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Parak M, Asgari A, Hasani Nourian Y, Ghanei M. A review of poisoning with various types of biotoxins and its common clinical symptoms. Toxicon 2024; 240:107629. [PMID: 38336277 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2024.107629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2023] [Revised: 01/01/2024] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Biotoxins are toxic substances that originate from living organisms and are harmful to humans. Therefore, we need to know the symptoms of biotoxins poisoning to manage the damage. The purpose of this study is to establish a practical diagnostic protocol for dealing with poisoned patients exposed to biotoxins. MATERIALS AND METHODS The present study is a review study. Our studied community is articles and books matching the title of the project and relevant keywords. First, by searching the key words sign, symptom, biotoxins, relevant articles were extracted and studied from valid databases. By reviewing the studies based on the search strategy, four groups of biotoxins that were studied the most were identified. These four groups are marine biotoxins, bacterial biotoxins, fungal biotoxins and plant biotoxins. In each of these biotoxin groups, important toxins were selected and studied. RESULTS A total of 1864 articles were initially identified from the databases searched in present study. After screening titles and abstracts, 26 articles were included in the systematic review. Specifically, 7 articles were included for bacterial toxins, 9 articles for marine toxins, 5 articles for plant toxins and 5 articles for fungal toxins. CONCLUSION The symptoms of plant biotoxins poisoning may include cardiovascular, hematologic, neurologic, respiratory, renal, and gastrointestinal symptoms, while the symptoms of fungal biotoxins poisoning may include hepatic, renal, gastrointestinal, musculoskeletal, metabolic, respiratory, neurological, and cardiovascular symptoms. marine biotoxins poisoning presents with gastrointestinal and neurological symptoms, with varying incubation periods and recovery times. bacterial biotoxins exposure can lead to a wide range of clinical symptoms, with diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain being the most common, and hemoglobinuria or hematuria being a sensitive and specific clinical manifestation for diagnosing ongoing HUS in children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammadreza Parak
- Chemical Injuries Research Center, Systems Biology and Poisonings Institute, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Alireza Asgari
- Chemical Injuries Research Center, Systems Biology and Poisonings Institute, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Yazdan Hasani Nourian
- Chemical Injuries Research Center, Systems Biology and Poisonings Institute, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Mostafa Ghanei
- Chemical Injuries Research Center, Systems Biology and Poisonings Institute, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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Vianney MH, Sébastien OK, Kafoumba B, Dangui D, Olivier K. Assessment of the health risks associated with the consumption of bivalve mollusks potentially contaminated with phycotoxins from the coastal ecosystem of the Ebrié lagoon, Côte d'Ivoire. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2024; 196:259. [PMID: 38349477 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-024-12429-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 02/02/2024] [Indexed: 02/15/2024]
Abstract
This work focused on assessing of the risk associated with the consumption of bivalve mollusks, potentially contaminated with phycotoxins. The studied phycotoxins are saxitoxin (STX), okadaic acid (OA), dinophysistoxins (DTXs), yessotoxins (YTXs), pectenotoxins (PTX), azaspiracids (AZAs), and domoic acid (DA). These toxins were investigated in three species of bivalve mollusks (Anadara senilis, Crassostrea gasar, and Perna perna), originating from the Ebrié lagoon. Chemical analyses were carried out by LC-MS/MS, HPLC-FLD, and HPLC-UV. The level of OA and DTXs, STX, and DA was 10.92 µg OA eq./kg, 9.6 µg STX eq./kg, and 0.17 mg DA eq./kg, respectively. The level of PTXs and AZAs was 3.3 µg PTX-2 eq./kg and 13.86 µg AZA-1 eq./kg; that of YTXs was 0.01 mg YTX eq./kg. The daily exposure dose (DED) was 0.019 µg OA eq./kg bw for OA and DTXs; 0.285 µg DA eq./kg bw for DA; 0.006 µg PTX-2 eq./kg bw for PTXs; 0.016 µg STX eq./kg bw for STX; 0.01 µg YTX eq./kg bw for YTXs; and 0.024 µg AZA-1 eq./kg bw for AZAs for the oyster Crassostrea gasar. These estimated values are lower than the acute reference dose (ARfD) of each phycotoxin recommended by the European Food Safety Agency (EFSA). The risk of harmful effects is acceptable. The absence of risk is valid only for the study period (11 months) and concerns coastal populations living near the sampling points.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mel Hayo Vianney
- Laboratoire de Thermodynamique et de Physico-chimie du Milieu (LTPCM), Université NANGUI ABROGOUA, 02 BP 801, Abidjan 02, Côte d'Ivoire.
| | - Ouffoue Koffi Sébastien
- Laboratoire de Constitution et Réaction de la Matière (LCRM), Université FELIX HOUPHOUËT BOIGNY, 01 BPV 34, Abidjan 01, Côte d'Ivoire
- Centre Ivoirien Antipollution (CIAPOL), Ministère de l'environnement et du développement durable, 04 BPV 541, Abidjan 04, Côte d'Ivoire
| | - Bamba Kafoumba
- Laboratoire de Thermodynamique et de Physico-chimie du Milieu (LTPCM), Université NANGUI ABROGOUA, 02 BP 801, Abidjan 02, Côte d'Ivoire
| | - Diabagate Dangui
- Laboratoire de Constitution et Réaction de la Matière (LCRM), Université FELIX HOUPHOUËT BOIGNY, 01 BPV 34, Abidjan 01, Côte d'Ivoire
- Laboratoire National de la Santé Publique (LNSP), 18 BP 2403, Abidjan 18, Côte d'Ivoire
| | - Kouadio Olivier
- Centre Ivoirien Antipollution (CIAPOL), Ministère de l'environnement et du développement durable, 04 BPV 541, Abidjan 04, Côte d'Ivoire
- Laboratoire Sol Eau Géomatériaux (SEG), Université FELIX HOUPHOUËT BOIGNY, 01 BPV 34, Abidjan 01, Côte d'Ivoire
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Pinto A, Botelho MJ, Churro C, Asselman J, Pereira P, Pereira JL. A review on aquatic toxins - Do we really know it all regarding the environmental risk posed by phytoplankton neurotoxins? JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2023; 345:118769. [PMID: 37597370 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.118769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/09/2023] [Indexed: 08/21/2023]
Abstract
Aquatic toxins are potent natural toxins produced by certain cyanobacteria and marine algae species during harmful cyanobacterial and algal blooms (CyanoHABs and HABs, respectively). These harmful bloom events and the toxins produced during these events are a human and environmental health concern worldwide, with occurrence, frequency and severity of CyanoHABs and HABs being predicted to keep increasing due to ongoing climate change scenarios. These contexts, as well as human health consequences of some toxins produced during bloom events have been thoroughly reviewed before. Conversely, the wider picture that includes the non-human biota in the assessment of noxious effects of toxins is much less covered in the literature and barely covered by review works. Despite direct human exposure to aquatic toxins and related deleterious effects being responsible for the majority of the public attention to the blooms' problematic, it constitutes a very limited fraction of the real environmental risk posed by these toxins. The disruption of ecological and trophic interactions caused by these toxins in the aquatic biota building on deleterious effects they may induce in different species is paramount as a modulator of the overall magnitude of the environmental risk potentially involved, thus necessarily constraining the quality and efficiency of the management strategies that should be placed. In this way, this review aims at updating and consolidating current knowledge regarding the adverse effects of aquatic toxins, attempting to going beyond their main toxicity pathways in human and related models' health, i.e., also focusing on ecologically relevant model organisms. For conciseness and considering the severity in terms of documented human health risks as a reference, we restricted the detailed revision work to neurotoxic cyanotoxins and marine toxins. This comprehensive revision of the systemic effects of aquatic neurotoxins provides a broad overview of the exposure and the hazard that these compounds pose to human and environmental health. Regulatory approaches they are given worldwide, as well as (eco)toxicity data available were hence thoroughly reviewed. Critical research gaps were identified particularly regarding (i) the toxic effects other than those typical of the recognized disease/disorder each toxin causes following acute exposure in humans and also in other biota; and (ii) alternative detection tools capable of being early-warning signals for aquatic toxins occurrence and therefore provide better human and environmental safety insurance. Future directions on aquatic toxins research are discussed in face of the existent knowledge, with particular emphasis on the much-needed development and implementation of effective alternative (eco)toxicological biomarkers for these toxins. The wide-spanning approach followed herein will hopefully stimulate future research more broadly addressing the environmental hazardous potential of aquatic toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albano Pinto
- CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - Maria João Botelho
- IPMA, Portuguese Institute for the Sea and Atmosphere, Av. Alfredo Magalhães Ramalho 6, 1495-165, Algés, Portugal; CIIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto, Av. General Norton de Matos s/n, 4450-208, Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Catarina Churro
- IPMA, Portuguese Institute for the Sea and Atmosphere, Av. Alfredo Magalhães Ramalho 6, 1495-165, Algés, Portugal; CIIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto, Av. General Norton de Matos s/n, 4450-208, Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Jana Asselman
- Blue Growth Research Lab, Ghent University, Bluebridge Building, Ostend Science Park 1, 8400, Ostend, Belgium
| | - Patrícia Pereira
- CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Joana Luísa Pereira
- CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Portugal
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Qiu J, Zhang J, Li A. Cytotoxicity and intestinal permeability of phycotoxins assessed by the human Caco-2 cell model. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2023; 249:114447. [PMID: 38321666 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.114447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Revised: 12/05/2022] [Accepted: 12/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2024]
Abstract
Phycotoxins are a class of multiple natural metabolites produced by microalgae in marine and freshwater ecosystems that bioaccumulate in food webs, particularly in shellfish, having a great impact on human health. Phycotoxins are mainly leached and absorbed in the small intestine when human consumers accidentally ingest toxic aquatic products contaminated by them. To assess the intestinal uptake and damage of phycotoxins, a typical in vitro model was developed and widely applied using the human colorectal adenocarcinoma Caco-2 cell line. In this review, the application cases were summarized for multiple phycotoxins, including microcystins (MCs), cylindrospermopsins (CYNs), domoic acids (DAs), saxitoxins (STXs), palytoxins (PLTXs), okadaic acids (OAs), pectenotoxins (PTXs) and azaspiracids (AZAs). The results of the previous studies showed that each group of phycotoxins presented different cytotoxicity and mechanisms to Caco-2 cells, and significant discrepancies in the transport of phycotoxin across the Caco-2 cell monolayers. Therefore, this review describes the evaluation assays of the Caco-2 cell monolayer model, illustrates the principles of several primary cytotoxicity evaluation assays, and summarizes the cytotoxicity of each group of phycotoxins to Caco-2 cells line and their cellular transport, and finally proposes the development of multicellular intestinal models for future comprehensive studies on the toxicity and absorption of phycotoxins in the intestine. It will improve the understanding of Caco-2 cell monolayer models in the toxicology studies on phycotoxins and the potentially detrimental effects of microalgal toxins on the human intestine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiangbing Qiu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Jingrui Zhang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Aifeng Li
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China.
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Kamali N, Abbas F, Lehane M, Griew M, Furey A. A Review of In Situ Methods-Solid Phase Adsorption Toxin Tracking (SPATT) and Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Sampler (POCIS) for the Collection and Concentration of Marine Biotoxins and Pharmaceuticals in Environmental Waters. Molecules 2022; 27:7898. [PMID: 36431996 PMCID: PMC9698218 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27227898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Revised: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Solid Phase Adsorption Toxin Tracking (SPATT) and Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Sampler (POCIS) are in situ methods that have been applied to pre-concentrate a range of marine toxins, pesticides and pharmaceutical compounds that occur at low levels in marine and environmental waters. Recent research has identified the widespread distribution of biotoxins and pharmaceuticals in environmental waters (marine, brackish and freshwater) highlighting the need for the development of effective techniques to generate accurate quantitative water system profiles. In this manuscript, we reviewed in situ methods known as Solid Phase Adsorption Toxin Tracking (SPATT) and Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Sampler (POCIS) for the collection and concentration of marine biotoxins, freshwater cyanotoxins and pharmaceuticals in environmental waters since the 1980s to present. Twelve different adsorption substrates in SPATT and 18 different sorbents in POCIS were reviewed for their ability to absorb a range of lipophilic and hydrophilic marine biotoxins, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, antibiotics and microcystins in marine water, freshwater and wastewater. This review suggests the gaps in reported studies, outlines future research possibilities and guides researchers who wish to work on water contaminates using Solid Phase Adsorption Toxin Tracking (SPATT) and Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Sampler (POCIS) technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naghmeh Kamali
- Mass Spectrometry Group, Department Physical Sciences, Munster Technological University (MTU), Rossa Avenue, Bishopstown, T12 P928 Cork, Ireland
- HALPIN Centre for Research & Innovation, National Maritime College of Ireland (NMCI), Munster Technological University (MTU), P43 XV65 Ringaskiddy, Ireland
| | - Feras Abbas
- Mass Spectrometry Group, Department Physical Sciences, Munster Technological University (MTU), Rossa Avenue, Bishopstown, T12 P928 Cork, Ireland
- CREATE (Centre for Research in Advanced Therapeutic Engineering) and BioExplore, Munster Technological University (MTU), Rossa Avenue, Bishopstown, T12 P928 Cork, Ireland
| | - Mary Lehane
- Mass Spectrometry Group, Department Physical Sciences, Munster Technological University (MTU), Rossa Avenue, Bishopstown, T12 P928 Cork, Ireland
- CREATE (Centre for Research in Advanced Therapeutic Engineering) and BioExplore, Munster Technological University (MTU), Rossa Avenue, Bishopstown, T12 P928 Cork, Ireland
| | - Michael Griew
- HALPIN Centre for Research & Innovation, National Maritime College of Ireland (NMCI), Munster Technological University (MTU), P43 XV65 Ringaskiddy, Ireland
| | - Ambrose Furey
- Mass Spectrometry Group, Department Physical Sciences, Munster Technological University (MTU), Rossa Avenue, Bishopstown, T12 P928 Cork, Ireland
- CREATE (Centre for Research in Advanced Therapeutic Engineering) and BioExplore, Munster Technological University (MTU), Rossa Avenue, Bishopstown, T12 P928 Cork, Ireland
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Kim YS, An HJ, Kim J, Jeon YJ. Current Situation of Palytoxins and Cyclic Imines in Asia-Pacific Countries: Causative Phytoplankton Species and Seafood Poisoning. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:4921. [PMID: 35457784 PMCID: PMC9026528 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19084921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Revised: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/13/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Among marine biotoxins, palytoxins (PlTXs) and cyclic imines (CIs), including spirolides, pinnatoxins, pteriatoxins, and gymnodimines, are not managed in many countries, such as the USA, European nations, and South Korea, because there are not enough poisoning cases or data for the limits on these biotoxins. In this article, we review unregulated marine biotoxins (e.g., PlTXs and CIs), their toxicity, causative phytoplankton species, and toxin extraction and detection protocols. Due to global warming, the habitat of the causative phytoplankton has expanded to the Asia-Pacific region. When ingested by humans, shellfish that accumulated toxins can cause various symptoms (muscle pain or diarrhea) and even death. There are no systematic reports on the occurrence of these toxins; however, it is important to continuously monitor causative phytoplankton and poisoning of accumulating shellfish by PlTXs and CI toxins because of the high risk of toxicity in human consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young-Sang Kim
