The Status of Fusarium Mycotoxins in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review of Emerging Trends and Post-Harvest Mitigation Strategies towards Food Control

Multiple mycotoxins associated with maize (Zea mays L.) grains harvested from subsistence farmers' fields in southwestern Ethiopia

Fifty-four maize grain samples freshly harvested from subsistence farmers' fields in southwestern Ethiopia were analyzed for multiple mycotoxins using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric (LC-MS/MS) method following extraction by acetonitrile/water/acetic acid on a rotary shaker. The grain samples were contaminated with a total of 164 metabolites, of which Fusarium and Penicillium metabolites were the most prevalent accounting for 27 and 30%, respectively. All the major mycotoxins and derivatives except one (citrinin) were of Fusarium origin. Zearalenone was the most frequent major mycotoxin occurring in 74% of the samples at concentrations of 0.32-1310 µg/kg. It was followed by nivalenol (63%), zearalenone-sulfate (44%), and fumonisin B1 (41%). Nivalenol, nivalenol glucoside, and fusarenon-X were detected at unusually high levels of 8-1700 µg/kg, 21-184 µg/kg, and 33-149 µg/kg, respectively. Deoxynivalenol and DON-3 glucoside contaminated 32% of the samples, each at levels of 15.9-5140 µg/kg and 10-583 µg/kg, respectively. Moniliformin and W493B occurred in 96 and 22% samples at levels of 3.27-4410 µg/kg and 3-652 µg/kg, respectively. Fumonisins were also detected in the samples at levels of 9-6770 µg/kg (B1), 16-1830 µg/kg (B2), 9.5-808 µg/kg (B3), and 1.3-128 µg/kg (A1). This study confirmed the presence of an array of mycotoxins contaminating maize grains right from the field. The effect of the co-occurring mycotoxins on consumers' health should be investigated along with that of the newly emerging ones. Results of the current study call for application of pre-harvest mycotoxin mitigation strategies to safeguard maize-based food and feed.

Aspergillus and Fusarium Mycotoxin Contamination in Maize (Zea mays L.): The Interplay of Nitrogen Fertilization and Hybrids Selection

Maize plays a significant global role as a food source, feed, and as a raw material in industry. However, it is affected by toxin-producing fungi, mainly Fusarium graminearum, Fusarium verticillioides, and Aspergillus flavus, which compromise its quality. This study, conducted in 2022 and 2023 at the Látókép long-term research site of the University of Debrecen, Hungary, investigated the effects of different nitrogen fertilization rates (0, 90 and 150 Kgha-1 N) on mycotoxin contamination (DON vs. FB vs. AFB1) in the kernels of three (3) maize hybrids: DKC4590 (tolerant), GKT376 (sensitive), and P9610 (undefined). The results showed a significant (p = 0.05) influence of nitrogen fertilization and maize genotype on mycotoxin levels. Sole nitrogen impacts were complex and did not define a clear trend, contrary to the hybrids selected, which followed superiority to resistance. Increased nitrogen fertilization was associated with higher DON production, while hybrid selection demonstrated a clearer trend in resistance to mycotoxins. Therefore, to maximize yield and minimize mycotoxin contamination, future research should focus on optimizing nitrogen application rates and breeding for resistance to balance yield and mycotoxin management. These results suggest that while nitrogen fertilization is crucial for maximizing yield, selecting less susceptible maize hybrids remains vital for minimizing mycotoxin contamination.

Dietary aflatoxins exposure, environmental enteropathy, and their relation with childhood stunting

Childhood stunting is a global phenomenon affecting more than 149 million children under the age of 5 worldwide. Exposure to aflatoxins (AFs) in utero, during breastfeeding, and consumption of contaminated food affect the gut microbiome, resulting in intestinal dysfunction and potentially contributing to stunting. This review explores the potential relationship between AF exposure, environmental enteropathy and childhood stunting. AFs bind to DNA, disrupt protein synthesis and elicit environmental enteropathy (EE). An EE alters the structure of intestinal epithelial cells, impairs nutrient uptake and leads to malabsorption. This article proposes possible intervention strategies for researchers and policymakers to reduce AF exposure, EE and childhood stunting, such as exposure reduction, the implementation of good agricultural practices, dietary diversification and improving environmental water sanitation and hygiene.

Toxicity, biodegradation, and nutritional intervention mechanism of zearalenone

Zearalenone (ZEA), a global mycotoxin commonly found in a variety of grain products and animal feed, causes damage to the gastrointestinal tract, immune organs, liver and reproductive system. Many treatments, including physical, chemical and biological methods, have been reported for the degradation of ZEA. Each degradation method has different degradation efficacies and distinct mechanisms. In this article, the global pollution status, hazard and toxicity of ZEA are summarized. We also review the biological detoxification methods and nutritional regulation strategies for alleviating the toxicity of ZEA. Moreover, we discuss the molecular detoxification mechanism of ZEA to help explore more efficient detoxification methods to better reduce the global pollution and hazard of ZEA.

Assessment of dietary exposure and levels of mycotoxins in sorghum from Niger State of Nigeria

This study reports levels of mycotoxins in sorghum from Niger State, Nigeria, and provides a comprehensive assessment of their potential health risks by combining mycotoxin levels and dietary exposure assessment. A total of 240 samples of red and white sorghum were collected from both stores and markets across four microclimatic zones. Fungal species were identified using a dilution plate method. Aflatoxins (AFs), deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, and ochratoxin (OTA) were quantified using HPLC, whereas cyclopiazonic acid, fumonisins (FUMs) and zearalenone were quantified using ELISA. A. flavus and A. fumigatus were dominant fungal species followed by F. verticilloides, A. oryzae and P. verrucosum. Aflatoxins (mean: 29.97 µg/kg) were detected in all samples, whereas OTA (mean: 37.5 µg/kg) and FUMs (mean: 3269.8 µg/kg) were detected in 72% and 50% of the samples, respectively. Mycotoxins frequently co-occurred in binary mixtures of AFs + OTA and AFs + FUMs. Dietary exposure estimates were highest for FUMs at 230% of TDI and margin of exposures (MOEs) for both AFs and OTA (<10,000) indicating a potential risk associated with combined exposure to AFs and OTA. The Risk of hepatocellular carcinoma cases (HCC/year) attributable to AFs and OTA exposure from sorghum was estimated to be 5.99 × 105 and 0.24 × 105 cases for HBsAg + individuals based on 13.6% HBV incidence. Similarly, the HCC/year for AFs and OTA were assessed to be 3.59 × 105 and 0.14 × 105 at an 8.1% prevalence rate. Therefore, the results of this study demonstrate the high prevalence and dietary exposure to mycotoxins through sorghum consumption, raising public health and trade concerns.

In vitro and Quantitative and Structure Activity Relationship (QSAR) evaluation of the antifungal activity of terpenoid constituents of essential oils against Alternaria alternata and Fusarium oxysporum

INTRODUCTION

Fungal genera Alternaria and Fusarium include human and plant pathogenic species. Several antifungals have been used for their control, but excessive use has contributed to resistance development in pathogens. An alternative to searching for and developing new antifungal agents is using essential oils and their main components, which have biological activities of interest in medicine and food production.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate in vitro and in silico the antifungal activities of terpenoids against Alternaria alternata and Fusarium oxysporum.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum fungicidal concentration values of 27 constituents of essential oils used against Alternaria alternata and Fusarium oxysporum were evaluated in vitro. In addition, using genetic algorithms, quantitative models of the structure-activity relationship were used to identify the structural and physicochemical properties related to antifungal activity.

