioactive secondary metabolites (SMs) synthesized by e.g. hybrid polyketide synthase-nonribosomal peptide synthetase enzymes (PKS-NRPS; NRPS-PKS). While their domain structure suggests a common ancestor with other SM proteins, their evolutionary origin and dynamics in fungi are still unclear. Recent rational engineering approaches highlighted the possibility to reassemble hybrids into chimeras — suggesting molecular recombination as diversifying mechanism. Results Phylogenetic analysis of hybrids in 37 species – spanning 9 sections of Aspergillus and Penicillium chrysogenum – let us describe their dynamics throughout the genus Aspergillus. The tree topology indicates that three groups of PKS-NRPS as well as one group of NRPS-PKS hybrids developed independently from each other. Comparison to other SM genes lead to the conclusion that hybrids in Aspergilli have several PKS ancestors; in contrast, hybrids are monophyletic when compared to available NRPS genes — with the exception of a small group of NRPSs. Our analysis also revealed that certain NRPS-likes are derived from NRPSs, suggesting that the NRPS/NRPS-like relationship is dynamic and proteins can diverge from one function to another. An extended phylogenetic analysis including bacterial and fungal taxa revealed multiple ancestors of hybrids. Homologous hybrids are present in all sections which suggests frequent horizontal gene transfer between genera and a finite number of hybrids in fungi. Conclusion Phylogenetic distances between hybrids provide us with evidence for their evolution: Large inter-group distances indicate multiple independent events leading to the generation of hybrids, while short intra-group distances of hybrids from different taxonomic sections indicate frequent horizontal gene transfer. Our results are further supported by adding bacterial and fungal genera. Presence of related hybrid genes in all Ascomycetes suggests a frequent horizontal gene transfer between genera and a finite diversity of hybrids — also explaining their scarcity. The provided insights into relations of hybrids and other SM genes will serve in rational design of new hybrid enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Theobald
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads 223, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark.,Current address: Novozymes A/S, Krogshøjvej 36, Bagsværd, Denmark
| | - Tammi C Vesth
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads 223, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark.,Current address: Chr. Hansen, Bøge Alle, Hørsholm, Denmark
| | - Mikael R Andersen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads 223, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark. .,Current address: Novozymes A/S, Krogshøjvej 36, Bagsværd, Denmark.
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31
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Khayatt BI, van Noort V, Siezen RJ. The Genome of the Plant-Associated Lactic Acid Bacterium Lactococcus lactis KF147 Harbors a Hybrid NRPS-PKS System Conserved in Strains of the Dental Cariogenic Streptococcus mutans. Curr Microbiol 2019; 77:136-145. [PMID: 31705391 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-019-01799-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis KF147 as a non-dairy strain from lactic acid bacteria (LAB) can inhabit plant tissues. It can grow on complex carbohydrates derived from plant cell walls. Its genome size is one of the largest among the sequenced lactococcal strains, possessing many genes that do not have homologues in the published genome sequences of dairy-associated L. lactis strains. In silico analysis has identified a gene cluster encoding a hybrid NRPS-PKS system (composed of non-ribosomal peptide synthetases and polyketide synthases) in the L. lactis KF147 genome, as first example of a LAB possessing such hybrid mega-enzymes. Hybrid systems produce hybrid NRP-PK secondary metabolites (natural products) in a wide variety of bacteria, fungi, and plants. In the hybrid NRPS-PKS system of L. lactis KF147, a total of 21 NRPS and 8 PKS domains were identified that are arranged into 6 NRPS modules, 3 PKS modules, and two single functional domains (trans-acyl-transferase "transAT" and thioesterase). We found homologous hybrid systems having similar gene, module, and domain organization in six other L. lactis strains and 25 strains of the dental cariogenic Streptococcus mutans. This study mainly aimed to predict the structure and function of the hybrid NRP-PK product of L. lactis KF147 using comparative genomics techniques, and included a detailed analysis of the regulatory system. Various bioinformatical approaches were used to predict the substrate specificity of the six A domains and the iterative transAT domain. Functional conservation of the A domains within different-niche-associated strains supported the prediction of the primary core structure of the putative hybrid natural product to be Leu-DLeu-Asp-DAsn-Gly-MC-MC-MC-DAsp (MC = Malonyl-CoA). Oxidative stress resistance and biofilm formation are the most probable functions of this hybrid system. The need for such a system in two different niches is argued, as an adaptation of L. lactis and S. mutans to adhere to plant tissues and human teeth, respectively, in an oxidative environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barzan I Khayatt
- Center for Molecular and Biomolecular Informatics, Radboud UMC, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,Center of Microbial and Plant Genetics, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Natural Resources, College of Agricultural Engineering Sciences, University of Sulaimani, Sulaimani, Kurdistan, Iraq
| | - Vera van Noort
- Center of Microbial and Plant Genetics, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Roland J Siezen
- Center for Molecular and Biomolecular Informatics, Radboud UMC, Nijmegen, The Netherlands. .,Microbial Bioinformatics, Ede, The Netherlands.
