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Popoff MR. Overview of Bacterial Protein Toxins from Pathogenic Bacteria: Mode of Action and Insights into Evolution. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:182. [PMID: 38668607 PMCID: PMC11054074 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16040182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2024] [Revised: 03/29/2024] [Accepted: 03/30/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Bacterial protein toxins are secreted by certain bacteria and are responsible for mild to severe diseases in humans and animals. They are among the most potent molecules known, which are active at very low concentrations. Bacterial protein toxins exhibit a wide diversity based on size, structure, and mode of action. Upon recognition of a cell surface receptor (protein, glycoprotein, and glycolipid), they are active either at the cell surface (signal transduction, membrane damage by pore formation, or hydrolysis of membrane compound(s)) or intracellularly. Various bacterial protein toxins have the ability to enter cells, most often using an endocytosis mechanism, and to deliver the effector domain into the cytosol, where it interacts with an intracellular target(s). According to the nature of the intracellular target(s) and type of modification, various cellular effects are induced (cell death, homeostasis modification, cytoskeleton alteration, blockade of exocytosis, etc.). The various modes of action of bacterial protein toxins are illustrated with representative examples. Insights in toxin evolution are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michel R Popoff
- Unité des Toxines Bactériennes, Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR 2001 INSERM U1306, F-75015 Paris, France
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2
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Johannes L, Shafaq-Zadah M, Dransart E, Wunder C, Leffler H. Endocytic Roles of Glycans on Proteins and Lipids. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2024; 16:a041398. [PMID: 37735065 PMCID: PMC10759989 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a041398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/23/2023]
Abstract
Most cell surface proteins are decorated by glycans, and the plasma membrane is rich in glycosylated lipids. The mechanisms by which the enormous complexity of these glycan structures on proteins and lipids is exploited to control glycoprotein activity by setting their cell surface residence time and the ways by which they are taken up into cells are still under active investigation. Here, two mechanisms are presented, termed galectin lattices and glycolipid-lectin (GL-Lect)-driven endocytosis, which are among the most prominent to establish a link between glycan information and endocytosis. Types of glycans on glycoproteins and glycolipids are reviewed from the angle of their interaction with glycan-binding proteins that are at the heart of galectin lattices and GL-Lect-driven endocytosis. Examples are given to show how these mechanisms affect cellular functions ranging from cell migration and signaling to vascularization and immune modulation. Finally, outstanding challenges on the link between glycosylation and endocytosis are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludger Johannes
- Cellular and Chemical Biology Unit, Institut Curie, 75248 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | | | - Estelle Dransart
- Cellular and Chemical Biology Unit, Institut Curie, 75248 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Christian Wunder
- Cellular and Chemical Biology Unit, Institut Curie, 75248 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Hakon Leffler
- Section MIG (Microbiology, Immunology, Glycobiology), Department of Laboratory Medicine, Lund University, 22362 Lund, Sweden
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3
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Billet A, Hadjerci J, Tran T, Kessler P, Ulmer J, Mourier G, Ghazarian M, Gonzalez A, Thai R, Urquia P, Van Baelen AC, Meola A, Fernandez I, Deville-Foillard S, MacDonald E, Paolini L, Schmidt F, Rey FA, Kay MS, Tartour E, Servent D, Johannes L. A synthetic delivery vector for mucosal vaccination. Biomaterials 2023; 302:122298. [PMID: 37713762 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2023.122298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2023] [Revised: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 08/26/2023] [Indexed: 09/17/2023]