RESULTS

The evaluated compounds proved to be effective antifungals. Thymol was the most active with a minimum inhibitory concentration of 91.6 ± 28.8 μg/ml for A. alternata and F. oxysporum. Quantitative structure-activity relationship models revealed the octanolwater cleavage ratio as the molecular property, and the phenols as the main functional group contributing to antifungal activity.

CONCLUSION

Terpenoids exhibit relevant antifungal activities that should be incorporated into the study of medicinal chemistry. Inclusion of in silico assays in the in vitro evaluation is a valuable tool in the search for and rational design of terpene derivatives as new potential antifungal agents.

Fusarium Species and Mycotoxins Associated with Sorghum Grains in Uruguay

Grain mold and stalk rot are among the fungal diseases that cause significant losses in sorghum worldwide and are caused by different Fusarium spp. The presence of Fusarium species in sorghum grains causes yield losses and mycotoxin contamination, which represents a risk to consumers. In this study, Fusarium graminearum species complex (FGSC) had a high incidence, followed by Fusarium fujikuroi species complex (FFSC) and F. incarnatum-equiseti species complex. Within FFSC, F. proliferatum, F. andiyazi, F. fujikuroi, F. thapsinum, F. verticillioides and F. subglutinans were identified, and this was the first report of F. fujikuroi in sorghum. The most frequent toxins found in sorghum samples were deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN). The presence of fumonisins and nivalenol (NIV) was detected at low levels. This study adds new knowledge about the occurrence of Fusarium species and mycotoxins in sorghum grains. Furthermore, this is the first report in Uruguay on fungicide sensitivity for Fusarium isolates from sorghum, which constitutes an important starting point for defining management practices to minimize fungal infection and mycotoxin contamination.

Gut-Faecal Microbial and Health-Marker Response to Dietary Fumonisins in Weaned Pigs

This study investigated effects of dietary fumonisins (FBs) on gut and faecal microbiota of weaned pigs. In total, 18 7-week-old male pigs were fed either 0, 15 or 30 mg FBs (FB₁ + FB₂ + FB₃)/kg diet for 21 days. The microbiota was analysed with amplicon sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene V3-V4 regions (Illumina MiSeq). Results showed no treatment effect (p > 0.05) on growth performance, serum reduced glutathione, glutathione peroxidase and malondialdehyde. FBs increased serum aspartate transaminase, gamma glutamyl-transferase and alkaline phosphatase activities. A 30 mg/kg FBs treatment shifted microbial population in the duodenum and ileum to lower levels (compared to control (p < 0.05)) of the families Campylobacteraceae and Clostridiaceae, respectively, as well as the genera Alloprevotella, Campylobacter and Lachnospiraceae Incertae Sedis (duodenum), Turicibacter (jejunum), and Clostridium sensu stricto 1 (ileum). Faecal microbiota had higher levels of the Erysipelotrichaceae and Ruminococcaceae families and Solobacterium, Faecalibacterium, Anaerofilum, Ruminococcus, Subdoligranulum, Pseudobutyrivibrio, Coprococcus and Roseburia genera in the 30 mg/kg FBs compared to control and/or to the 15 mg/kg FBs diets. Lactobacillus was more abundant in the duodenum compared to faeces in all treatment groups (p < 0.01). Overall, the 30 mg/kg FBs diet altered the pig gut microbiota without suppressing animal growth performance.

Discrimination of Deoxynivalenol Levels of Barley Kernels Using Hyperspectral Imaging in Tandem with Optimized Convolutional Neural Network

Deoxynivalenol (DON) in raw and processed grain poses significant risks to human and animal health. In this study, the feasibility of classifying DON levels in different genetic lines of barley kernels was evaluated using hyperspectral imaging (HSI) (382-1030 nm) in tandem with an optimized convolutional neural network (CNN). Machine learning methods including logistic regression, support vector machine, stochastic gradient descent, K nearest neighbors, random forest, and CNN were respectively used to develop the classification models. Spectral preprocessing methods including wavelet transform and max-min normalization helped to enhance the performance of different models. A simplified CNN model showed better performance than other machine learning models. Competitive adaptive reweighted sampling (CARS) in combination with successive projections algorithm (SPA) was applied to select the best set of characteristic wavelengths. Based on seven wavelengths selected, the optimized CARS-SPA-CNN model distinguished barley grains with low levels of DON (<5 mg/kg) from those with higher levels (5 mg/kg < DON ≤ 14 mg/kg) with an accuracy of 89.41%. The lower levels of DON class I (0.19 mg/kg ≤ DON ≤ 1.25 mg/kg) and class II (1.25 mg/kg < DON ≤ 5 mg/kg) were successfully distinguished based on the optimized CNN model, yielding a precision of 89.81%. The results suggest that HSI in tandem with CNN has great potential for discrimination of DON levels of barley kernels.

Genetic diversity of toxigenic Fusarium verticillioides associated with maize grains, India

In the present investigation, prevalence, genetic diversity, and mycotoxin producing potential of Fusarium species associated with maize grain samples were studied from different geographical regions of India. The highest prevalence of Fusarium verticillioides was recorded as 88.52%, followed by F. coffeatum, F. foetens, and F. euwallaceae, 6.55%, 3.27%, and 1.63%, respectively. We isolated 54 strains of F. verticillioides, and their genetic diversity was studied by inter simple sequence repeats (ISSR). The ISSR fingerprints (AG) 8C and (AG) 8G showed 252 and 368 microsatellite sites in the genome of F. verticillioides and resulted in 99-100% repeatability and reproducibility. The Simpson (SID) and Shannon (H) indices (0.78 and 2.36) suggest that F. verticillioides strains exhibit moderate to high diversity. Molecular detection of fumonisin B1 (FB1) biosynthetic genes (FUM1 and FUM13) involved in FB1 production in F. verticillioides was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Furthermore, 91% of the strains were positive for FB1 production, which was affirmed by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS). In-vitro appurtenance of F. verticillioides spores exhibited a high to moderate effect on the growth and development of the maize. The current finding demonstrated that most F. verticillioides strains showed a wide range of genetic diversity with varied toxigenic and pathogenic potentials. In conclusion, for the first time, F. coffeatum, F. foetens, and F. euwallaceae species were reported from maize grain samples in India. They were positive for FB1 and negatively affecting grain quality, which is a major concern in food safety.

Transcriptome Profile of Fusarium graminearum Treated by Putrescine

Fusarium graminearum (F. graminearum) is the main pathogen of Fusarium head blight (FHB) in wheat, barley, and corn. Deoxynivalenol (DON), produced by F. graminearum, is the most prevalent toxin associated with FHB. The wheat defense compound putrescine can promote DON production during F. graminearum infection. However, the underlying mechanisms of putrescine-induced DON synthesis are not well-studied. To investigate the effect of putrescine on the global transcriptional regulation of F. graminearum, we treated F. graminearum with putrescine and performed RNA deep sequencing. We found that putrescine can largely affect the transcriptome of F. graminearum. Gene ontology (GO) and KEGG enrichment analysis revealed that having a large amount of DEGs was associated with ribosome biogenesis, carboxylic acid metabolism, glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, and amino acid metabolism pathways. Co-expression analysis showed that 327 genes had similar expression patterns to FgTRI genes and were assigned to the same module. In addition, three transcription factor genes were identified as hub genes in this module, indicating that they may play important roles in DON synthesis. These results provide important clues for further analysis of the molecular mechanisms of putrescine-induced DON synthesis and will facilitate the study of the pathogenic mechanisms of FHB.