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Identification of a Polyketide Synthase Gene Responsible for Ascochitine Biosynthesis in Ascochyta fabae and Its Abrogation in Sister Taxa. mSphere 2019; 4:4/5/e00622-19. [PMID: 31554725 PMCID: PMC6763771 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00622-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Fungi produce a diverse array of secondary metabolites, many of which are of pharmacological importance whereas many others are noted for mycotoxins, such as aflatoxin and citrinin, that can threaten human and animal health. The polyketide-derived compound ascochitine, which is structurally similar to citrinin mycotoxin, has been considered to be important for pathogenicity of legume-associated Ascochyta species. Here, we identified the ascochitine polyketide synthase (PKS) gene in Ascochyta fabae and its neighboring genes that may be involved in ascochitine biosynthesis. Interestingly, the ascochitine PKS genes in other legume-associated Ascochyta species have been mutated, encoding truncated PKSs. This indicated that point mutations may have contributed to genetic diversity for secondary metabolite production in these fungi. We also demonstrated that ascochitine is not a pathogenicity factor in A. fabae. The antifungal activities and production of ascochitine during sporulation suggested that it may play a role in competition with other saprobic fungi in nature. The polyketide-derived secondary metabolite ascochitine is produced by species in the Didymellaceae family, including but not restricted to Ascochyta species pathogens of cool-season food legumes. Ascochitine is structurally similar to the well-known mycotoxin citrinin and exhibits broad-spectrum phytotoxicity and antimicrobial activities. Here, we identified a polyketide synthase (PKS) gene (denoted pksAC) responsible for ascochitine production in the filamentous fungus Ascochyta fabae. Deletion of the pksAC prevented production of ascochitine and its derivative ascochital in A. fabae. The putative ascochitine biosynthesis gene cluster comprises 11 genes that have undergone rearrangement and gain-and-loss events relative to the citrinin biosynthesis gene cluster in Monascus ruber. Interestingly, we also identified pksAC homologs in two recently diverged species, A. lentis and A. lentis var. lathyri, that are sister taxa closely related to ascochitine producers such as A. fabae and A. viciae-villosae. However, nonsense mutations have been independently introduced in coding sequences of the pksAC homologs of A. lentis and A. lentis var. lathyri that resulted in loss of ascochitine production. Despite its reported phytotoxicity, ascochitine was not a pathogenicity factor in A. fabae infection and colonization of faba bean (Vicia faba L.). Ascochitine was mainly produced from mature hyphae at the site of pycnidial formation, suggesting a possible protective role of the compound against other microbial competitors in nature. This report highlights the evolution of gene clusters harnessing the structural diversity of polyketides and a mechanism with the potential to alter secondary metabolite profiles via single nucleotide polymorphisms in closely related fungal species. IMPORTANCE Fungi produce a diverse array of secondary metabolites, many of which are of pharmacological importance whereas many others are noted for mycotoxins, such as aflatoxin and citrinin, that can threaten human and animal health. The polyketide-derived compound ascochitine, which is structurally similar to citrinin mycotoxin, has been considered to be important for pathogenicity of legume-associated Ascochyta species. Here, we identified the ascochitine polyketide synthase (PKS) gene in Ascochyta fabae and its neighboring genes that may be involved in ascochitine biosynthesis. Interestingly, the ascochitine PKS genes in other legume-associated Ascochyta species have been mutated, encoding truncated PKSs. This indicated that point mutations may have contributed to genetic diversity for secondary metabolite production in these fungi. We also demonstrated that ascochitine is not a pathogenicity factor in A. fabae. The antifungal activities and production of ascochitine during sporulation suggested that it may play a role in competition with other saprobic fungi in nature.
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33
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Villani A, Proctor RH, Kim HS, Brown DW, Logrieco AF, Amatulli MT, Moretti A, Susca A. Variation in secondary metabolite production potential in the Fusarium incarnatum-equiseti species complex revealed by comparative analysis of 13 genomes. BMC Genomics 2019; 20:314. [PMID: 31014248 PMCID: PMC6480918 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-019-5567-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2018] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The Fusarium incarnatum-equiseti species complex (FIESC) comprises 33 phylogenetically distinct species that have been recovered from diverse biological sources, but have been most often isolated from agricultural plants and soils. Collectively, members of FIESC can produce diverse mycotoxins. However, because the species diversity of FIESC has been recognized only recently, the potential of species to cause mycotoxin contamination of crop plants is unclear. In this study, therefore, we used comparative genomics to investigate the distribution of and variation in genes and gene clusters responsible for the synthesis of mycotoxins and other secondary metabolites (SMs) in FIESC. Results We examined genomes of 13 members of FIESC that were selected based primarily on their phylogenetic diversity and/or occurrence on crops. The presence and absence of SM biosynthetic gene clusters varied markedly among the genomes. For example, the trichothecene mycotoxin as well as the carotenoid and fusarubin pigment clusters were present in all genomes examined, whereas the enniatin, fusarin, and zearalenone mycotoxin clusters were present in only some genomes. Some clusters exhibited discontinuous patterns of distribution in that their presence and absence was not correlated with the phylogenetic relationships of species. We also found evidence that cluster loss and horizontal gene transfer have contributed to such distribution patterns. For example, a combination of multiple phylogenetic analyses suggest that five NRPS and seven PKS genes were introduced into FIESC from other Fusarium lineages. Conclusion Our results suggest that although the portion of the genome devoted to SM biosynthesis has remained similar during the evolutionary diversification of FIESC, the ability to produce SMs could be affected by the different distribution of related functional and complete gene clusters. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-019-5567-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Villani
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Bari, Italy
| | - Robert H Proctor
- Department of Agriculture Peoria, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, U.S., Peoria, IL, USA
| | - Hye-Seon Kim
- Department of Agriculture Peoria, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, U.S., Peoria, IL, USA
| | - Daren W Brown
- Department of Agriculture Peoria, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, U.S., Peoria, IL, USA
| | - Antonio F Logrieco
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Bari, Italy
| | - Maria Teresa Amatulli
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Bari, Italy.,Thales Alenia Space Italia, Torino, Italy
| | - Antonio Moretti
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Bari, Italy.