- Laboratory of Marine Bioresource Technology, Department of Marine Life Science, School of Marine Biomedical Sciences, Jeju National University, Jeju City 63243, Korea
- Marine Science Institute, Jeju National University, Jeju City 63333, Korea
| | - Hyun-Joo An
- Asia Glycomics Reference Site, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Korea
- Graduate School of Analytical Science and Technology, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Korea
| | - Jaeseong Kim
- Water and Eco-Bio Corporation, Kunsan National University, Kunsan 54150, Korea
| | - You-Jin Jeon
- Laboratory of Marine Bioresource Technology, Department of Marine Life Science, School of Marine Biomedical Sciences, Jeju National University, Jeju City 63243, Korea
- Marine Science Institute, Jeju National University, Jeju City 63333, Korea
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A Generic LC-HRMS Screening Method for Marine and Freshwater Phycotoxins in Fish, Shellfish, Water, and Supplements. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13110823. [PMID: 34822607 PMCID: PMC8619867 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13110823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Revised: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Phycotoxins occur in various marine and freshwater environments, and can accumulate in edible species such as fish, crabs, and shellfish. Human exposure to these toxins can take place, for instance, through consumption of contaminated species or supplements and through the ingestion of contaminated water. Symptoms of phycotoxin intoxication include paralysis, diarrhea, and amnesia. When the cause of an intoxication cannot directly be found, a screening method is required to identify the causative toxin. In this work, such a screening method was developed and validated for marine and freshwater phycotoxins in different matrices: fish, shellfish, water, and food supplements. Two LC methods were developed: one for hydrophilic and one for lipophilic phycotoxins. Sample extracts were measured in full scan mode with an Orbitrap high resolution mass spectrometer. Additionally, a database was created to process the data. The method was successfully validated for most matrices, and in addition, regulated lipophilic phycotoxins, domoic acid, and some paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins could be quantified in shellfish. The method showed limitations for hydrophilic phycotoxins in sea water and for lipophilic phycotoxins in food supplements. The developed method is a screening method; in order to confirm suspected compounds, comparison with a standard or an additional analysis such as NMR is required.
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Finch SC, Webb NG, Boundy MJ, Harwood DT, Munday JS, Sprosen JM, Cave VM, Broadhurst RB, Nicolas J. Sub-Acute Feeding Study of Saxitoxin to Mice Confirms the Effectiveness of Current Regulatory Limits for Paralytic Shellfish Toxins. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13090627. [PMID: 34564631 PMCID: PMC8473220 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13090627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Regulatory limits for shellfish toxins are required to protect human health. Often these limits are set using only acute toxicity data, which is significant, as in some communities, shellfish makes up a large proportion of their daily diet and can be contaminated with paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) for several months. In the current study, feeding protocols were developed to mimic human feeding behaviour and diets containing three dose rates of saxitoxin dihydrochloride (STX.2HCl) were fed to mice for 21 days. This yielded STX.2HCl dose rates of up to 730 µg/kg bw/day with no effects on food consumption, growth, blood pressure, heart rate, motor coordination, grip strength, blood chemistry, haematology, organ weights or tissue histology. Using the 100-fold safety factor to extrapolate from animals to humans yields a dose rate of 7.3 µg/kg bw/day, which is well above the current acute reference dose (ARfD) of 0.5 µg STX.2HCl eq/kg bw proposed by the European Food Safety Authority. Furthermore, to reach the dose rate of 7.3 µg/kg bw, a 60 or 70 kg human would have to consume 540 or 630 g of shellfish contaminated with PSTs at the current regulatory limit (800 µg/kg shellfish flesh), respectively. The current regulatory limit for PSTs therefore seems appropriate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah C. Finch
- AgResearch Ltd. Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand; (N.G.W.); (J.M.S.); (V.M.C.); (R.B.B.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Nicola G. Webb
- AgResearch Ltd. Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand; (N.G.W.); (J.M.S.); (V.M.C.); (R.B.B.)
| | - Michael J. Boundy
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand; (M.J.B.); (D.T.H.)
| | - D. Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand; (M.J.B.); (D.T.H.)
| | - John S. Munday
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Private Bag 11 222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand;
| | - Jan M. Sprosen
- AgResearch Ltd. Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand; (N.G.W.); (J.M.S.); (V.M.C.); (R.B.B.)
| | - Vanessa M. Cave
- AgResearch Ltd. Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand; (N.G.W.); (J.M.S.); (V.M.C.); (R.B.B.)
| | - Ric B. Broadhurst
- AgResearch Ltd. Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand; (N.G.W.); (J.M.S.); (V.M.C.); (R.B.B.)
| | - Jeane Nicolas
- Ministry for Primary Industries–Manatu Ahu Matua, P.O. Box 2526, Wellington 6021, New Zealand;
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O'Neill A, Morrell N, Turner AD, Maskrey BH. Method performance verification for the combined detection and quantitation of the marine neurotoxins cyclic imines and brevetoxin shellfish metabolites in mussels (Mytilus edulis) and oysters (Crassostrea gigas) by UHPLC-MS/MS. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2021; 1179:122864. [PMID: 34343946 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2021.122864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
A single laboratory method performance verification is reported for a rapid sensitive UHPLC-MS/MS method for the quantification of eight cyclic imine and two brevetoxin analogues in two bivalve shellfish matrices: mussel (Mytilus edulis) and Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas). Targeted cyclic imine analogues were from the spirolide, gymnodimine and pinnatoxin groups, namely 20-Me-SPX-C, 13-desMe-SPX-C, 13,19-didesMe-SPX-C, GYM-A, 12-Me-GYM, PnTx-E, PnTx-F and PnTx-G. Brevetoxin analogues consisted of the shellfish metabolites BTX-B5 and S-desoxy-BTX-B2. A rapid dispersive extraction was used as well as a fast six-minute UHPLC-MS/MS analysis. Mobile phase prepared using ammonium fluoride and methanol was optimised for both chromatographic separation and MS/MS response to suit all analytes. Method performance verification checks for both matrices were carried out. Matrix influence was acceptable for the majority of analogues with the MS response for all analogues being linear across an appropriate range of concentrations. In terms of limits of detection and quantitation the method was shown to be highly sensitive when compared with other methods. Acceptable recoveries were found with most analogues, with laboratory precision in terms of intra- and inter-batch precision deemed appropriate. The method was applied to environmental shellfish samples with results showing low concentrations of cyclic imines to be present. The method is fast and highly sensitive for the detection and quantification of all targeted analogues, in both mussel and oyster matrices. Consequently, the method has been shown to provide a useful tool for simultaneous monitoring for the presence or future emergence of these two toxin groups in shellfish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison O'Neill
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Nadine Morrell
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin H Maskrey
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom.