Traditional and emerging Fusarium mycotoxins disrupt homeostasis of bovine mammary cells by altering cell permeability and innate immune function

High incidence of traditional and emerging Fusarium mycotoxins in cereal grains and silages can be a potential threat to feed safety and ruminants. Inadequate biodegradation of Fusarium mycotoxins by rumen microflora following ingestion of mycotoxin-contaminated feeds can lead to their circulatory transport to target tissues such as mammary gland. The bovine udder plays a pivotal role in maintaining milk yield and composition, thus, human health. However, toxic effects of Fusarium mycotoxins on bovine mammary gland are rarely studied. In this study, the bovine mammary epithelial cell line was used as an in-vitro model of bovine mammary epithelium to investigate effects of deoxynivalenol (DON), enniatin B (ENB) and beauvericin (BEA) on bovine mammary gland homeostasis. Results indicated that exposure to DON, ENB and BEA for 48 h significantly decreased cell viability in a concentration-dependent manner (P < 0.001). Exposure to DON at 0.39 μmol/L and BEA at 2.5 μmol/L for 48 h also decreased paracellular flux of FITC-40 kDa dextran (P < 0.05), whereas none of the mycotoxins affected transepithelial electrical resistance after 48 h exposure. The qPCR was performed for assessment of expression of gene coding tight junction (TJ) proteins, toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and cytokines after 4, 24 and 48 h of exposure. DON, ENB and BEA significantly upregulated the TJ protein zonula occludens-1, whereas markedly downregulated claudin 3 (P < 0.05). Exposure to DON at 1.35 μmol/L for 4 h significantly increased expression of occludin (P < 0.01). DON, ENB and BEA significant downregulated TLR4 (P < 0.05). In contrast, ENB markedly increased expression of cytokines interleukin-6 (IL-6) (P < 0.001), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-a) (P < 0.05) and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) (P < 0.01). BEA significantly upregulated IL- 6 (P < 0.001) and TGF-β (P = 0.01), but downregulated TNF-α (P < 0.001). These results suggest that DON, ENB and BEA can disrupt mammary gland homeostasis by inducing cell death as well as altering its paracellular permeability and expression of genes involved in innate immune function.

Ochratoxin A and Citrinin Differentially Modulate Bovine Mammary Epithelial Cell Permeability and Innate Immune Function

Frequent detection of mycotoxins ochratoxin A (OTA) and citrinin (CIT) in ruminant feed and feedstuff can be a potential threat to feed safety, animal performance and health. Ineffective biodegradation of these mycotoxins by rumen microflora following ingestion of contaminated feeds can lead to their circulatory transport to tissues such as mammary gland as the result of their biodistribution throughout the body. The bovine mammary epithelium plays a pivotal role in maintaining milk yield and composition and contributes to innate immune defense of the udder. The present study is the first to investigate individual effects of OTA and CIT on barrier and innate immune functions of the bovine mammary epithelium using a bovine mammary epithelial cell line (MAC-T). Results indicated that OTA and CIT exposure for 48 h significantly decreased cell viability in a concentration-dependent manner (p < 0.05). A decrease in transepithelial electrical resistance and increase in paracellular flux of FITC-40 kDa dextran was significantly induced by OTA treatment (p < 0.05), but not by CIT after 48 h exposure. qPCR was performed for assessment of expression of tight-junction proteins, Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and cytokines after 4, 24 and 48 h of exposure. Both OTA and CIT markedly downregulated expression of claudin 3 and occludin (p < 0.05), whereas CIT did not affect zonula occludens-1 expression. Expression of TLR4 was significantly upregulated by OTA (p < 0.001) but downregulated by CIT (p < 0.05) at 48 h. Expression of IL-6, TNF-a and TGF-β was significantly upregulated by OTA (p < 0.05), whereas IL-6 and TGF-β expression was downregulated by CIT (p < 0.01). These results suggest that OTA and CIT could potentially differentially modulate barrier and innate immune functions of mammary epithelium. The present study not only throws light on the individual toxicity of each mycotoxin on bovine mammary epithelium but also lays the foundation for future studies on the combined effects of the two mycotoxins.

The importance and mitigation of mycotoxins and plant toxins in Southeast Asian fermented foods

Fermented foods (ffs) and beverages are widely consumed in Southeast Asia (SEA) for their nutritional balance, flavor, and food security. They serve as vehicles for beneficial microorganisms performing a significant role in human health. However, there are still major challenges concerning the safety of ffs and beverages due to the presence of natural toxins. In this review, the common toxins found in traditional ffs in SEA are discussed with special reference to mycotoxins and plant toxins. Also, mitigation measures for preventing risks associated with their consumption are outlined. Ochratoxin, citrinin, aflatoxins were reported to be major mycotoxins present in SEA ffs. In addition, soybean-based ff food products were more vulnerable to mycotoxin contaminations. Common plant toxins recorded in ffs include cyanogenic glycosides, oxalates, phytates and saponins. Combined management strategies such as pre-harvest, harvest and post-harvest control and decontamination, through the integration of different control methods such as the use of clean seeds, biological control methods, fermentation, appropriate packaging systems, and controlled processing conditions are needed for the safe consumption of indigenous ffs in SEA.

A review of toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in feeds and food commodities in West Africa

Fungal contamination is a threat to food safety in West Africa with implications for food and feed due to their climate, which is characterised by high temperatures and high relative humidity, which are environmental favourable for fast fungal growth and mycotoxin production. This report gives perspective on studies on toxigenic fungi (Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium) and their toxins, mainly aflatoxins, fumonisins and ochratoxins commonly found in some West African countries, including Benin, Burkina Faso, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo. Only four of these countries have mycotoxins regulations in place for feeds and food products (Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, and Senegal). Food commodities that are widely consumed and were thoroughly investigated in this region include cereals, peanuts, cassava chips (flakes), cassava flour, chilies, peanuts, locust beans, melon, and yam products. In conclusion, authorities and scientists needed to consider research and approaches to monitor mycotoxins in foods and feeds produced and consumed in West Africa.

Nanoarchitectonics of graphene based sensors for food safety monitoring

Since the desire for the real-time food quality monitoring, plenty of research effort has been made to develop novel tools and to offer extremely efficient detection of food contaminants. Unique electrical, mechanical, and thermal properties make graphene an important material in the field of sensor research. The material can be manufactured into flakes, sheets, films and with its oxidized derivatives could be almost used for a limitless set of application. Herein, current graphene-based sensors for food quality monitoring, novel designs, sensing mechanisms and elements of sensor systems and potential challenges will be outlined and discussed.

The Mycobiome: Cancer Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Therapy

Cancer is among the leading causes of death globally. Despite advances in cancer research, a full understanding of the exact cause has not been established. Recent data have shown that the microbiome has an important relationship with cancer on various levels, including cancer pathogenesis, diagnosis and prognosis, and treatment. Since most studies have focused only on the role of bacteria in this process, in this article we review the role of fungi-another important group of the microbiome, the totality of which is referred to as the "mycobiome"-in the development of cancer and how it can impact responses to anticancer medications. Furthermore, we provide recent evidence that shows how the different microbial communities interact and affect each other at gastrointestinal and non-gastrointestinal sites, including the skin, thereby emphasizing the importance of investigating the microbiome beyond bacteria.

In Vitro Effects of Lemon Balm Extracts in Reducing the Growth and Mycotoxins Biosynthesis of Fusarium culmorum and F. proliferatum

The objectives of this research were to obtain the extracts of lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) using supercritical CO2 (SC-CO2) and methanol as co-solvent and evaluate the antifungal activity of those extracts against two selected strains of Fusarium species (Fusarium culmorum and Fusarium proliferatum). The extraction conditions were set at 40 and 60 °C and 250 bar. The obtained extracts were characterized in terms of antifungal activity on potato dextrose agar media (PDA). The results showed that the extraction parameters had different effects on mycelium growth and mycotoxins biosynthesis reduction. All studied lemon balm extracts (1, 2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10%) inhibited the growth of F. proliferatum and F. culmorum mycelia compared to the control. The lemon balm extracts significantly reduced ergosterol content and synthesized mycotoxins in both tested strains. These findings support the antifungal activity of lemon balm extracts against F. proliferatum and F. culmorum. However, more research on other Fusarium species is needed, as well as in vivo applications, before considering lemon balm extracts as a natural alternative to synthetic fungicides.