| | - Antonia Susca
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Bari, Italy
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34
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Shi-Kunne X, Jové RDP, Depotter JRL, Ebert MK, Seidl MF, Thomma BPHJ. In silico prediction and characterisation of secondary metabolite clusters in the plant pathogenic fungus Verticillium dahliae. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2019; 366:5475643. [PMID: 31004487 PMCID: PMC6502550 DOI: 10.1093/femsle/fnz081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Fungi are renowned producers of natural compounds, also known as secondary metabolites (SMs) that display a wide array of biological activities. Typically, the genes that are involved in the biosynthesis of SMs are located in close proximity to each other in so-called secondary metabolite clusters. Many plant-pathogenic fungi secrete SMs during infection in order to promote disease establishment, for instance as cytocoxic compounds. Verticillium dahliae is a notorious plant pathogen that can infect over 200 host plants worldwide. However, the SM repertoire of this vascular pathogen remains mostly uncharted. To unravel the potential of V. dahliae to produce SMs, we performed in silico predictions and in-depth analyses of its secondary metabolite clusters. Using distinctive traits of gene clusters and the conserved signatures of core genes 25 potential SM gene clusters were identified. Subsequently, phylogenetic and comparative genomics analyses were performed, revealing that two putative siderophores, ferricrocin and TAFC, DHN-melanin and fujikurin may belong to the SM repertoire of V. dahliae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqian Shi-Kunne
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Roger de Pedro Jové
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jasper R L Depotter
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands,Department of Crops and Agronomy, National Institute of Agricultural Botany, Huntingdon Road, CB3 0LE Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Malaika K Ebert
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Michael F Seidl
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Bart P H J Thomma
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands,Corresponding author: Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands. Tel: 0031-317-484536; Fax: 0031-317-483412; E-mail:
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35
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Ebert MK, Spanner RE, de Jonge R, Smith DJ, Holthusen J, Secor GA, Thomma BPHJ, Bolton MD. Gene cluster conservation identifies melanin and perylenequinone biosynthesis pathways in multiple plant pathogenic fungi. Environ Microbiol 2019; 21:913-927. [PMID: 30421572 PMCID: PMC7379194 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.14475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2018] [Accepted: 11/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Perylenequinones are a family of structurally related polyketide fungal toxins with nearly universal toxicity. These photosensitizing compounds absorb light energy which enables them to generate reactive oxygen species that damage host cells. This potent mechanism serves as an effective weapon for plant pathogens in disease or niche establishment. The sugar beet pathogen Cercospora beticola secretes the perylenequinone cercosporin during infection. We have shown recently that the cercosporin toxin biosynthesis (CTB) gene cluster is present in several other phytopathogenic fungi, prompting the search for biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) of structurally similar perylenequinones in other fungi. Here, we report the identification of the elsinochrome and phleichrome BGCs of Elsinoë fawcettii and Cladosporium phlei, respectively, based on gene cluster conservation with the CTB and hypocrellin BGCs. Furthermore, we show that previously reported BGCs for elsinochrome and phleichrome are involved in melanin production. Phylogenetic analysis of the corresponding melanin polyketide synthases (PKSs) and alignment of melanin BGCs revealed high conservation between the established and newly identified C. beticola, E. fawcettii and C. phlei melanin BGCs. Mutagenesis of the identified perylenequinone and melanin PKSs in C. beticola and E. fawcettii coupled with mass spectrometric metabolite analyses confirmed their roles in toxin and melanin production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malaika K. Ebert
- Red River Valley Agricultural Research CenterUSDA Agricultural Research ServiceFargoNDUSA,Department of Plant PathologyNorth Dakota State UniversityFargoNDUSA,Laboratory of PhytopathologyWageningen UniversityWageningenThe Netherlands
| | - Rebecca E. Spanner
- Red River Valley Agricultural Research CenterUSDA Agricultural Research ServiceFargoNDUSA,Department of Plant PathologyNorth Dakota State UniversityFargoNDUSA
| | - Ronnie de Jonge
- Plant‐Microbe Interactions, Department of BiologyScience4Life, Utrecht UniversityUtrechtThe Netherlands,Department of Plant Biotechnology and BioinformaticsGhent UniversityGhentBelgium,VIB Center for Plant Systems BiologyGhentBelgium
| | - David J. Smith
- Red River Valley Agricultural Research CenterUSDA Agricultural Research ServiceFargoNDUSA
| | - Jason Holthusen
- Red River Valley Agricultural Research CenterUSDA Agricultural Research ServiceFargoNDUSA
| | - Gary A. Secor
- Department of Plant PathologyNorth Dakota State UniversityFargoNDUSA
| | | | - Melvin D. Bolton
- Red River Valley Agricultural Research CenterUSDA Agricultural Research ServiceFargoNDUSA,Department of Plant PathologyNorth Dakota State UniversityFargoNDUSA
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36
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Guzmán-Chávez F, Zwahlen RD, Bovenberg RAL, Driessen AJM. Engineering of the Filamentous Fungus Penicillium chrysogenum as Cell Factory for Natural Products. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:2768. [PMID: 30524395 PMCID: PMC6262359 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 10/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Penicillium chrysogenum (renamed P. rubens) is the most studied member of a family of more than 350 Penicillium species that constitute the genus. Since the discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming, this filamentous fungus is used as a commercial β-lactam antibiotic producer. For several decades, P. chrysogenum was subjected to a classical strain improvement (CSI) program to increase penicillin titers. This resulted in a massive increase in the penicillin production capacity, paralleled by the silencing of several other biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs), causing a reduction in the production of a broad range of BGC encoded natural products (NPs). Several approaches have been used to restore the ability of the penicillin production strains to synthetize the NPs lost during the CSI. Here, we summarize various re-activation mechanisms of BGCs, and how interference with regulation can be used as a strategy to activate or silence BGCs in filamentous fungi. To further emphasize the versatility of P. chrysogenum as a fungal production platform for NPs with potential commercial value, protein engineering of biosynthetic enzymes is discussed as a tool to develop de novo BGC pathways for new NPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Guzmán-Chávez
- Molecular Microbiology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands.,Synthetic Biology and Cell Engineering, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Reto D Zwahlen
- Molecular Microbiology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands.,Synthetic Biology and Cell Engineering, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Roel A L Bovenberg