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Puddick J, van Ginkel R, Page CD, Murray JS, Greenhough HE, Bowater J, Selwood AI, Wood SA, Prinsep MR, Truman P, Munday R, Finch SC. Acute toxicity of dihydroanatoxin-a from Microcoleus autumnalis in comparison to anatoxin-a. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 263:127937. [PMID: 32828056 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Revised: 08/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The cyanobacterium Microcoleus autumnalis grows as thick benthic mats in rivers and is becoming increasingly prevalent around the world. M. autumnalis can produce high concentrations of anatoxins and ingestion of benthic mats has led to multiple dog deaths over the past two decades. M. autumnalis produces a suite of different anatoxin congeners including anatoxin-a (ATX), dihydroanatoxin-a, (dhATX), homoanatoxin-a and dihydrohomoanatoxin-a. Benthic mat samples often contain high levels of dhATX, but there is little toxicology information on this congener. In the present study, natural versions of dhATX and ATX were purified from cyanobacteria to determine the acute toxicity by different routes of administration using mice. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy was used to confirm the putative structure of dhATX. By intraperitoneal (ip) injection, the median lethal dose (LD50) for dhATX was 0.73 mg/kg, indicating a reduced toxicity compared to ATX (LD50 of 0.23 mg/kg). However, by oral administration (both gavage and feeding), dhATX was more toxic than ATX (gavage LD50 of 2.5 mg/kg for dhATX and 10.6 mg/kg for ATX; feeding LD50 of 8 mg/kg for dhATX and 25 mg/kg for ATX). The relative nicotinic acetylcholine receptor-binding affinities of ATX and dhATX were determined using the Torpedo electroplaque assay which showed consistency with the relative toxicity determined by ip injection. This work highlights that toxicity studies based solely on ip injection may not yield LD50 values that are relevant to those derived via oral administration, and hence, do not provide a good estimate of the risk posed to human and animal health in situations where oral ingestion is the likely route of exposure. The high acute oral toxicity of dhATX, and its abundance in M. autumnalis proliferations, demonstrates that it is an important environmental contaminant that warrants further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Roel van Ginkel
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7042, New Zealand
| | - Carrie D Page
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7042, New Zealand
| | - J Sam Murray
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7042, New Zealand
| | | | - Joel Bowater
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7042, New Zealand
| | | | - Susanna A Wood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7042, New Zealand
| | - Michèle R Prinsep
- Chemistry, School of Science, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton, 3240, New Zealand
| | - Penelope Truman
- Massey University, PO Box 756, Wellington, 6140, New Zealand
| | - Rex Munday
- AgResearch Limited, Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, 3240, New Zealand
| | - Sarah C Finch
- AgResearch Limited, Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, 3240, New Zealand
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11
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Oyaneder-Terrazas J, Polanco C, Figueroa D, Barriga A, García C. In vitro biotransformation of OA-group and PTX-group toxins in visceral and non-visceral tissues of Mytilus chilensis and Ameghinomya antiqua. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2020; 37:1216-1228. [PMID: 32515303 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2020.1750710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Lipophilic marine toxins (LMTs) are made up of multiple groups of toxic analogues, which are characterised by different levels of cellular and toxic action. The most prevalent groups in the southern Pacific zone are: a) okadaic acid group (OA-group) which consists of okadaic acid (OA) and dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX-1); and, b) pectenotoxin-2 (PTX2) group which consists of pectenotoxin-2 (PTX-2). The main objective of our study was to examine in vitro biotransformation of OA-group and PTX-group in the tissues of two endemic species of bivalves from southern Chile; blue mussels (Mytilus chilensis) and clams (Ameghinomya antiqua). The biotransformation processes of both groups were only detected in the digestive glands of both species using LC-MS/MS. The most frequently detected analogues were acyl derivatives (≈2.0 ± 0.1 μg ml-1) for OA-group and PTX-2SA (≈1.4 ± 0.1 μg ml-1) for PTX-group, with a higher percentage of biotransformation for OA-group (p < .001). In addition, simultaneous incubations of the different analogues (OA/PTX-2; DTX-1/PTX-2 and OA/DTX-1/PTX-2) did not show any interaction between the biotransformation processes. These results show that the toxicological variability of endemic species leads to biotransformation of the profile of toxins, so that these new analogues may affect people's health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javiera Oyaneder-Terrazas
- Laboratory of Marine Toxins, Physiology and Biophysics Programme, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile , Santiago, Chile.,Faculty of Technology, Universidad de Santiago , Santiago, Chile
| | - Cassandra Polanco
- Laboratory of Marine Toxins, Physiology and Biophysics Programme, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile , Santiago, Chile.,Faculty of Technology, Universidad de Santiago , Santiago, Chile
| | - Diego Figueroa
- Laboratory of Marine Toxins, Physiology and Biophysics Programme, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile , Santiago, Chile
| | - Andres Barriga
- CEPEDEQ, Faculty of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universidad de Chile , Santiago, Chile
| | - Carlos García
- Laboratory of Marine Toxins, Physiology and Biophysics Programme, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile , Santiago, Chile
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Masias D, Gómez K, Contreras C, Gaete L, García C. Rapid screening fluorescence method applied to detection and quantitation of paralytic shellfish toxins in invertebrate marine vectors. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2019; 36:1118-1137. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2019.1615645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Daisy Masias
- Department of Chemistry, Universidad Metropolitana de Ciencias de la Educación, Santiago, Chile
- Laboratory of Marine Toxins, Physiology and Biophysics Programme, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Kelly Gómez
- Department of Chemistry, Universidad Metropolitana de Ciencias de la Educación, Santiago, Chile
- Laboratory of Marine Toxins, Physiology and Biophysics Programme, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Cristóbal Contreras
- Laboratory of Marine Toxins, Physiology and Biophysics Programme, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Leonardo Gaete
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Carlos García
- Laboratory of Marine Toxins, Physiology and Biophysics Programme, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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13
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Contreras HR, García C. Inter-species variability of okadaic acid group toxicity in relation to the content of fatty acids detected in different marine vectors. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2019; 36:464-482. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2019.1569265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Héctor R. Contreras
- Department of Basic and Clinical Oncology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Carlos García
- Laboratory of Marine Toxins, Physiology and Biophysics Programme, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
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Finch SC, Boundy MJ, Harwood DT. The Acute Toxicity of Tetrodotoxin and Tetrodotoxin⁻Saxitoxin Mixtures to Mice by Various Routes of Administration. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E423. [PMID: 30360529 PMCID: PMC6266834 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10110423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2018] [Revised: 10/19/2018] [Accepted: 10/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin associated with human poisonings through the consumption of pufferfish. More recently, TTX has been identified in bivalve molluscs from diverse geographical environments, including Europe, and is therefore recognised as an emerging threat to food safety. A recent scientific opinion of the EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain recognised the need for further data on the acute oral toxicity of TTX and suggested that, since saxitoxin (STX) and TTX had similar modes of action, it was possible that their toxicities were additive so could perhaps be combined to yield one health-based guideline value. The present study determined the toxicity of TTX by various routes of administration. The testing of three different mixtures of STX and TTX and comparing the experimentally determined values to those predicted on the basis of additive toxicity demonstrated that the toxicities of STX and TTX are additive. This illustrates that it is appropriate to treat TTX as a member of the paralytic shellfish group of toxins. Since the toxicity of TTX was found to be the same as STX by feeding, a molar toxicity equivalence factor of 1.0 for TTX can be applied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah C Finch
- AgResearch Limited, Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand.
| | | | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand.