Fungal diversity and mycotoxins detected in maize stored in silo-bags: a review

Silo-bags are hermetic storage systems that inhibit fungal growth because of their atmosphere with low humidity, as well as low pH and O₂ concentrations, and a high CO₂ concentration. If a silo-bag with stored maize loses its hermetic nature, it favors the development of fungi and the production of mycotoxins. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first review on the diversity of fungal species and mycotoxins that were reported in maize stored under the environmental conditions provided by silo-bags. The genera Penicillium, Aspergillus and Fusarium were found more frequently, whereas Acremonium spp., Alternaria sp., Candida sp., Cladosporium sp., Debaryomyces spp., Epiconum sp., Eupenicillium spp., Eurotium sp., Eurotium amstelodami, Hyphopichia spp., Hyphopichia burtonii, Moniliella sp., Wallemia sp. and genera within the orden Mucorales were reported less recurrently. Despite finding a great fungal diversity, all of the studies focused their investigations on a small group of toxins: fumonisins (FBs), aflatoxins (AFs), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA), patulin (PAT), toxin T2 (T2) and ochratoxin (OT). Of the FBs, fumonisin B₁ and fumonisin B₂ presented higher incidence percentages, followed by fumonisin B₃ . Of the AFs, the only one reported was aflatoxin B_1. The mycotoxins DON, ZEA and OT were found with lower incidences, whereas PAT and T2 were not detected. Good management practices of the silo-bags are necessary to achieve a hermetically sealed environment, without exchange of gases and water with the external environment during the storage period. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Six Main Contributing Factors to High Levels of Mycotoxin Contamination in African Foods

Africa is one of the regions with high mycotoxin contamination of foods and continues to record high incidences of liver cancers globally. The agricultural sector of most African countries depends largely on climate variables for crop production. Production of mycotoxins is climate-sensitive. Most stakeholders in the food production chain in Africa are not aware of the health and economic effects of consuming contaminated foods. The aim of this review is to evaluate the main factors and their degree of contribution to the high levels of mycotoxins in African foods. Thus, knowledge of the contributions of different factors responsible for high levels of these toxins will be a good starting point for the effective mitigation of mycotoxins in Africa. Google Scholar was used to conduct a systemic search. Six factors were found to be linked to high levels of mycotoxins in African foods, in varying degrees. Climate change remains the main driving factor in the production of mycotoxins. The other factors are partly man-made and can be manipulated to become a more profitable or less climate-sensitive response. Awareness of the existence of these mycotoxins and their economic as well as health consequences remains paramount. The degree of management of these factors regarding mycotoxins varies from one region of the world to another.

Antioxidant, Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Properties of Glechoma hederacea Extracts Obtained by Supercritical Fluid Extraction, Using Different Extraction Conditions

Glechoma hederacea var. longituba is a herbaceous plant from the Lamiaceae family, used in herbal medicine. In this work, we aimed to assess the total phenolic content, antioxidant, antimicrobial and antibiofilm activity of extracts obtained from G. hederacea via supercritical dioxide extraction with methanol as a co-solvent under different extraction conditions. The results showed that the activity of the obtained SC-CO2 extracts is strongly dependent on the extraction temperature. Significantly higher total polyphenol content, as well as antioxidant and antimicrobial activity towards bacteria and yeasts, was observed in the extract obtained at 40 °C, compared to extracts obtained at 50 °C and 60 °C; however, antifungal activity against filamentous fungi was not dependent on the extraction conditions. Antimicrobial activity also depended on the microorganism type. Higher sensitivity was exhibited by Gram-positive bacteria than by Gram-negative bacteria, with S. aureus and P. aeruginosa being the most sensitive species among each group. The most susceptible fungi were Candida albicans and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. The antibiofilm activity was differentiated and depended on the extraction conditions, the microorganism and the method of biofilm treatment. All tested extracts inhibited biofilm formation, with the extract obtained at 40 °C showing the highest value, whereas only extract obtained at 60 °C efficiently removed mature biofilm.

Updates on food and feed mycotoxin contamination and safety in Africa with special reference to Nigeria

Mycotoxin contamination of food and feed is a major concern in sub-Sahara African countries, particularly Nigeria. It represents a significant limit to health of human, livestock as well as the international trade. Aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochratoxin, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol and beauvericin are the major mycotoxins recognised in the aetiology of food safety challenges that precipitated countless number of diseases. In Nigeria, aflatoxins and fumonisin found in nearly all crops are the most common mycotoxins of economic and health importance such as sorghum, maize and groundnuts. Thus, consumption of food contaminated with mycotoxins are inevitable, hence the need for adequate regulation is necessary in these frontier economies as done in many developed economies to ensure food safety for human and animals. In low and middle-income countries, especially Nigeria, there is lack of awareness and sufficient information on the risk associated with consequent of mycotoxin contamination on wellbeing of human, animals health and the economy. It is based on the foregoing that this paper summarized the status of mycotoxin present in Nigerian food and feeds relative to the global regulatory standards. This aimed at preventing consuming mycotoxin contaminated food stuff while confronting its associated challenges. Suggestions on some possible control strategies to mitigate vending mycotoxin food and feeds were made.

Fusarium Mycotoxins, Their Metabolites (Free, Emerging, and Masked), Food Safety Concerns, and Health Impacts

The genus Fusarium produces a number of mycotoxins of diverse chemical structures. Fusariotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by toxigenic fungi of the genus Fusarium. The important and commonly encountered fusariotoxins are trichothecenes, fumonisins, and zearalenone. Fusarium mycotoxins pose varying toxicities to humans and/or animals after consumption of contaminated grain. They can cause acute or chronic illness and, in some cases, death. For instance, a range of Fusarium mycotoxins can alter different intestinal defense mechanisms, such as the epithelial integrity, cell proliferation, mucus layer, immunoglobulins, and cytokine production. Of recent concern is the occurrence of emerging and masked Fusarium mycotoxins in agricultural commodities, which may contribute to toxic health effects, although the metabolic fate of masked mycotoxins still remains a matter of scientific discussion. These mycotoxins have attracted attention worldwide because of their impact on human and animal health, animal productivity, and the associated economic losses. In this paper, we review Fusarium mycotoxins and their metabolites with the aim of summarizing the baseline information on the types, occurrence, and health impacts of these mycotoxins in order to encourage much-needed research on integrated management of this unavoidable food contaminant as concerns for food safety continues to grow worldwide.

Risk assessment of multiple-mycotoxin exposure for consumers of chestnuts in Shandong Province markets in China

In this study, 321 chestnut samples from Shandong Province in China were analysed for the presence of mycotoxins. We screened for 14 mycotoxins including aflatoxins (AFs: AFB₁, AFB₂, AFG₁, AFG₂), deoxynivalenol (DON), 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-ADON), 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (15-ADON), T-2 toxin (T-2), zearalenone (ZEA), ochratoxin A (OTA), fumonisins (FB₁, FB₂, FB₃), and penicillic acid (PeA). Mycotoxins were detected in 56.4% of the samples, and 11 of these mycotoxins were found. Thirty samples from the Shandong Province markets were deemed positive for AFs (9.3%) and had an AFB₁ level of >2 μg/kg or a sum of AFB₁, AFB₂, AFG₁, and AFG₂ that was >4 μg/kg, which exceed the maximum tolerable level of the European regulations standards (EC/188/2006). The contamination level for total mycotoxins found in chestnuts was in the range of 0.6-2,791.0 μg/kg. The estimated daily intake (EDI) values for each individual mycotoxin and for all of the mycotoxins collectively were calculated by both a deterministic approach and a probabilistic approach. For risk characterisation, dietary exposure to DON, ZEA, FBs, and OTA through consumption of chestnuts, analysed according to both approaches, showed no health risk to Chinese adolescents and adults from exposure to either individual mycotoxins or in combination, but more concern should be paid to the AFs for adolescents and adults at a high consumption level. This is believed to be the first work performing risk assessment of multiple mycotoxins specifically for adolescents, including the recently isolated FBs and PeA, which have recently emerged as mycotoxins of concern, in chestnuts of Shandong Province in China.