Abstract
The success of mRNA-based vaccines during the Covid-19 pandemic has highlighted the value of this new platform for vaccine development against infectious disease. However, the CD8+ T cell response remains modest with mRNA vaccines, and these do not induce mucosal immunity, which would be needed to prevent viral spread in the healthy population. To address this drawback, we developed a dendritic cell targeting mucosal vaccination vector, the homopentameric STxB. Here, we describe the highly efficient chemical synthesis of the protein, and its in vitro folding. This straightforward preparation led to a synthetic delivery tool whose biophysical and intracellular trafficking characteristics were largely indistinguishable from recombinant STxB. The chemical approach allowed for the generation of new variants with bioorthogonal handles. Selected variants were chemically coupled to several types of antigens derived from the mucosal viruses SARS-CoV-2 and type 16 human papillomavirus. Upon intranasal administration in mice, mucosal immunity, including resident memory CD8+ T cells and IgA antibodies was induced against these antigens. Our study thereby identifies a novel synthetic antigen delivery tool for mucosal vaccination with an unmatched potential to respond to an urgent medical need.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Billet
- Institut Curie, Université PSL, Cellular and Chemical Biology Unit, U1143 INSERM, UMR3666 CNRS, 26 Rue d'Ulm, 75248, Paris, Cedex 05, France; Université de Paris, 85 boulevard Saint-Germain, 75006, Paris, France
| | - Justine Hadjerci
- Institut Curie, Université PSL, Cellular and Chemical Biology Unit, U1143 INSERM, UMR3666 CNRS, 26 Rue d'Ulm, 75248, Paris, Cedex 05, France
| | - Thi Tran
- Université Paris Cité, INSERM, PARCC, PARIS, France
| | - Pascal Kessler
- Université Paris Saclay, CEA, DMTS/SIMoS, 91191, Gif sur Yvette, Cedex, France
| | - Jonathan Ulmer
- Institut Curie, Université PSL, Cellular and Chemical Biology Unit, U1143 INSERM, UMR3666 CNRS, 26 Rue d'Ulm, 75248, Paris, Cedex 05, France
| | - Gilles Mourier
- Université Paris Saclay, CEA, DMTS/SIMoS, 91191, Gif sur Yvette, Cedex, France
| | - Marine Ghazarian
- Université Paris Saclay, CEA, DMTS/SIMoS, 91191, Gif sur Yvette, Cedex, France
| | - Anthony Gonzalez
- Université Paris Saclay, CEA, DMTS/SIMoS, 91191, Gif sur Yvette, Cedex, France
| | - Robert Thai
- Université Paris Saclay, CEA, DMTS/SIMoS, 91191, Gif sur Yvette, Cedex, France
| | | | | | - Annalisa Meola
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris-Cité, Structural Virology Unit, CNRS UMR 3569, 28 Rue du Docteur Roux, 75015, Paris, France
| | - Ignacio Fernandez
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris-Cité, Structural Virology Unit, CNRS UMR 3569, 28 Rue du Docteur Roux, 75015, Paris, France
| | - Stéphanie Deville-Foillard
- Institut Curie, Université PSL, Cellular and Chemical Biology Unit, U1143 INSERM, UMR3666 CNRS, 26 Rue d'Ulm, 75248, Paris, Cedex 05, France; Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS UPR 2301, Gif-sur-Yvette, 91198, France
| | - Ewan MacDonald
- Institut Curie, Université PSL, Cellular and Chemical Biology Unit, U1143 INSERM, UMR3666 CNRS, 26 Rue d'Ulm, 75248, Paris, Cedex 05, France
| | - Léa Paolini
- Université Paris Cité, INSERM, PARCC, PARIS, France
| | - Frédéric Schmidt
- Institut Curie, Université PSL, Cellular and Chemical Biology Unit, U1143 INSERM, UMR3666 CNRS, 26 Rue d'Ulm, 75248, Paris, Cedex 05, France
| | - Félix A Rey
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris-Cité, Structural Virology Unit, CNRS UMR 3569, 28 Rue du Docteur Roux, 75015, Paris, France
| | - Michael S Kay
- University of Utah, Department of Biochemistry Biopolymers Research Building, 20 South 2030 East, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112-5700, USA
| | - Eric Tartour
- Université Paris Cité, INSERM, PARCC, PARIS, France; Department of Immunology, Hopital Europeen Georges-Pompidou, AP-HP, Paris, Cedex 15 75908, France.
| | - Denis Servent
- Université Paris Saclay, CEA, DMTS/SIMoS, 91191, Gif sur Yvette, Cedex, France.
| | - Ludger Johannes
- Institut Curie, Université PSL, Cellular and Chemical Biology Unit, U1143 INSERM, UMR3666 CNRS, 26 Rue d'Ulm, 75248, Paris, Cedex 05, France.