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Wu HY, Luan QS, Guo MM, Gu HF, Zhai YX, Tan ZJ. Phycotoxins in scallops (Patinopecten yessoensis) in relation to source, composition and temporal variation of phytoplankton and cysts in North Yellow Sea, China. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2018; 135:1198-1204. [PMID: 30301019 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.08.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2018] [Revised: 08/20/2018] [Accepted: 08/20/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The North Yellow Sea is a major aquaculture production area for the scallop Patinopecten yessoensis. In this study, the temporal and spatial variation of phycotoxins in scallops, phytoplankton, and their cysts were analyzed during a survey conducted from June 2011 to April 2012 around Zhangzi Island. The study area is a semi-enclosed epicontinental sea surrounded by the Shandong Peninsula, the Liaodong Peninsula and the Korean Peninsula. The three main results of the study were as follows: (1) The saxitoxin-group toxins, okadaic acid and analogues, and pectenotoxins were the major phycotoxin residues found in scallops; (2) Six kinds of toxic microalgae were identified, Protoperidinium spp., Gonyaulax spp., and Alexandrium spp. were the dominant taxa; Seven types of potential marine toxin-producing dinoflagellates, A. tamarense, A. catenella, Dinophysis fortii, G. catenatum, Gambierdiscus toxicus, Azadinium poporum, and Pseudo-nitzschia pungen were identified as the primary source of phycotoxins and were present at relatively high density from June to October; and (3) azaspiracids and domoic acid might be new potential sources of toxin pollution. This study represents the first assessment to phycotoxins around Zhangzi Island in the North Yellow Sea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai-Yan Wu
- Key Laboratory of Testing and Evaluation for Aquatic Product Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture, Qingdao 266071, China; Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; Carbon-sink Fisheries Laboratory, Qingdao 266071, China.
| | - Qing-Shan Luan
- Key Laboratory of Testing and Evaluation for Aquatic Product Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture, Qingdao 266071, China; Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; Carbon-sink Fisheries Laboratory, Qingdao 266071, China.
| | - Meng-Meng Guo
- Key Laboratory of Testing and Evaluation for Aquatic Product Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture, Qingdao 266071, China; Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; Carbon-sink Fisheries Laboratory, Qingdao 266071, China.
| | - Hai-Feng Gu
- Third Institute of Oceanography, SOA, Xiamen 361005, China
| | - Yu-Xiu Zhai
- Key Laboratory of Testing and Evaluation for Aquatic Product Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture, Qingdao 266071, China; Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; Carbon-sink Fisheries Laboratory, Qingdao 266071, China.
| | - Zhi-Jun Tan
- Key Laboratory of Testing and Evaluation for Aquatic Product Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture, Qingdao 266071, China; Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; Carbon-sink Fisheries Laboratory, Qingdao 266071, China.
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16
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Pelin M, Sosa S, Brovedani V, Fusco L, Poli M, Tubaro A. A Novel Sensitive Cell-Based Immunoenzymatic Assay for Palytoxin Quantitation in Mussels. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10080329. [PMID: 30110919 PMCID: PMC6116170 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10080329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2018] [Revised: 08/08/2018] [Accepted: 08/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The marine algal toxin palytoxin (PLTX) and its analogues are some of the most toxic marine compounds. Their accumulation in edible marine organisms and entrance into the food chain represent their main concerns for human health. Indeed, several fatal human poisonings attributed to these compounds have been recorded in tropical and subtropical areas. Due to the increasing occurrence of PLTX in temperate areas such as the Mediterranean Sea, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has suggested a maximum limit of 30 µg PLTX/kg in shellfish meat, and has recommended the development of rapid, specific, and sensitive methods for detection and quantitation of PLTX in seafood. Thus, a novel, sensitive cell-based ELISA was developed and characterized for PLTX quantitation in mussels. The estimated limits of detection (LOD) and quantitation (LOQ) were 1.2 × 10−11 M (32.2 pg/mL) and 2.8 × 10−11 M (75.0 pg/mL), respectively, with good accuracy (bias = 2.5%) and repeatability (15% and 9% interday and intraday relative standard deviation of repeatability (RSDr), respectively). Minimal interference of 80% aqueous methanol extract allows PLTX quantitation in mussels at concentrations lower than the maximum limit suggested by EFSA, with an LOQ of 9.1 µg PLTX equivalent/kg mussel meat. Given its high sensitivity and specificity, the cell-based ELISA should be considered a suitable method for PLTX quantitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Pelin
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, 34127 Trieste, Italy.
| | - Silvio Sosa
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, 34127 Trieste, Italy.
| | | | - Laura Fusco
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, 34127 Trieste, Italy.
| | - Mark Poli
- U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Ft. Detrick, MD 21701-5011, USA.
| | - Aurelia Tubaro
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, 34127 Trieste, Italy.