- Synthetic Biology and Cell Engineering, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands.,DSM Biotechnology Centre, Delft, Netherlands
| | - Arnold J M Driessen
- Molecular Microbiology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands.,Synthetic Biology and Cell Engineering, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
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37
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Wang Y, Wang L, Wu F, Liu F, Wang Q, Zhang X, Selvaraj JN, Zhao Y, Xing F, Yin WB, Liu Y. A Consensus Ochratoxin A Biosynthetic Pathway: Insights from the Genome Sequence of Aspergillus ochraceus and a Comparative Genomic Analysis. Appl Environ Microbiol 2018; 84:e01009-18. [PMID: 30054361 PMCID: PMC6146979 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01009-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2018] [Accepted: 07/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by Aspergillus and Penicillium species that widely contaminates food and feed. We sequenced and assembled the complete ∼37-Mb genome of Aspergillusochraceus fc-1, a well-known producer of OTA. Key genes of the OTA biosynthetic pathway were identified by comparative genomic analyses with five other sequenced OTA-producing fungi: A. carbonarius, A. niger, A. steynii, A. westerdijkiae, and Penicillium nordicum OTA production was completely inhibited in the deletion mutants (ΔotaA, ΔotaB, ΔotaC, ΔotaD, and ΔotaR1), and OTA biosynthesis was restored by feeding a postblock substrate to the corresponding mutant. The OTA biosynthetic pathway was unblocked in the ΔotaD mutant by the addition of heterologously expressed halogenase. OTA biosynthesis begins with a polyketide synthase (PKS), OtaA, utilizing acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) and malonyl-CoA to synthesize 7-methylmellein, which is oxidized to OTβ by cytochrome P450 monooxygenase (OtaC). OTβ and l-β-phenylalanine are combined by a nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS), OtaB, to form an amide bond to synthesize OTB. Finally, OTB is chlorinated by a halogenase (OtaD) to OTA. The otaABCD genes were expressed at low levels in the ΔotaR1 mutant. A second regulator, otaR2, which is adjacent to the biosynthetic gene, could modulate only the expression of otaA, otaB, and otaD Thus, we have identified a consensus OTA biosynthetic pathway that can be used to prevent and control OTA synthesis and will help us understand the variation and production of the intermediate components in the biosynthetic pathway.IMPORTANCE Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a significant mycotoxin that contaminates cereal products, coffee, grapes, wine, cheese, and meat. OTA is nephrotoxic, carcinogenic, teratogenic, and immunotoxic. OTA contamination is a serious threat to food safety, endangers human health, and can cause huge economic losses. At present, >20 species of the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium are known to produce OTA. Here we demonstrate that a consensus OTA biosynthetic pathway exists in all OTA-producing fungi and is encoded by a gene cluster containing four highly conserved biosynthetic genes and a bZIP transcription factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Wang
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, China
| | - Liuqing Wang
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Fan Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Fei Liu
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Qi Wang
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoling Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jonathan Nimal Selvaraj
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yueju Zhao
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, China
| | - Fuguo Xing
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, China
| | - Wen-Bing Yin
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yang Liu
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, China
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Kobmoo N, Wichadakul D, Arnamnart N, Rodríguez De La Vega RC, Luangsa-ard JJ, Giraud T. A genome scan of diversifying selection inOphiocordycepszombie-ant fungi suggests a role for enterotoxins in co-evolution and host specificity. Mol Ecol 2018; 27:3582-3598. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.14813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2017] [Accepted: 07/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Noppol Kobmoo
- Ecologie Systématique Evolution; Université Paris-Sud; CNRS; AgroParisTech; Université Paris-Saclay; Orsay France
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC); National Science and Development Agency (NSTDA); Klhong Luang Thailand
| | - Duangdao Wichadakul
- Chulalongkorn University Big Data Analytics and IoT Center (CUBIC); Department of Computer Engineering; Faculty of Engineering; Chulalongkorn University; Bangkok Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Systems Biology; Faculty of Medicine; Chulalongkorn University; Bangkok Thailand
| | - Nuntanat Arnamnart
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC); National Science and Development Agency (NSTDA); Klhong Luang Thailand
| | | | - Janet J. Luangsa-ard
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC); National Science and Development Agency (NSTDA); Klhong Luang Thailand
| | - Tatiana Giraud
- Ecologie Systématique Evolution; Université Paris-Sud; CNRS; AgroParisTech; Université Paris-Saclay; Orsay France
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Chen W, Li C, Zhang B, Zhou Z, Shen Y, Liao X, Yang J, Wang Y, Li X, Li Y, Shen XL. Advances in Biodetoxification of Ochratoxin A-A Review of the Past Five Decades. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1386. [PMID: 29997599 PMCID: PMC6028724 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2018] [Accepted: 06/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a toxic secondary fungal metabolite that widely takes place in various kinds of foodstuffs and feeds. Human beings and animals are inevitably threatened by OTA as a result. Therefore, it is necessary to adopt various measures to detoxify OTA-contaminated foods and feeds. Biological detoxification methods, with better safety, flavor, nutritional quality, organoleptic properties, availability, and cost-effectiveness, are more promising than physical and chemical detoxification methods. The state-of-the-art research advances of OTA biodetoxification by degradation, adsorption, or enzymes are reviewed in the present paper. Researchers have discovered a good deal of microorganisms that could degrade and/or adsorb OTA, including actinobacteria, bacteria, filamentous fungi, and yeast. The degradation of OTA to non-toxic or less toxic OTα via the hydrolysis of the amide bond is the most important OTA biodegradation mechanism. The most important influence factor of OTA adsorption capacity of microorganisms is cell wall components. A large number of microorganisms with good OTA degradation and/or adsorption ability, as well as some OTA degradation enzymes isolated or cloned from microorganisms and animal pancreas, have great application prospects in food and feed industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenying Chen
- School of Public Health, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
- Experimental Teaching Demonstration Center for Preventive Medicine of Guizhou Province, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Chen Li
- School of Public Health, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Boyang Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Zheng Zhou
- School of Public Health, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
- Experimental Teaching Demonstration Center for Preventive Medicine of Guizhou Province, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Yingbin Shen