Isolation, Identification and Characterization of Paenibacillus pabuli E1 to Explore Its Aflatoxin B1 Degradation Potential

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) contamination in feed and food seriously threatens the healthy growth of animals and humans, and it may lead to huge economic losses in livestock and poultry production. Therefore, screening of high-efficient AFB₁-degrading bacteria is necessary to ensure the safety of feed and food. The study aims to isolate and characterize bacteria from various sources to explore its AFB₁ degradation potential. Fifteen bacterial were obtained using a medium containing coumarin as the sole carbon source; only one strain showed a good-degrading ability in culture media by adding AFB₁ and it was selected for further studies. A gram-negative and spore-forming, designated E1, was identified as Paenibacillus pabuli, with the highest sequence similarity to P. pabuli NBRC13638^T (98.97%). The growth of the strain E1 was observed under 22-47 °C, pH 5.5-9.5 and NaCl concentration 0-6% (w/v), with optimum growth at 37 °C, pH 7.5 and 1% NaCl. The biodegradation characteristics of object strain were detected by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The degradation ratio of AFB₁ reached 55% at 24 h and 70.2% at 48 h. After 96 h, the degradation rate of AFB₁ reached 85.9%. The active degradation components were present in the cell-free supernatant of strain E1, and the degradation ratio of AFB₁ reached 80.0% after 96 h. It is the first report that genus Paenibacillus could degrade AFB₁. Moreover, E1 has highly adaptable to diverse environmental conditions. It will be a potential candidate for biodegradation of mycotoxins in feed and food.

DL-Selenomethionine Alleviates Oxidative Stress Induced by Zearalenone via Nrf2/Keap1 Signaling Pathway in IPEC-J2 Cells

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a kind of nonsteroidal mycotoxin that is considered a risk affecting the safety of human food and livestock feed that causes oxidative damages in mammalian cells. Selenomethionine (SeMet) was indicated to have antioxidant activity and received great interest in investigating the role of SeMet as a therapeutic agent in oxidation. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the hormetic role of DL-SeMet in porcine intestinal epithelial J2 (IPEC-J2) cells against ZEN-induced oxidative stress injury. As a result of this experiment, 30 μg/mL of ZEN was observed with significantly statistical effects in cell viability. Following the dose-dependent manner, 20 μg/mL was chosen for the subsequent experiments. Then, further results in the current study showed that the ZENinduced oxidative stress with subsequent suppression of the expression of antioxidant stress pathway-related genes species. Moreover, SeMet reversed the oxidative damage and cell death of ZEN toxins to some extent, by a Nrf2/Keap1-ARE pathway. The finding of this experiment provided a foundation for further research on the ZEN-caused cell oxidative damage and the cure technology.

Transmitting silks of maize have a complex and dynamic microbiome

In corn/maize, silks emerging from cobs capture pollen, and transmit resident sperm nuclei to eggs. There are > 20 million silks per U.S. maize acre. Fungal pathogens invade developing grain using silk channels, including Fusarium graminearum (Fg, temperate environments) and devastating carcinogen-producers (Africa/tropics). Fg contaminates cereal grains with mycotoxins, in particular Deoxynivalenol (DON), known for adverse health effects on humans and livestock. Fitness selection should promote defensive/healthy silks. Here, we report that maize silks, known as styles in other plants, possess complex and dynamic microbiomes at the critical pollen-fungal transmission interval (henceforth: transmitting style microbiome, TSM). Diverse maize genotypes were field-grown in two trial years. MiSeq 16S rRNA gene sequencing of 328 open-pollinated silk samples (healthy/Fg-infected) revealed that the TSM contains > 5000 taxa spanning the prokaryotic tree of life (47 phyla/1300 genera), including nitrogen-fixers. The TSM of silk tip tissue displayed seasonal responsiveness, but possessed a reproducible core of 7–11 MiSeq-amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) dominated by a single Pantoea MiSeq-taxon (15–26% of sequence-counts). Fg-infection collapsed TSM diversity and disturbed predicted metabolic functionality, but doubled overall microbiome size/counts, primarily by elevating 7–25 MiSeq-ASVs, suggestive of a selective microbiome response against infection. This study establishes the maize silk as a model for fundamental/applied research of plant reproductive microbiomes.

Reduction of the Adverse Impacts of Fungal Mycotoxin on Proximate Composition of Feed and Growth Performance in Broilers by Combined Adsorbents

Synergistic interaction of adsorbents in reducing the adverse impacts of mycotoxin on performance and proximate composition of broiler feeds was investigated. Fungal growth was induced by sprinkling water on the feed. S. cerevisiae + bentonite, kaolin + bentonite or S. cerevisiea + kaolin adsorbent combinations (1.5 g/kg feed) were added and the feeds were stored in black polythene bags. An untreated group was kept as a positive control while fresh uncontaminated feed was used as a negative control. Mycotoxins were extracted from the feeds and quantified using reverse phase HPLC. Proximate composition, nutrient digestibility of the feeds, feed intake and weight gain of the broilers were measured. Deoxynivalenol (DON) concentration in the contaminated/untreated feed was 347 µg/kg while aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) was 34 µg/kg. Addition of bentonite and kaolin in the contaminated feed reduced AFB1 and DON to significantly lower levels. Feed intake and weight gain were low in the broilers fed the contaminated feed. The carbohydrate level was significantly (p < 0.05) reduced from 62.31 to 40.10%, crude protein digestibility dropped from 80.67 to 49.03% in the fresh feed and contaminated feed respectively. Addition of the adsorbents (S. cerevisiae and bentonite) significantly (p < 0.05) improved these parameters.

Mycotoxins Affecting Animals, Foods, Humans, and Plants: Types, Occurrence, Toxicities, Action Mechanisms, Prevention, and Detoxification Strategies-A Revisit

Mycotoxins are produced by fungi and are known to be toxic to humans and animals. Common mycotoxins include aflatoxins, ochratoxins, zearalenone, patulin, sterigmatocystin, citrinin, ergot alkaloids, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, trichothecenes, Alternaria toxins, tremorgenic mycotoxins, fusarins, 3-nitropropionic acid, cyclochlorotine, sporidesmin, etc. These mycotoxins can pose several health risks to both animals and humans, including death. As several mycotoxins simultaneously occur in nature, especially in foods and feeds, the detoxification and/or total removal of mycotoxins remains challenging. Moreover, given that the volume of scientific literature regarding mycotoxins is steadily on the rise, there is need for continuous synthesis of the body of knowledge. To supplement existing information, knowledge of mycotoxins affecting animals, foods, humans, and plants, with more focus on types, toxicity, and prevention measures, including strategies employed in detoxification and removal, were revisited in this work. Our synthesis revealed that mycotoxin decontamination, control, and detoxification strategies cut across pre-and post-harvest preventive measures. In particular, pre-harvest measures can include good agricultural practices, fertilization/irrigation, crop rotation, using resistant varieties of crops, avoiding insect damage, early harvesting, maintaining adequate humidity, and removing debris from the preceding harvests. On the other hand, post-harvest measures can include processing, chemical, biological, and physical measures. Additionally, chemical-based methods and other emerging strategies for mycotoxin detoxification can involve the usage of chitosan, ozone, nanoparticles, and plant extracts.