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17
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Development of a High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry Method for Determination of Lipophilic Toxins in Marine Shellfishes and Edible Safety Evaluation. CHINESE JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/s1872-2040(18)61092-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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18
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Farabegoli F, Blanco L, Rodríguez LP, Vieites JM, Cabado AG. Phycotoxins in Marine Shellfish: Origin, Occurrence and Effects on Humans. Mar Drugs 2018; 16:E188. [PMID: 29844286 PMCID: PMC6025170 DOI: 10.3390/md16060188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2018] [Revised: 05/18/2018] [Accepted: 05/25/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Massive phytoplankton proliferation, and the consequent release of toxic metabolites, can be responsible for seafood poisoning outbreaks: filter-feeding mollusks, such as shellfish, mussels, oysters or clams, can accumulate these toxins throughout the food chain and present a threat for consumers' health. Particular environmental and climatic conditions favor this natural phenomenon, called harmful algal blooms (HABs); the phytoplankton species mostly involved in these toxic events are dinoflagellates or diatoms belonging to the genera Alexandrium, Gymnodinium, Dinophysis, and Pseudo-nitzschia. Substantial economic losses ensue after HABs occurrence: the sectors mainly affected include commercial fisheries, tourism, recreational activities, and public health monitoring and management. A wide range of symptoms, from digestive to nervous, are associated to human intoxication by biotoxins, characterizing different and specific syndromes, called paralytic shellfish poisoning, amnesic shellfish poisoning, diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, and neurotoxic shellfish poisoning. This review provides a complete and updated survey of phycotoxins usually found in marine invertebrate organisms and their relevant properties, gathering information about the origin, the species where they were found, as well as their mechanism of action and main effects on humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Farabegoli
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
| | - Lucía Blanco
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
| | - Laura P Rodríguez
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
| | - Juan Manuel Vieites
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
| | - Ana García Cabado
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
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19
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Zhou Z, Tang X, Chen H, Wang Y. Comparative studies of saxitoxin (STX) -induced cytotoxicity in Neuro-2a and RTG-2 cell lines: An explanation with respect to changes in ROS. CHEMOSPHERE 2018; 192:66-74. [PMID: 29100123 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.10.083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2017] [Revised: 10/06/2017] [Accepted: 10/14/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Saxitoxin (STX), a paralytic shellfish toxin (PST) produced from toxic bloom-forming dinoflagellates, was selected to comparatively investigate the induction of cytotoxicity and apoptosis and a possible mechanism based on changes in the antioxidant defence system of two cellular strains: the mouse neuroblastoma cell line Neuro-2a and the rainbow trout fish cell line RTG-2. Increasing concentrations of STX (0-256 nM) presented little cytotoxic or apoptotic effects on the two cell lines. Measurements of cellular viability, lethal ratio and LDH leakage showed slight changes in Neuro-2a and RTG-2 cells (p > 0.05), and similar results were observed for cellular morphology and apoptotic rates. The contents of the main reactive oxygen species (ROS) components, superoxide anion (O2-) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), were markedly increased in Neuro-2a cell with STX exposure at middle (15 nM) and high (150 nM) concentrations (p < 0.05), and the simultaneous increase of the ratio of reduced/oxidized glutathione (GSH/GSSG) (p < 0.05) inferred the occurrence of oxidative stress. However, little difference was observed in all treated groups of RTG-2 cells. The activities of three antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione reductase (GR), were significantly enhanced in Neuro-2a cells in the middle and high concentration groups (p < 0.05), while glutathione peroxidase (GPX) obviously decreased (p < 0.05) in all treated groups. Little change was found in RTG-2 cells with the same exposures. These results provided evidence that STX exposure altered the redox status of Neuro-2a cells and resulted in oxidative stress, but the same exposure exerted little effect on RTG-2 cells. Therefore, Neuro-2a cells are more sensitive than reproductive cells to STX exposure, and the antioxidant systems appears to be partly responsible for this differentiation response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongyuan Zhou
- Department of Marine Ecology, College of Marine Life Science, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, China.
| | - Xuexi Tang
- Department of Marine Ecology, College of Marine Life Science, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, China; Laboratory for Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266071, China.
| | - Hongmei Chen
- Key Laboratory of Xinjiang Endemic Phytomedicine Resources, Ministry of Education, Pharmacology Department, School of Pharmacy, Shihezi University, Shihezi, 832002, China.
| | - You Wang
- Department of Marine Ecology, College of Marine Life Science, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, China; Laboratory for Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266071, China.
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20
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Oyaneder Terrazas J, Contreras HR, García C. Prevalence, Variability and Bioconcentration of Saxitoxin-Group in Different Marine Species Present in the Food Chain. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:E190. [PMID: 28604648 PMCID: PMC5488040 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9060190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2017] [Revised: 06/07/2017] [Accepted: 06/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The saxitoxin-group (STX-group) corresponds to toxic metabolites produced by cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates of the genera Alexandrium, Gymnodinium, and Pyrodinium. Over the last decade, it has been possible to extrapolate the areas contaminated with the STX-group worldwide, including Chile, a phenomenon that has affected ≈35% of the Southern Pacific coast territory, generating a high economic impact. The objective of this research was to study the toxicity of the STX-group in all aquatic organisms (bivalves, algae, echinoderms, crustaceans, tunicates, cephalopods, gastropods, and fish) present in areas with a variable presence of harmful algal blooms (HABs). Then, the toxic profiles of each species and dose of STX equivalents ingested by a 60 kg person from 400 g of shellfish were determined to establish the health risk assessment. The toxins with the highest prevalence detected were gonyautoxin-4/1 (GTX4/GTX1), gonyautoxin-3/2 (GTX3/GTX2), neosaxitoxin (neoSTX), decarbamoylsaxitoxin (dcSTX), and saxitoxin (STX), with average concentrations of 400, 2800, 280, 200, and 2000 µg kg-1 respectively, a species-specific variability, dependent on the evaluated tissue, which demonstrates the biotransformation of the analogues in the trophic transfer with a predominance of α-epimers in all toxic profiles. The identification in multiple vectors, as well as in unregulated species, suggests that a risk assessment and risk management update are required; also, chemical and specific analyses for the detection of all analogues associated with the STX-group need to be established.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javiera Oyaneder Terrazas
- Physiology and Biophysics Program, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago 8380000, Chile.
| | - Héctor R Contreras
- Department of Basic and Clinical Oncology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago 8380000, Chile.
| | - Carlos García
- Department of Basic and Clinical Oncology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago 8380000, Chile.
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Miller TR, Beversdorf LJ, Weirich CA, Bartlett SL. Cyanobacterial Toxins of the Laurentian Great Lakes, Their Toxicological Effects, and Numerical Limits in Drinking Water. Mar Drugs 2017; 15:E160. [PMID: 28574457 PMCID: PMC5484110 DOI: 10.3390/md15060160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2017] [Revised: 04/22/2017] [Accepted: 05/02/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyanobacteria are ubiquitous phototrophic bacteria that inhabit diverse environments across the planet. Seasonally, they dominate many eutrophic lakes impacted by excess nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) forming dense accumulations of biomass known as cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms or cyanoHABs. Their dominance in eutrophic lakes is attributed to a variety of unique adaptations including N and P concentrating mechanisms, N₂ fixation, colony formation that inhibits predation, vertical movement via gas vesicles, and the production of toxic or otherwise bioactive molecules. While some of these molecules have been explored for their medicinal benefits, others are potent toxins harmful to humans, animals, and other wildlife known as cyanotoxins. In humans these cyanotoxins affect various tissues, including the liver, central and peripheral nervous system, kidneys, and reproductive organs among others. They induce acute effects at low doses in the parts-per-billion range and some are tumor promoters linked to chronic diseases such as liver and colorectal cancer. The occurrence of cyanoHABs and cyanotoxins in lakes presents challenges for maintaining safe recreational aquatic environments and the production of potable drinking water. CyanoHABs are a growing problem in the North American (Laurentian) Great Lakes basin. This review summarizes information on the occurrence of cyanoHABs in the Great Lakes, toxicological effects of cyanotoxins, and appropriate numerical limits on cyanotoxins in finished drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd R Miller
- Joseph J. Zilber School of Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53211, USA.
| | - Lucas J Beversdorf
- Joseph J. Zilber School of Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53211, USA.
| | - Chelsea A Weirich
- Joseph J. Zilber School of Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53211, USA.
| | - Sarah L Bartlett
- Joseph J. Zilber School of Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53211, USA.