- Department of Food Science and Engineering, School of Science and Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xin Liao
- School of Public Health, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Jieyeqi Yang
- School of Public Health, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Yan Wang
- Department of Food Quality and Safety, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaohong Li
- Department of Food and Bioengineering, Beijing Agricultural Vocational College, Beijing, China
| | - Yuzhe Li
- China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing, China
| | - Xiao L. Shen
- School of Public Health, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
- Experimental Teaching Demonstration Center for Preventive Medicine of Guizhou Province, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
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Bhandari DR, Wang Q, Li B, Friedt W, Römpp A, Spengler B, Gottwald S. Histology-guided high-resolution AP-SMALDI mass spectrometry imaging of wheat- Fusarium graminearum interaction at the root-shoot junction. PLANT METHODS 2018; 14:103. [PMID: 30473724 PMCID: PMC6240423 DOI: 10.1186/s13007-018-0368-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fungal pathogens like Fusarium graminearum can cause severe yield losses and mycotoxin contamination of food and feed worldwide. We recently showed its ability to systemically colonize wheat via root infection. However, the molecular response of wheat to Fusarium root rot (FRR) infection and systemic spread is still unknown. As a molecular camera, mass spectrometry (MS) imaging combines label-free and multiplex metabolite profiling with histopathology. RESULTS Atmospheric-pressure (AP)-SMALDI-MS imaging was combined with optical microscopy to study wheat-F. graminearum interaction at the root-shoot junction, which is a crucial line of defense against a pathogen that can invade all distal plant parts. To scope the functional, temporal and local aspects of FRR disease spread, metabolic changes were simultaneous visualized in diseased and healthy stem bases of the resistant cultivar Florence-Aurore at 10, 14 and 21 days after root inoculation. Histological information was used to identify disease relevant tissues and to assist the interpretation of molecular images. Detected mycotoxin compounds secreted by F. graminearum showed a route of stem infection that was consistent with observations made by microscopy. The outer epidermis and vasculature of leaf sheath were, at different disease stages, identified as prominent sites of pathogen migration and wheat protection. Wheat metabolites mapped to these relatively small tissues indicated cell wall strengthening and antifungal activity as direct defenses as well as conservation in the wheat reactions to F. graminearum diseases that affect different plant organs. CONCLUSIONS AP-SMALDI-MS imaging at high spatial resolution is a versatile technique that can be applied to basic and applied aspects of agricultural research. Combining the technology with optical microscopy was found to be a powerful tool to gain in-depth information on almost unknown crop disease. Moreover, the approach allowed studying metabolism at the host-pathogen interface. The results provide important hints to an understanding of the complex spatio-temporal organization of plant resistance. Defense-on-demand responses to pathogen ingress were found, which provide opportunities for future research towards an improved resistance that does not negatively impact yield development in the field by saving plant resources and, moreover, may control different Fusarium diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dhaka Ram Bhandari
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 17, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Qing Wang
- Department of Plant Breeding, IFZ Research Centre for Biosystems, Land Use and Nutrition, Justus Liebig University, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26-32, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Bin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009 China
| | - Wolfgang Friedt
- Department of Plant Breeding, IFZ Research Centre for Biosystems, Land Use and Nutrition, Justus Liebig University, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26-32, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Andreas Römpp
- Chair of Bioanalytical Sciences and Food Analysis, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, 95440 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Bernhard Spengler
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 17, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Sven Gottwald
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 17, 35392 Giessen, Germany
- Department of Plant Breeding, IFZ Research Centre for Biosystems, Land Use and Nutrition, Justus Liebig University, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26-32, 35392 Giessen, Germany
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Dholakiya RN, Kumar R, Mishra A, Mody KH, Jha B. Antibacterial and Antioxidant Activities of Novel Actinobacteria Strain Isolated from Gulf of Khambhat, Gujarat. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:2420. [PMID: 29270160 PMCID: PMC5725476 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.02420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2017] [Accepted: 11/22/2017] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacterial secondary metabolites possess a wide range of biologically active compounds including antibacterial and antioxidants. In this study, a Gram-positive novel marine Actinobacteria was isolated from sea sediment which showed 84% 16S rRNA gene sequence (KT588655) similarity with Streptomyces variabilis (EU841661) and designated as Streptomyces variabilis RD-5. The genus Streptomyces is considered as a promising source of bioactive secondary metabolites. The isolated novel bacterial strain was characterized by antibacterial characteristics and antioxidant activities. The BIOLOG based analysis suggested that S. variabilis RD-5 utilized a wide range of substrates compared to the reference strain. The result is further supported by statistical analysis such as AWCD (average well color development), heat-map and PCA (principal component analysis). The whole cell fatty acid profiling showed the dominance of iso/anteiso branched C15–C17 long chain fatty acids. The identified strain S. variabilis RD-5 exhibited a broad spectrum of antibacterial activities for the Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli NCIM 2065, Shigella boydii NCIM, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterobacter cloacae, Pseudomonas sp. NCIM 2200 and Salmonella enteritidis NCIM), and Gram-positive bacteria (Bacillus subtilis NCIM 2920 and Staphylococcus aureus MTCC 96). Extract of S. variabilis strain RD-5 showed 82.86 and 89% of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging and metal chelating activity, respectively, at 5.0 mg/mL. While H2O2 scavenging activity was 74.5% at 0.05 mg/mL concentration. Furthermore, polyketide synthases (PKSs types I and II), an enzyme complex that produces polyketides, the encoding gene(s) detected in the strain RD-5 which may probably involve for the synthesis of antibacterial compound(s). In conclusion, a novel bacterial strain of Actinobacteria, isolated from the unexplored sea sediment of Alang, Gulf of Khambhat (Gujarat), India showed promising antibacterial activities. However, fractionation and further characterization of active compounds from S. variabilis RD-5 are needed for their optimum utilization toward antibacterial purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riddhi N Dholakiya
- Marine Biotechnology and Ecology Division, CSIR-Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar, India
| | - Raghawendra Kumar
- Marine Biotechnology and Ecology Division, CSIR-Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar, India