Microbial detoxification of mycotoxins in food and feed

Mycotoxins are metabolites produced by fungi growing in food or feed, which can produce toxic effects and seriously threaten the health of humans and animals. Mycotoxins are commonly found in food and feed, and are of significant concern due to their hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, and ability to damage the immune and reproductive systems. Traditional physical and chemical detoxification methods to treat mycotoxins in food and feed products have limitations, such as loss of nutrients, reagent residues, and secondary pollution to the environment. Thus, there is an urgent need for new detoxification methods to effectively control mycotoxins and treat mycotoxin pollution. In recent years, microbial detoxification technology has been widely used for the degradation of mycotoxins in food and feed because this approach offers the potential for treatment with high efficiency, low toxicity, and strong specificity, without damage to nutrients. This article reviews the application of microbial detoxification technology for removal of common mycotoxins such as Aflatoxin, Ochratoxin, Zearalenone, Deoxynivalenol, and Fumonisins, and discusses the development trend of this important technology.

Occurrence, Impact on Agriculture, Human Health, and Management Strategies of Zearalenone in Food and Feed: A Review

Mycotoxins represent an assorted range of secondary fungal metabolites that extensively occur in numerous food and feed ingredients at any stage during pre- and post-harvest conditions. Zearalenone (ZEN), a mycotoxin categorized as a xenoestrogen poses structural similarity with natural estrogens that enables its binding to the estrogen receptors leading to hormonal misbalance and numerous reproductive diseases. ZEN is mainly found in crops belonging to temperate regions, primarily in maize and other cereal crops that form an important part of various food and feed. Because of the significant adverse effects of ZEN on both human and animal, there is an alarming need for effective detection, mitigation, and management strategies to assure food and feed safety and security. The present review tends to provide an updated overview of the different sources, occurrence and biosynthetic mechanisms of ZEN in various food and feed. It also provides insight to its harmful effects on human health and agriculture along with its effective detection, management, and control strategies.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae, bentonite, and kaolin as adsorbents for reducing the adverse impacts of mycotoxin contaminated feed on broiler histopathology and hemato-biochemical changes

Background and Aim:

Saccharomyces cerevisiae, bentonite and kaolin were used to reduce the adverse effects of mold-contaminated diet on broilers. The aim of the study was to evaluate the impact of S. cerevisiae, bentonite, and kaolin in reducing the adverse effects of mold (fungal) contaminated diet on broilers. Specifically, we investigated the histopathological, hematological, and serum biochemical changes associated with broilers fed mold-contaminated diets supplemented with these three adsorbents. We also isolated and identified the common fungal contaminants in the poultry feeds as well as the mycotoxins they produced.

Materials and Methods:

Hundred broilers (3-weeks-old) were randomly grouped into five dietary treatments, basal feed (negative control), feed contaminated with mold, mold-contaminated feed+S. cerevisiae, mold-contaminated feed+bentonite, and mold-contaminated feed+kaolin. The fungal contaminants in the feeds were isolated and molecularly identified while the mycotoxins in the feed where analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography. Blood samples of birds from each group were analyzed for hematology and serum biochemistry. The liver, spleen, kidney, and bursa of Fabricius of the birds were excised and analyzed for histopathological changes.

Results:

The most common fungal contaminants in the feeds were Penicillium (33.3%) species, followed by Aspergillus species (22.2%). The mold-contaminated feed had the highest number of fungal contaminants, 55.6%, while the negative control (basal feed group) had none. Total aflatoxin and deoxynivalenol were high in the mold-contaminated feed (53.272 μg/kg and 634.5 μg kg, respectively), but these were reduced by the addition of adsorbents to the feed. The birds fed mold-contaminated feed had significantly (p<0.05) reduced red blood cell count counts, packed cell volume, and hemoglobin but increased white blood cell count compared to the negative control. Liver enzyme activity (alanine transaminase, aspartate aminotransferase, and alkaline phosphatase) and cholesterol concentration increased significantly (p<0.05) in the group fed mold-contaminated feed while the serum albumin and total protein decreased significantly (p<0.05) in comparison with the negative control. Adverse histopathological changes were observed in the liver, kidney, spleen, and bursa of Fabricius in the group fed mold-contaminated feed. Addition of S. cerevisiae, bentonite or kaolin in the mold-contaminated feed ameliorated these toxic effects.

Conclusion:

The observed histopathological lesions were consistent with mycotoxicosis in birds and were mild in the adsorbent treated groups. Kaolin had a higher protective effect against mycotoxicosis than the two other adsorbents.

Effect of microwave, deep frying and oven cooking on destruction of zearalenone in spiked maize oil

Mycotoxins are one of the most common types of chemical hazards related to edible oils. Although the refining process can remove such contaminations, they may still be present in the final oils due to defects during the refining steps. In addition, most oils produced in local manufactories are not refined and as such may be contaminated with mycotoxins. However, the effect of various cooking methods on the stability of mycotoxins in edible oils has rarely been studied. Hence, this study evaluated the impact of microwave, deep frying and oven cooking on the degradation of spiked zearalenone (50, 100 and 200 μg/l) in maize oil. Measurements were done by high performance liquid chromatography-fluorescence detection. The results showed that the majority of treatments, including time-temperature combinations of frying (130-190 °C for 2.5 and 5 min), oven cooking (110-230 °C for 2.5 and 5 min) and exposure time of microwave (2.5, 5 and 10 min) reduced zearalenone levels. Microwave cooking of samples containing 200 μg/l of zearalenone for 10 min showed the highest degradation of the toxin (~ 38%) following first order kinetics. The extent of destruction achieved by frying and oven cooking was also dependent on the initial concentration of zearalenone. These findings can be helpful to evaluate the chemical safety of edible oils or foods prepared by them.

Mycotoxin Occurrence, Exposure and Health Implications in Infants and Young Children in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review

Infants and young children (IYC) remain the most vulnerable population group to environmental hazards worldwide, especially in economically developing regions such as sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). As a result, several governmental and non-governmental institutions including health, environmental and food safety networks and researchers have been proactive toward protecting this group. Mycotoxins, toxic secondary fungal metabolites, contribute largely to the health risks of this young population. In SSA, the scenario is worsened by socioeconomic status, poor agricultural and storage practices, and low level of awareness, as well as the non-establishment and lack of enforcement of regulatory limits in the region. Studies have revealed mycotoxin occurrence in breast milk and other weaning foods. Of concern is the early exposure of infants to mycotoxins through transplacental transfer and breast milk as a consequence of maternal exposure, which may result in adverse health effects. The current paper presents an overview of mycotoxin occurrence in foods intended for IYC in SSA. It discusses the imperative evidence of mycotoxin exposure of this population group in SSA, taking into account consumption data and the occurrence of mycotoxins in food, as well as biomonitoring approaches. Additionally, it discusses the health implications associated with IYC exposure to mycotoxins in SSA.