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22
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Marine Toxin Analysis for the Benefit of ‘One Health’ and for the Advancement of Science. RECENT ADVANCES IN THE ANALYSIS OF MARINE TOXINS 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.coac.2017.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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23
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O'Neill K, Musgrave IF, Humpage A. Low dose extended exposure to saxitoxin and its potential neurodevelopmental effects: A review. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2016; 48:7-16. [PMID: 27716534 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2016.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2016] [Accepted: 09/27/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Saxitoxin (STX) and its analogs, the paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), are a group of potent neurotoxins well known for their role in acute paralytic poisoning by preventing the generation of action potentials in neuronal cells. They are found in both marine and freshwater environments globally and although acute exposure from the former has previously received more attention, low dose extended exposure from both sources is possible and to date has not been investigated. Given the known role of cellular electrical activity in neurodevelopment this pattern of exposure may be a significant public health concern. Additionally, the presence of PSTs is likely to be an ongoing and possibly increasing problem in the future. This review examines the neurodevelopmental toxicity of STX, the risk of extended or repeated exposure to doses with neurodevelopmental effects, the potential implications of this exposure and briefly, the steps taken and difficulties faced in preventing exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie O'Neill
- Discipline of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, The University of Adelaide, Level 3 Medical School South, Frome Rd, Adelaide, 5005, South Australia, Australia.
| | - Ian F Musgrave
- Discipline of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, The University of Adelaide, Level 3 Medical School South, Frome Rd, Adelaide, 5005, South Australia, Australia.
| | - Andrew Humpage
- Australian Water Quality Center, SA Water House, 250 Victoria Square, Adelaide, 5000, South Australia, Australia.
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24
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García C, Oyaneder-Terrazas J, Contreras C, Del Campo M, Torres R, Contreras HR. Determination of the toxic variability of lipophilic biotoxins in marine bivalve and gastropod tissues treated with an industrial canning process. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2016; 33:1711-1727. [PMID: 27646025 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2016.1239032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Contamination of shellfish with lipophilic marine biotoxins (LMB), pectenotoxins (PTXs), yessotoxins (YTXs) and okadaic acid (OA) toxin groups in southern Chile is a constant challenge for the development of miticulture considering the high incidence of toxic episodes that tend to occur. This research is focused on using methodologies for assessing the decrease in toxins of natural resources in Chile with high value, without altering the organoleptic properties of the shellfish. The species were processed through steaming (1 min at 121°C) and subsequent canning (5 min at 121°C). Changes in the profiles of toxins and total toxicity levels of LMB in endemic bivalves and gastropods were determined using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The total reduction of toxicity (≈ 15%) was not related to the destruction of the toxin, but rather to the loss of LMB on removing the shells and packing media of canned products (***p < 0.001). Industrial processing of shellfish reduces LMB contents by up to 15% of the total initial contents, concomitant only with the interconversion of PTX-group toxins into PTX-2sa. In soft bottom-dwelling species with toxicities beyond the standard for safe human consumption (≥ 160 μg OA-eq kg-1), toxicity can be reduced to safe levels through industrial preparation procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos García
- a Laboratory of Marine Toxins, Physiology and Biophysics Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine , Universidad de Chile , Santiago , Chile
| | - Javiera Oyaneder-Terrazas
- a Laboratory of Marine Toxins, Physiology and Biophysics Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine , Universidad de Chile , Santiago , Chile
| | - Cristóbal Contreras
- a Laboratory of Marine Toxins, Physiology and Biophysics Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine , Universidad de Chile , Santiago , Chile
| | - Miguel Del Campo
- b Departamento de Investigación y Desarrollo , Fundación Ciencia y Tecnología para el Desarrollo , Santiago , Chile
| | - Rafael Torres
- c Departamento de Investigación , Departamento de Estudios de la Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional , Santiago , Chile
| | - Héctor R Contreras
- d Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Andrology, Physiology and Biophysics Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine , Universidad de Chile , Santiago , Chile
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25
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Ferreiro SF, Vilariño N, Carrera C, Louzao MC, Cantalapiedra AG, Santamarina G, Cifuentes JM, Vieira AC, Botana LM. Subacute Cardiotoxicity of Yessotoxin: In Vitro and in Vivo Studies. Chem Res Toxicol 2016; 29:981-90. [PMID: 27104637 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.6b00012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Yessotoxin (YTX) is a marine phycotoxin produced by dinoflagellates and accumulated in filter feeding shellfish. Although no human intoxication episodes have been reported, YTX content in shellfish is regulated by many food safety authorities due to their worldwide distribution. YTXs have been related to ultrastructural heart damage in vivo, but the functional consequences in the long term have not been evaluated. In this study, we explored the accumulative cardiotoxic potential of YTX in vitro and in vivo. Preliminary in vitro evaluation of cardiotoxicity was based on the effect on hERG (human ether-a-go-go related gene) channel trafficking. In vivo experiments were performed in rats that received repeated administrations of YTX followed by recordings of electrocardiograms, arterial blood pressure, plasmatic cardiac biomarkers, and analysis of myocardium structure and ultrastructure. Our results showed that an exposure to 100 nM YTX for 12 or 24 h caused an increase of extracellular surface hERG channels. Furthermore, remarkable bradycardia and hypotension, structural heart alterations, and increased plasma levels of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1 were observed in rats after four intraperitoneal injections of YTX at doses of 50 or 70 μg/kg that were administered every 4 days along a period of 15 days. Therefore, and for the first time, YTX-induced subacute cardiotoxicity is supported by evidence of cardiovascular function alterations related to its repeated administration. Considering international criteria for marine toxin risk estimation and that the regulatory limit for YTX has been recently raised in many countries, YTX cardiotoxicity might pose a health risk to humans and especially to people with previous cardiovascular risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara F Ferreiro
- Departamento de Farmacología, ‡Departamento de Ciencias Clínicas Veterinarias, §Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina and ∥Departamento de Anatomía y Producción Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela , 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Natalia Vilariño
- Departamento de Farmacología, ‡Departamento de Ciencias Clínicas Veterinarias, §Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina and ∥Departamento de Anatomía y Producción Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela , 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Cristina Carrera
- Departamento de Farmacología, ‡Departamento de Ciencias Clínicas Veterinarias, §Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina and ∥Departamento de Anatomía y Producción Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela , 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - M Carmen Louzao
- Departamento de Farmacología, ‡Departamento de Ciencias Clínicas Veterinarias, §Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina and ∥Departamento de Anatomía y Producción Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela , 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Antonio G Cantalapiedra
- Departamento de Farmacología, ‡Departamento de Ciencias Clínicas Veterinarias, §Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina and ∥Departamento de Anatomía y Producción Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela , 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Germán Santamarina
- Departamento de Farmacología, ‡Departamento de Ciencias Clínicas Veterinarias, §Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina and ∥Departamento de Anatomía y Producción Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela , 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - J Manuel Cifuentes
- Departamento de Farmacología, ‡Departamento de Ciencias Clínicas Veterinarias, §Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina and ∥Departamento de Anatomía y Producción Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela , 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Andrés C Vieira
- Departamento de Farmacología, ‡Departamento de Ciencias Clínicas Veterinarias, §Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina and ∥Departamento de Anatomía y Producción Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela , 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Luis M Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, ‡Departamento de Ciencias Clínicas Veterinarias, §Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina and ∥Departamento de Anatomía y Producción Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela , 27002 Lugo, Spain
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26
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Rangel LM, Ger KA, Silva LHS, Soares MCS, Faassen EJ, Lürling M. Toxicity Overrides Morphology on Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii Grazing Resistance to the Calanoid Copepod Eudiaptomus gracilis. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2016; 71:835-844. [PMID: 26888523 PMCID: PMC4823325 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-016-0734-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2015] [Accepted: 01/31/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Toxicity and morphology may function as defense mechanisms of bloom-forming cyanobacteria against zooplankton grazing. Yet, the relative importance of each of these factors and their plasticity remains poorly known. We tested the effects of chemical and morphological traits of the bloom-forming cyanobacterium Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii on the feeding response of the selective feeder Eudiaptomus gracilis (Calanoida, Copepoda), using a saxitoxin-producing strain (STX+) and a non-saxitoxin (STX-)-producing strain as food. From these two chemotypes, we established cultures of three different morphotypes that differed in filament length (short, medium, and long) by incubating the strains at 17, 25, and 32 °C. We hypothesized that the inhibitory effects of saxitoxins determine the avoidance of C. raciborskii, and that morphology would only become relevant in the absence of saxitoxins. Temperature affected two traits: higher temperature resulted in significantly shorter filaments in both strains and led to much higher toxin contents in the STX+ strain (1.7 μg eq STX L(-1) at 17 °C, 7.9 μg eq STX L(-1) at 25 °C, and 25.1 μg eq STX L(-1) at 32 °C). Copepods strongly reduced the ingestion of the STX+ strain in comparison with STX- cultures, regardless of filament length. Conversely, consumption of shorter filaments was significantly higher in the STX- strain. The great plasticity of morphological and chemical traits of C. raciborskii and their resultant contrasting effects on the feeding behavior of zooplankton might explain the success of this cyanobacterium in a variety of aquatic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciana M Rangel
- Departamento de Botânica - Museu Nacional, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 20940-040, Brazil.