| | - Avinash Mishra
- Marine Biotechnology and Ecology Division, CSIR-Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar, India
| | - Kalpana H Mody
- Marine Biotechnology and Ecology Division, CSIR-Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar, India
| | - Bhavanath Jha
- Marine Biotechnology and Ecology Division, CSIR-Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar, India
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Chen S, Qiang S. Recent advances in tenuazonic acid as a potential herbicide. PESTICIDE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2017; 143:252-257. [PMID: 29183600 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2017.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2016] [Revised: 12/27/2016] [Accepted: 01/03/2017] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Tenuazonic acid (TeA), belonging to tetramic acids that are the largest family of natural products, is a mycotoxin produced by members of the genus Alternaria and other phytopathogenic fungi. TeA has many desirable bioactivities. In the past two decades, several studies have addressed its phytotoxic activity. Because it can cause brown leaf spot and kill seedlings of mono- and dicotyledonous plants, TeA is regarded as a potential herbicidal agent. TeA blocks electron transport beyond QA by interacting with D1 protein and is a PSII inhibitor. The chloroplast-derived oxidative burst is responsible for TeA-induced cell death and plant necrosis. Based on the model of molecular interaction between TeA and D1 protein, a series of its derivatives with stable herbicidal activity have been designed, evaluated and patented. Recently, some chemical synthetic approaches of TeA and its derivatives have been successfully developed. This paper will mainly focus on new developments regarding TeA's herbicidal activity, mode of action, biosynthesis and chemical synthesis, and characterization of new derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiguo Chen
- Weed Research Laboratory, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Sheng Qiang
- Weed Research Laboratory, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China.
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Gao N, Shang ZC, Yu P, Luo J, Jian KL, Kong LY, Yang MH. Alkaloids from the endophytic fungus Penicillium brefeldianum and their cytotoxic activities. CHINESE CHEM LETT 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cclet.2017.02.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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44
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Jančič S, Frisvad JC, Kocev D, Gostinčar C, Džeroski S, Gunde-Cimerman N. Production of Secondary Metabolites in Extreme Environments: Food- and Airborne Wallemia spp. Produce Toxic Metabolites at Hypersaline Conditions. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0169116. [PMID: 28036382 PMCID: PMC5201246 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0169116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Accepted: 12/11/2016] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The food- and airborne fungal genus Wallemia comprises seven xerophilic and halophilic species: W. sebi, W. mellicola, W. canadensis, W. tropicalis, W. muriae, W. hederae and W. ichthyophaga. All listed species are adapted to low water activity and can contaminate food preserved with high amounts of salt or sugar. In relation to food safety, the effect of high salt and sugar concentrations on the production of secondary metabolites by this toxigenic fungus was investigated. The secondary metabolite profiles of 30 strains of the listed species were examined using general growth media, known to support the production of secondary metabolites, supplemented with different concentrations of NaCl, glucose and MgCl2. In more than two hundred extracts approximately one hundred different compounds were detected using high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection (HPLC-DAD). Although the genome data analysis of W. mellicola (previously W. sebi sensu lato) and W. ichthyophaga revealed a low number of secondary metabolites clusters, a substantial number of secondary metabolites were detected at different conditions. Machine learning analysis of the obtained dataset showed that NaCl has higher influence on the production of secondary metabolites than other tested solutes. Mass spectrometric analysis of selected extracts revealed that NaCl in the medium affects the production of some compounds with substantial biological activities (wallimidione, walleminol, walleminone, UCA 1064-A and UCA 1064-B). In particular an increase in NaCl concentration from 5% to 15% in the growth media increased the production of the toxic metabolites wallimidione, walleminol and walleminone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sašo Jančič
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Jens C. Frisvad
- Department of System Biology, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads, Building 221, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Dragi Kocev
- Department of Knowledge Technologies, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova cesta 39, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Cene Gostinčar
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Sašo Džeroski
- Department of Knowledge Technologies, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova cesta 39, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Nina Gunde-Cimerman
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Centre of Excellence for Integrated Approaches in Chemistry and Biology of Proteins (CIPKeBiP), Jamova 39, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Lah L, Löber U, Hsiang T, Hartmann S. A genomic comparison of putative pathogenicity-related gene families in five members of the Ophiostomatales with different lifestyles. Fungal Biol 2016; 121:234-252. [PMID: 28215351 DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2016.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2016] [Revised: 12/10/2016] [Accepted: 12/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Ophiostomatoid fungi are vectored by their bark-beetle associates and colonize different host tree species. To survive and proliferate in the host, they have evolved mechanisms for detoxification and elimination of host defence compounds, efficient nutrient sequestration, and, in pathogenic species, virulence towards plants. Here, we assembled a draft genome of the spruce pathogen Ophiostoma bicolor. For our comparative and phylogenetic analyses, we mined the genomes of closely related species (Ophiostoma piceae, Ophiostoma ulmi, Ophiostoma novo-ulmi, and Grosmannia clavigera). Our aim was to acquire a genomic and evolutionary perspective of gene families important in host colonization. Genome comparisons showed that both the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes in our assembly were largely complete. Our O. bicolor 25.3 Mbp draft genome had 10 018 predicted genes, 6041 proteins with gene ontology (GO) annotation, 269 carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes), 559 peptidases and inhibitors, and 1373 genes likely involved in pathogen-host interactions. Phylogenetic analyses of selected protein families revealed core sets of cytochrome P450 genes, ABC transporters and backbone genes involved in secondary metabolite (SM) biosynthesis (polyketide synthases (PKS) and non-ribosomal synthases), and species-specific gene losses and duplications. Phylogenetic analyses of protein families of interest provided insight into evolutionary adaptations to host biochemistry in ophiostomatoid fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ljerka Lah
- Evolutionary Biology, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht Str. 24-25, 14476 Potsdam, Germany.