Biological Characteristics and Molecular Mechanisms of Fludioxonil Resistance in Fusarium graminearum in China

Fusarium graminearum is the primary causal agent of Fusarium head blight (FHB) of wheat. The phenylpyrrole fungicide fludioxonil is not currently registered for the management of FHB in China. The current study assessed the fludioxonil sensitivity of a total of 53 F. graminearum isolates collected from the six most important wheat-growing provinces of China during 2018 and 2019. The baseline fludioxonil sensitivity distribution indicated that all of the isolates were sensitive, exhibiting a unimodal cure with a mean effective concentration for 50% inhibition value of 0.13 ± 0.12 μg/ml (standard deviation). Five fludioxonil-resistant mutants were subsequently induced by exposure to fludioxonil under laboratory conditions. Ten successive rounds of subculture in the absence of the selection pressure indicated that the mutation was stably inherited. However, the fludioxonil-resistant mutants were found to have reduced pathogenicity, higher glycerol accumulation, and higher osmotic sensitivity than the parental wild-type isolates, indicating that there was a fitness cost associated with fludioxonil resistance. In addition, the study also found a positive cross resistance between fludioxonil, procymidone, and iprodione, but not with other fungicides such as boscalid, carbendazim, tebuconazole, and fluazinam. Sequence analysis of four candidate target genes (FgOs1, FgOs2, FgOs4, and FgOs5) revealed that the HBXT2R mutant contained two point mutations that resulted in amino acid changes at K223T and K415R in its FgOs1 protein, and one point mutation at residue 520 of its FgOs5 protein that resulted in a premature stop codon. Similarly, the three other mutants contained point mutations that resulted in changes at the K192R, K293R, and K411R residues of the FgOs5 protein but none in the FgOs2 and FgOs4 genes. However, it is important to point out that the FgOs2 and FgOs4 expression of all the fludioxonil-resistant mutants was significantly (P < 0.05) downregulated compared with the sensitive isolates (except for the SQ1-2 isolate). It was also found that one of the resistant mutants did not have changes in any of the sequenced target genes, indicating that an alternative mechanism could also lead to fludioxonil resistance.

Fumonisin B1 -induced mitochondrial toxicity and hepatoprotective potential of rooibos: An update

Fumonisins are a family of potentially carcinogenic mycotoxins produced by Fusarium verticillioides. Several fumonisins have been identified with fumonisin B₁ (FB₁ ) being the most toxic. The canonical mechanism of FB₁ toxicity is centered on its structural resemblance with sphinganine and consequent competitive inhibition of ceramide synthase and disruption of lipidomic profiles. Recent and emerging evidence at the molecular level has identified the disruption of mitochondria and excessive generation of toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) as alternative/additional mechanisms of toxicity. The understanding of how these pathways contribute to FB₁ toxicity can lead to the identification of novel, effective approaches to protecting vulnerable populations. Natural compounds with antioxidant properties seem to protect against the induced toxic effects of FB₁ . Rooibos (Aspalathus linearis), endemic to South Africa, has traditionally been used as a medicinal herbal tea with strong scientific evidence supporting its anecdotal claims. The unique composition of phytochemicals and combination of metabolic activators, adaptogens and antioxidants make rooibos an attractive yet underappreciated intervention for FB₁ toxicoses. In the search for a means to address FB₁ toxicoses as a food safety problem in developing countries, phytomedicine and traditional knowledge systems must play an integral part. This review aims to summarize the growing body of evidence succinctly, which highlights mitochondrial dysfunction as a secondary toxic effect responsible for the FB₁ -induced generation of ROS. We further propose the potential of rooibos to combat this induced toxicity based on its integrated bioactive properties, as a socio-economically viable strategy to prevent and/or repair cellular damage caused by FB₁ .

Phylogenetic Analysis of Clinically Relevant Fusarium Species in Iran

Fungi of the genus Fusarium are well known as major plant pathogens but also cause a broad spectrum of human infections. Sixty-three clinical isolates, collected during 2014-2017, were identified using a part of the TEF1 gene as barcoding marker. Fusarium fujikuroi species complex (FFSC, n = 41, 65%) showed to be the dominant etiological agent, followed by F. solani species complex (FSSC, n = 14, 22%) and F. oxysporum species complex (FOSC, n = 7, 11%). There was one strain belonging to F. lateritium species complex (FLSC, n = 1, 1.5%). For final identification, a phylogenetic tree was constructed including the type strains of each species complex. Most cases of fusariosis were due to nail infection (n = 38, 60.3%), followed by keratitis (n = 22, 34%). Fusarium infections are difficult to be treated due to their intrinsic resistance to different azoles; however, accurate and fast identification of etiological agents may enhance management of the infection. We present the first phylogenetic study on clinical Fusarium spp. from Iran.

Fusarium volatile, a new potential pathogen from a human respiratory sample

We describe the isolation and characterization of Fusarium volatile from a bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) sample of a female patient living in French Guiana with underlying pulmonary infections. Phylogenetic analysis of fragments of the calmodulin (cmdA), translation elongation factor (tef1), RNA polymerase second largest subunit (rpb2), and β-tubulin (tub) loci revealed that strain CBS 143874 was closely related to isolate NRRL 25615, a known but undescribed phylogenetic species belonging to the African clade of the Fusarium fujikuroi species complex. The fungus differed phylogenetically and morphologically from related known species, and is therefore described as the new taxon Fusarium volatile. Antifungal susceptibility testing suggested that the new species is resistant to echinocandins, fluconazole, itraconazole with lower MICs against amphotericin B, voriconazole and posaconazole.

Molecular identification of Fusarium species complex isolated from clinical samples and its antifungal susceptibility patterns

Background and Purpose:

More than 300 Fusarium species are grouped into approximately 23 species complexes out of which around 70 are involved in human infections. The nomenclature of these species has undergone considerable changes in recent years. These species cause localized infections in individuals while inducing systemic infections mainly in immunocompromised patients. The present study was conducted to identify Fusarium species in clinical isolates by molecular methods and determine their in vitro minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) patterns to address the lack of data in this domain in Northern India.

Materials and Methods:

For the purpose of the study, Fusarium isolates obtained from various clinical samples were sent to the Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Utrecht, the Netherlands, for molecular identification. The MIC testing was performed using the microbroth dilution method as per the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute reference method (M38-A2).

Results:

Fusarium was isolated from 33 patients (i.e., 1, 1, 2, 14, and 15 cases with endophthalmitis, sinusitis, pulmonary involvement, onychomycosis, and keratitis, respectively). These 33 isolates belonged to three species complexes, namely F. solani species complex (FSSC; n=13), F. fujikuroi species complex (FFSC; n=13), and F. incarnatumequiseti species complex (FIESC; n=7). The species identified within FSSC, FFSC, and FIESC included F. keratoplasticum (n=6)/F. falciforme (n=6)/F. solani (n=1), F. proliferatum (n=7)/F. sacchari (n=5)/F. anthophilum (n=1), and F. incarnatum SC species (n=6)/F. equiseti SC species (n=1), respectively. The MIC results showed that all isolates had a lower MIC against amphotericin B than against the other antifungal agents.

Mycotoxin contamination and control strategy in human, domestic animal and poultry: A review

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced mainly by fungi belonging to the genera Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium, Claviceps, and Alternaria that contaminate basic food products throughout the world, where developing countries are becoming predominantly affected. Currently, more than 500 mycotoxins are reported in which the most important concern to public health and agriculture include AFB1, OTA, TCTs (especially DON, T-2, HT-2), FB1, ZEN, PAT, CT, and EAs. The presence of mycotoxin in significant quantities poses health risks varying from allergic reactions to death on both humans and animals. This review brings attention to the present status of mycotoxin contamination of food products and recommended control strategies for mycotoxin mitigation. Humans are exposed to mycotoxins directly through the consumption of contaminated foods while, indirectly through carryover of toxins and their metabolites into animal tissues, milk, meat and eggs after ingestion of contaminated feeds. Pre-harvest (field) control of mycotoxin production and post-harvest (storage) mitigation of contamination represent the most effective approach to limit mycotoxins in food and feed. Compared with chemical and physical approaches, biological detoxification methods regarding biotransformation of mycotoxins into less toxic metabolites, are generally more unique, productive and eco-friendly. Along with the biological detoxification method, genetic improvement and application of nanotechnology show tremendous potential in reducing mycotoxin production thereby improving food safety and food quality for extended shelf life. This review will primarily describe the latest developments in the formation and detoxification of the most important mycotoxins by biological degradation and other alternative approaches, thereby reducing the potential adverse effects of mycotoxins.