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Aquatic Ecology and Water Quality Management Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
- Laboratório de Ecofisiologia e Toxicologia de Cianobactérias, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Avenida Carlos Chagas Filho, CCS-Bloco G-Cidade Universitária, Rio de Janeiro, 21941599, RJ, Brazil.
| | - Kemal A Ger
- Departamento de Ecologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - Lúcia H S Silva
- Departamento de Botânica - Museu Nacional, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 20940-040, Brazil
| | - Maria Carolina S Soares
- Departamento de Engenharia Sanitária e Ambiental, Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, MG, Brazil
| | - Elisabeth J Faassen
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Aquatic Ecology and Water Quality Management Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Miquel Lürling
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Aquatic Ecology and Water Quality Management Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Aquatic Ecology, Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW), Wageningen, The Netherlands
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27
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Fraga M, Vilariño N, Louzao MC, Fernández DA, Poli M, Botana LM. Detection of palytoxin-like compounds by a flow cytometry-based immunoassay supported by functional and analytical methods. Anal Chim Acta 2015; 903:1-12. [PMID: 26709295 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2015.09.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2015] [Revised: 09/15/2015] [Accepted: 09/20/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Palytoxin (PLTX) is a complex marine toxin produced by zoanthids (i.e. Palythoa), dinoflagellates (Ostreopsis) and cyanobacteria (Trichodesmium). PLTX outbreaks are usually associated with Indo-Pacific waters, however their recent repeated occurrence in Mediterranean-European Atlantic coasts demonstrate their current worldwide distribution. Human sickness and fatalities have been associated with toxic algal blooms and ingestion of seafood contaminated with PLTX-like molecules. These toxins represent a serious threat to human health. There is an immediate need to develop easy-to-use, rapid detection methods due to the lack of validated protocols for their detection and quantification. We have developed an immuno-detection method for PLTX-like molecules based on the use of microspheres coupled to flow-cytometry detection (Luminex 200™). The assay consisted of the competition between free PLTX-like compounds in solution and PLTX immobilized on the surface of microspheres for binding to a specific monoclonal anti-PLTX antibody. This method displays an IC50 of 1.83 ± 0.21 nM and a dynamic range of 0.47-6.54 nM for PLTX. An easy-to-perform extraction protocol, based on a mixture of methanol and acetate buffer, was applied to spiked mussel samples providing a recovery rate of 104 ± 8% and a range of detection from 374 ± 81 to 4430 ± 150 μg kg(-1) when assayed with this method. Extracts of Ostreopsis cf. siamensis and Palythoa tuberculosa were tested and yielded positive results for PLTX-like molecules. However, the data obtained for the coral sample suggested that this antibody did not detect 42-OH-PLTX efficiently. The same samples were further analyzed using a neuroblastoma cytotoxicity assay and UPLC-IT-TOF spectrometry, which also pointed to the presence of PLTX-like compounds. Therefore, this single detection method for PLTX provides a semi-quantitative tool useful for the screening of PLTX-like molecules in different matrixes.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Fraga
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain
| | - Natalia Vilariño
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain.
| | - M Carmen Louzao
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain
| | - Diego A Fernández
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain
| | - Mark Poli
- Diagnostic Systems Division, U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, MD, USA
| | - Luis M Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain.
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28
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Turner AD, Higgins C, Davidson K, Veszelovszki A, Payne D, Hungerford J, Higman W. Potential threats posed by new or emerging marine biotoxins in UK waters and examination of detection methodology used in their control: brevetoxins. Mar Drugs 2015; 13:1224-54. [PMID: 25775421 PMCID: PMC4377981 DOI: 10.3390/md13031224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2014] [Revised: 02/11/2015] [Accepted: 02/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Regular occurrence of brevetoxin-producing toxic phytoplankton in commercial shellfishery areas poses a significant risk to shellfish consumer health. Brevetoxins and their causative toxic phytoplankton are more limited in their global distribution than most marine toxins impacting commercial shellfisheries. On the other hand, trends in climate change could conceivably lead to increased risk posed by these toxins in UK waters. A request was made by UK food safety authorities to examine these toxins more closely to aid possible management strategies, should they pose a threat in the future. At the time of writing, brevetoxins have been detected in the Gulf of Mexico, the Southeast US coast and in New Zealand waters, where regulatory levels for brevetoxins in shellfish have existed for some time. This paper reviews evidence concerning the prevalence of brevetoxins and brevetoxin-producing phytoplankton in the UK, together with testing methodologies. Chemical, biological and biomolecular methods are reviewed, including recommendations for further work to enable effective testing. Although the focus here is on the UK, from a strategic standpoint many of the topics discussed will also be of interest in other parts of the world since new and emerging marine biotoxins are of global concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Cowan Higgins
- Agri-food and Biosciences Institute (AFBI), Newforge Lane, Belfast BT9 5PX, UK.
| | - Keith Davidson
- Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS), Oban, Argyll PA37 1QA, UK.
| | | | - Daniel Payne
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
- University of Surrey, School of Biosciences and Medicine, Guildford, Surrey GU2 7TE, UK.
| | - James Hungerford
- United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA), 22201 23rd Dr, S.E., Bothell, WA 98021, USA.
| | - Wendy Higman
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
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