| | - Ulrike Löber
- Evolutionary Biology, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht Str. 24-25, 14476 Potsdam, Germany; Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam, Germany; Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Alfred-Kowalke-Straße 17, 10315 Berlin, Germany
| | - Tom Hsiang
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, N1G 2W1 Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Stefanie Hartmann
- Institute for Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24-25, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
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Metagenomics as a preliminary screen for antimicrobial bioprospecting. Gene 2016; 594:248-258. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2016.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2016] [Revised: 09/09/2016] [Accepted: 09/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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47
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Ferrara M, Perrone G, Gambacorta L, Epifani F, Solfrizzo M, Gallo A. Identification of a Halogenase Involved in the Biosynthesis of Ochratoxin A in Aspergillus carbonarius. Appl Environ Microbiol 2016; 82:5631-41. [PMID: 27422838 PMCID: PMC5007760 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01209-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2016] [Accepted: 06/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Aspergillus carbonarius is the main responsible fungus of ochratoxin A (OTA) contamination of grapes and derived products. To date, the biosynthetic mechanism of this mycotoxin has been partially elucidated. Availability of genome sequence of A. carbonarius has allowed the identification of a putative gene cluster involved in OTA biosynthesis. This region hosts the previously characterized AcOTAnrps and AcOTApks genes encoding two key enzymes of the biosynthetic pathway. At about 4,400 nucleotides downstream of these loci, a gene encoding a putative flavin dependent-halogenase came out from the annotation data. Its proximity to OTA biosynthetic genes and its sequence analysis have suggested a role in the biosynthesis of OTA, directed to the introduction of the chlorine atom in the C-5 position of the final molecular structure of this mycotoxin. The deduced protein sequence of the halogenase gene, we designated AcOTAhal, shows a high similarity to a halogenase that is located in the OTA cluster of A. niger The deletion of the halogenase gene completely eliminated the production of ochratoxin A in A. carbonarius and determined a significant increase of ochratoxin B, as confirmed by mass spectrometry analysis. Moreover, its expression profile was similar to the two biosynthetic genes previously identified, AcOTApks and AcOTAnrps, indicating a strong correlation of the AcOTAhal gene with the kinetics of OTA accumulation in A. carbonarius. Therefore, experimental evidence confirmed that the chlorination step which converts OTB in OTA represents the final stage of the biosynthetic pathway, supporting our earlier hypothesis on the order of enzymatic steps of OTA biosynthesis in A. carbonarius IMPORTANCE Ochratoxin A is a potent mycotoxin classified as a possible carcinogen for humans, and Aspergillus carbonarius is the main agent responsible for OTA accumulation in grapes. We demonstrate here that a flavin-halogenase is implicated in the biosynthesis of OTA in A. carbonarius The encoding gene, AcOTAhal, is contiguous to biosynthetic genes that we have already described (nrps and pks), resulting as part of the biosynthetic cluster. The encoded protein is responsible of the introduction of chlorine atom in the final molecular structure and acts at the last step in the pathway. This study can be considered a continuation of an earlier study wherein we started to clarify the molecular basis of OTA biosynthesis in A. carbonarius, which has not been completely elucidated until now. This research represents an important step forward to a better understanding of the production mechanism, which will contribute to the development of improved control strategies to reduce the risk of OTA contamination in food products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Massimo Ferrara
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Bari, Italy
| | - Giancarlo Perrone
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Bari, Italy
| | - Lucia Gambacorta
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Bari, Italy
| | - Filomena Epifani
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Bari, Italy
| | - Michele Solfrizzo
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Bari, Italy
| | - Antonia Gallo
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Lecce, Italy
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Chang TC, Salvucci A, Crous PW, Stergiopoulos I. Comparative Genomics of the Sigatoka Disease Complex on Banana Suggests a Link between Parallel Evolutionary Changes in Pseudocercospora fijiensis and Pseudocercospora eumusae and Increased Virulence on the Banana Host. PLoS Genet 2016; 12:e1005904. [PMID: 27513322 PMCID: PMC4981473 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1005904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2015] [Accepted: 02/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The Sigatoka disease complex, caused by the closely-related Dothideomycete fungi Pseudocercospora musae (yellow sigatoka), Pseudocercospora eumusae (eumusae leaf spot), and Pseudocercospora fijiensis (black sigatoka), is currently the most devastating disease on banana worldwide. The three species emerged on bananas from a recent common ancestor and show clear differences in virulence, with P. eumusae and P. fijiensis considered the most aggressive. In order to understand the genomic modifications associated with shifts in the species virulence spectra after speciation, and to identify their pathogenic core that can be exploited in disease management programs, we have sequenced and analyzed the genomes of P. eumusae and P. musae and compared them with the available genome sequence of P. fijiensis. Comparative analysis of genome architectures revealed significant differences in genome size, mainly due to different rates of LTR retrotransposon proliferation. Still, gene counts remained relatively equal and in the range of other Dothideomycetes. Phylogenetic reconstruction based on a set of 46 conserved single-copy genes strongly supported an earlier evolutionary radiation of P. fijiensis from P. musae and P. eumusae. However, pairwise analyses of gene content indicated that the more virulent P. eumusae and P. fijiensis share complementary patterns of expansions and contractions in core gene families related to metabolism and enzymatic degradation of plant cell walls, suggesting that the evolution of virulence in these two pathogens has, to some extent, been facilitated by convergent changes in metabolic pathways associated with nutrient acquisition and assimilation. In spite of their common ancestry and shared host-specificity, the three species retain fairly dissimilar repertoires of effector proteins, suggesting that they likely evolved different strategies for manipulating the host immune system. Finally, 234 gene families, including seven putative effectors, were exclusively present in the three Sigatoka species, and could thus be related to adaptation to the banana host. Understanding the evolutionary and genomic changes involved in the emergence of