Advances in Occurrence, Importance, and Mycotoxin Control Strategies: Prevention and Detoxification in Foods

Mycotoxins are toxic substances that can infect many foods with carcinogenic, genotoxic, teratogenic, nephrotoxic, and hepatotoxic effects. Mycotoxin contamination of foodstuffs causes diseases worldwide. The major classes of mycotoxins that are of the greatest agroeconomic importance are aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins, trichothecenes, emerging Fusarium mycotoxins, enniatins, ergot alkaloids, Alternaria toxins, and patulin. Thus, in order to mitigate mycotoxin contamination of foods, many control approaches are used. Prevention, detoxification, and decontamination of mycotoxins can contribute in this purpose in the pre-harvest and post-harvest stages. Therefore, the purpose of the review is to elaborate on the recent advances regarding the occurrence of main mycotoxins in many types of important agricultural products, as well as the methods of inactivation and detoxification of foods from mycotoxins in order to reduce or fully eliminate them.

Fusarium Head Blight in Durum Wheat: Recent Status, Breeding Directions, and Future Research Prospects

Fusarium head blight (FHB) is a major fungal disease affecting wheat production worldwide. Since the early 1990s, FHB, caused primarily by Fusarium graminearum, has become one of the most significant diseases faced by wheat producers in Canada and the United States. The increasing FHB problem is likely due to the increased adoption of conservation tillage practices, expansion of maize production, use of susceptible wheat varieties in rotation, and climate variability. Durum wheat (Triticum turgidum sp. durum) is notorious for its extreme susceptibility to FHB and breeding for resistance is complicated because sources of FHB resistance are rare in the primary gene pool of tetraploid wheat. Losses due to this disease include yield, test weight, seed quality, food and feed quality, and when severe, market access. More importantly, it is the contamination with mycotoxins, such as deoxynivalenol, in Fusarium-infected durum kernels that causes the most serious economic as well as food and feed safety concerns. Several studies and thorough reviews have been published on germplasm development and breeding for FHB resistance and the genetics and genomics of FHB resistance in bread or common wheat (T. aestivum); however, similar reviews have not been conducted in durum wheat. Thus, the aim of this review is to summarize and discuss the recent research efforts to mitigate FHB in durum wheat, including quantitative trait locus mapping, genome-wide association studies, genomic prediction, mutagenesis and characterization of genes and pathways involved in FHB resistance. It also highlights future directions, FHB-resistant germplasm, and the potential role of morphological traits to enhance FHB resistance in durum wheat.

Pediococcus pentosaceus xy46 Can Absorb Zearalenone and Alleviate its Toxicity to the Reproductive Systems of Male Mice

Zearalenone (ZEA) contamination is a very serious problem around the world as it can induce reproductive disorders in animals and affect the health of humans. Therefore, reducing the damage it causes to humans and animals is a current focus of research. In this study, we assess the removing capacity of Pediococcus pentosaceus xy46 towards ZEA and investigate the mechanism responsible for its action, thus confirming if it can alleviate ZEA toxicity to the reproductive systems of male mice. Our results show that the rate at which the strain removes ZEA is as high as 89.2% in 48 h when the concentration of ZEA is 4 μg/mL in the liquid medium. Heat and acid treatment significantly enhanced the ability of the bacteria to remove ZEA. The animal experiments results show that the oral administration of xy46 to mice (0.2 mL daily at a concentration of 10⁹ CFU/mL for 28 days) significantly reduces the degree of testicular pathomorphological changes and apoptosis induced by ZEA when the mice are intragastric administration with 40 mg/kg ZEA daily for 28 days. Moreover, oral administration of xy46 enhances the decrease in the testosterone level and improves the oxidative stress injury induced by ZEA. Furthermore, oral administration of xy46 reverts the expression of these genes and proteins in the testicular tissues of the mice involved in the blood-testis barrier and apoptosis (e.g., Vim, caspase 12, Cldn11, N-cad, Bax, and Bcl-2). However, xy46 cannot significantly revert in some of these evaluated parameters, especially in sperm quantity and quality when the mice were given 70 mg/kg ZEA daily for 28 days. In conclusion, our results suggest that the strain Pediococcus pentosaceus xy46 can efficiently remove ZEA from the liquid medium, the mechanism responsible for its action is absorption, and it can alleviate the toxicity of ZEA to the reproductive systems of male mice when the mice are given 40 mg/kg ZEA daily, However, it cannot completely alleviate the reproductive toxicity of higher dosage of zearalenone through its ability to adsorb ZEA.

Analysis of Mycotoxins Contamination in Poultry Feeds Manufactured in Selected Provinces of South Africa Using UHPLC-MS/MS

A total of 105 different types of poultry feed samples from South Africa were simultaneously analysed for the presence of 16 mycotoxins using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer (UHPLC-MS/MS). The data revealed the presence of 16 mycotoxins in the various poultry feed samples. Fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) was the most dominant recovered from 100% of samples analysed at concentrations ranging between 38.7 and 7125.3 µg/kg. This was followed by zearalenone (ZEN) (range: 0.1–429 µg/kg) and deoxynivalenol (DON) (range: 2.5–154 µg/kg). Samples were also found to be contaminated with fumonisin B₂ (FB₂) (range: 0.7–125.1 µg/kg), fumonisin B₃ (FB₃) (range: 0.1–125.1 µg/kg), α-zearalenol (α-ZEL) (range: 0.6–20 µg/kg ), β-zearalenol (β-ZEL) (range: 0.2–22.1 µg/kg), 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-ADON) (range: 0.1–12.9 µg/kg) and 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (15-ADON) (range: 1.7–41.9 µg/kg). Alternaria mycotoxin, i.e., Alternariol monomethyl ether (AME) was recovered in 100% of samples at concentrations that ranged from 0.3–155.5 µg/kg. Aflatoxins (AFs) had an incidence rate of 92% with generally low concentration levels ranging from 0.1–3.7 µg/kg. Apart from these metabolites, 2 type A trichothecenes (THs), i.e., HT-2 toxin (HT-2) (range: 0.2–5.9 µg/kg) and T-2 toxin (T-2) (range: 0.1–15.3 µg/kg) were also detected. Mycotoxin contamination in South African poultry feed constitutes a concern as correspondingly high contamination levels, such as those observed herein are likely to affect birds, which can be accompanied by severe health implications, thus compromising animal productivity in the country. Such exposures, primarily to more than one mycotoxin concurrently, may elicit noticeable synergistic and or additive effects on poultry birds.

Detoxification Strategies for Zearalenone Using Microorganisms: A Review

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium fungi that is commonly found in cereal crops. ZEA has an estrogen-like effect which affects the reproductive function of animals. It also damages the liver and kidneys and reduces immune function which leads to cytotoxicity and immunotoxicity. At present, the detoxification of mycotoxins is mainly accomplished using biological methods. Microbial-based methods involve zearalenone conversion or adsorption, but not all transformation products are nontoxic. In this paper, the non-pathogenic microorganisms which have been found to detoxify ZEA in recent years are summarized. Then, two mechanisms by which ZEA can be detoxified (adsorption and biotransformation) are discussed in more detail. The compounds produced by the subsequent degradation of ZEA and the heterogeneous expression of ZEA-degrading enzymes are also analyzed. The development trends in the use of probiotics as a ZEA detoxification strategy are also evaluated. The overall purpose of this paper is to provide a reliable reference strategy for the biological detoxification of ZEA.