new pathogens and shifts in virulence spectra is vital for deciphering the biological process of disease emergence and for designing new and effective disease control methods. In this study, we employed comparative genomics in order to examine the nature, diversity, and extent of genomic modifications associated with changes in virulence among Pseudocercospora musae, Pseudocercospora eumusae, and Pseudocercospora fijiensis, the main constituents of the Sigatoka disease complex on banana, currently one of the most destructive diseases on banana worldwide. Our comparative genome analyses have highlighted the role of pathoadaptive changes in virulence associated genes, such as those encoding for effectors, in shaping the underlying differences in virulence spectra among the three species, and also revealed that changes in the size of gene families associated with nutrient acquisition and assimilation are more respectful of the species virulence profiles rather than their evolutionary relationships. Thus, we posit that next to species-specific evolutionary adaptations in virulence-associated genes, the increase in virulence of P. eumusae and P. fijiensis has been driven by convergent evolution in metabolic pathways that likely facilitate a higher efficiency of nutrient acquisition, uptake, and utilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ti-Cheng Chang
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Anthony Salvucci
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Pedro W. Crous
- CBS-KNAW Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Ioannis Stergiopoulos
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Wang Y, Wang L, Liu F, Wang Q, Selvaraj JN, Xing F, Zhao Y, Liu Y. Ochratoxin A Producing Fungi, Biosynthetic Pathway and Regulatory Mechanisms. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:E83. [PMID: 27007394 PMCID: PMC4810228 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8030083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Revised: 02/28/2016] [Accepted: 03/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA), mainly produced by Aspergillus and Penicillum species, is one of the most important mycotoxin contaminants in agricultural products. It is detrimental to human health because of its nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, carcinogenicity, teratogenicity, and immunosuppression. OTA structurally consists of adihydrocoumarin moiety linked with l-phenylalanine via an amide bond. OTA biosynthesis has been putatively hypothesized, although several contradictions exist on some processes of the biosynthetic pathway. We discuss recent information on molecular studies of OTA biosynthesis despite insufficient genetic background in detail. Accordingly, genetic regulation has also been explored with regard to the interaction between the regulators and the environmental factors. In this review, we focus on three aspects of OTA: OTA-producing strains, OTA biosynthetic pathway and the regulation mechanisms of OTA production. This can pave the way to assist in protecting food and feed from OTA contamination by understanding OTA biosynthetic pathway and regulatory mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Wang
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 1 Nongda South Road, Xibeiwang Town, Haidian District, Beijing 100193, China.
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Processing, Ministry of Agriculture, 1 Nongda South Road, Xibeiwang Town, Haidian District, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Liuqing Wang
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 1 Nongda South Road, Xibeiwang Town, Haidian District, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Fei Liu
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 1 Nongda South Road, Xibeiwang Town, Haidian District, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Qi Wang
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 1 Nongda South Road, Xibeiwang Town, Haidian District, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Jonathan Nimal Selvaraj
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 1 Nongda South Road, Xibeiwang Town, Haidian District, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Fuguo Xing
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 1 Nongda South Road, Xibeiwang Town, Haidian District, Beijing 100193, China.
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Processing, Ministry of Agriculture, 1 Nongda South Road, Xibeiwang Town, Haidian District, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Yueju Zhao
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 1 Nongda South Road, Xibeiwang Town, Haidian District, Beijing 100193, China.
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Processing, Ministry of Agriculture, 1 Nongda South Road, Xibeiwang Town, Haidian District, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Yang Liu
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 1 Nongda South Road, Xibeiwang Town, Haidian District, Beijing 100193, China.
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Processing, Ministry of Agriculture, 1 Nongda South Road, Xibeiwang Town, Haidian District, Beijing 100193, China.
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50
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Chang HX, Domier LL, Radwan O, Yendrek CR, Hudson ME, Hartman GL. Identification of Multiple Phytotoxins Produced by Fusarium virguliforme Including a Phytotoxic Effector (FvNIS1) Associated With Sudden Death Syndrome Foliar Symptoms. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2016; 29:96-108. [PMID: 26646532 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-09-15-0219-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Sudden death syndrome (SDS) of soybean is caused by a soilborne pathogen, Fusarium virguliforme. Phytotoxins produced by F. virguliforme are translocated from infected roots to leaves, in which they cause SDS foliar symptoms. In this study, additional putative phytotoxins of F. virguliforme were identified, including three secondary metabolites and 11 effectors. While citrinin, fusaric acid, and radicicol induced foliar chlorosis and wilting, Soybean mosaic virus (SMV)-mediated overexpression of F. virguliforme necrosis-inducing secreted protein 1 (FvNIS1) induced SDS foliar symptoms that mimicked the development of foliar symptoms in the field. The expression level of fvnis1 remained steady over time, although foliar symptoms were delayed compared with the expression levels. SMV::FvNIS1 also displayed genotype-specific toxicity to which 75 of 80 soybean cultivars were susceptible. Genome-wide association mapping further identified three single nucleotide polymorphisms at two loci, where three leucine-rich repeat receptor-like protein kinase (LRR-RLK) genes were found. Culture filtrates of fvnis1 knockout mutants displayed a mild reduction in phytotoxicity, indicating that FvNIS1 is one of the phytotoxins responsible for SDS foliar symptoms and may contribute to the quantitative susceptibility of soybean by interacting with the LRR-RLK genes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Leslie L Domier
- 1 University of Illinois
- 2 USDA-Agricultural Research Service; and
| | | | - Craig R Yendrek
- 1 University of Illinois
- 3 Institute for Genomic Biology, Urbana, IL, U.S.A
| | | | - Glen L Hartman
- 1 University of Illinois
- 2 USDA-Agricultural Research Service; and
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