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Márquez-López A, Fanarraga ML. AB Toxins as High-Affinity Ligands for Cell Targeting in Cancer Therapy. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:11227. [PMID: 37446406 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241311227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Conventional targeted therapies for the treatment of cancer have limitations, including the development of acquired resistance. However, novel alternatives have emerged in the form of targeted therapies based on AB toxins. These biotoxins are a diverse group of highly poisonous molecules that show a nanomolar affinity for their target cell receptors, making them an invaluable source of ligands for biomedical applications. Bacterial AB toxins, in particular, are modular proteins that can be genetically engineered to develop high-affinity therapeutic compounds. These toxins consist of two distinct domains: a catalytically active domain and an innocuous domain that acts as a ligand, directing the catalytic domain to the target cells. Interestingly, many tumor cells show receptors on the surface that are recognized by AB toxins, making these high-affinity proteins promising tools for developing new methods for targeting anticancer therapies. Here we describe the structure and mechanisms of action of Diphtheria (Dtx), Anthrax (Atx), Shiga (Stx), and Cholera (Ctx) toxins, and review the potential uses of AB toxins in cancer therapy. We also discuss the main advances in this field, some successful results, and, finally, the possible development of innovative and precise applications in oncology based on engineered recombinant AB toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Márquez-López
- The Nanomedicine Group, Institute Valdecilla-IDIVAL, 39011 Santander, Spain
| | - Mónica L Fanarraga
- The Nanomedicine Group, Institute Valdecilla-IDIVAL, 39011 Santander, Spain
- Molecular Biology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Cantabria, 39011 Santander, Spain
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5
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McQuaid C, Solorzano A, Dickerson I, Deane R. Uptake of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 spike protein mediated by angiotensin converting enzyme 2 and ganglioside in human cerebrovascular cells. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1117845. [PMID: 36875642 PMCID: PMC9980911 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1117845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction There is clinical evidence of neurological manifestations in coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19). However, it is unclear whether differences in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)/spike protein (SP) uptake by cells of the cerebrovasculature contribute to significant viral uptake to cause these symptoms. Methods Since the initial step in viral invasion is binding/uptake, we used fluorescently labeled wild type and mutant SARS-CoV-2/SP to study this process. Three cerebrovascular cell types were used (endothelial cells, pericytes, and vascular smooth muscle cells), in vitro. Results There was differential SARS-CoV-2/SP uptake by these cell types. Endothelial cells had the least uptake, which may limit SARS-CoV-2 uptake into brain from blood. Uptake was time and concentration dependent, and mediated by angiotensin converting enzyme 2 receptor (ACE2), and ganglioside (mono-sialotetrahexasylganglioside, GM1) that is predominantly expressed in the central nervous system and the cerebrovasculature. SARS-CoV-2/SPs with mutation sites, N501Y, E484K, and D614G, as seen in variants of interest, were also differentially taken up by these cell types. There was greater uptake compared to that of the wild type SARS-CoV-2/SP, but neutralization with anti-ACE2 or anti-GM1 antibodies was less effective. Conclusion The data suggested that in addition to ACE2, gangliosides are also an important entry point of SARS-CoV-2/SP into these cells. Since SARS-CoV-2/SP binding/uptake is the initial step in the viral penetration into cells, a longer exposure and higher titer are required for significant uptake into the normal brain. Gangliosides, including GM1, could be an additional potential SARS-CoV-2 and therapeutic target at the cerebrovasculature.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Rashid Deane
- Department of Neuroscience, Del Monte Institute Neuroscience, University of Rochester, University of Rochester Medical Center (URMC), Rochester, NY, United States
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Chaurasia R, Vinetz JM. In silico prediction of molecular mechanisms of toxicity mediated by the leptospiral PF07598 gene family-encoded virulence-modifying proteins. Front Mol Biosci 2023; 9:1092197. [PMID: 36756251 PMCID: PMC9900628 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2022.1092197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Mechanisms of leptospirosis pathogenesis remain unclear despite the identification of a number of potential leptospiral virulence factors. We recently demonstrated potential mechanisms by which the virulence-modifying (VM) proteins-defined as containing a Domain of Unknown function (DUF1561), encoded by the PF07598 gene family-found only in group 1 pathogenic Leptospira-might mediate the clinical pathogenesis of leptospirosis. VM proteins belongs to classical AB toxin paradigm though have a unique AB domain architecture, unlike other AB toxins such as diphtheria toxin, pertussis toxin, shiga toxin, or ricin toxin which are typically encoded by two or more genes and self-assembled into a multi-domain holotoxin. Leptospiral VM proteins are secreted R-type lectin domain-containing exotoxins with discrete N-terminal ricin B-like domains involved in host cell surface binding, and a C-terminal DNase/toxin domain. Here we use the artificial intelligence-based AlphaFold algorithm and other computational tools to predict and elaborate on details of the VM protein structure-function relationship. Comparative AlphaFold and CD-spectroscopy defined the consistent secondary structure (Helix and ß-sheet) content, and the stability of the functional domains were further supported by molecular dynamics simulation. VM proteins comprises distinctive lectic family (QxW)3 motifs, the Mycoplasma CARDS toxin (D3 domain, aromatic patches), C-terminal similarity with mammalian DNase I. In-silico study proposed that Gln412, Gln523, His533, Thr59 are the high binding energy or ligand binding residues plausibly anticipates in the functional activities. Divalent cation (Mg+2-Gln412) and phosphate ion (PO4]-3-Arg615) interaction further supports the functional activities driven by C-terminal domain. Computation-driven structure-function studies of VM proteins will guide experimentation towards mechanistic understandings of leptospirosis pathogenesis, which underlie development of new therapeutic and preventive measures for this devastating disease.
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Yang ZK, Huang XL, Peng L. Transcriptome analysis reveals gene expression changes of the basidiomycetous yeast Apiotrichum mycotoxinivorans in response to ochratoxin A exposure. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2022; 246:114146. [PMID: 36215880 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.114146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2022] [Revised: 09/23/2022] [Accepted: 09/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is one of the most common and deleterious mycotoxins found in food and feedstuffs worldwide; however, Apiotrichum mycotoxinivorans can detoxify OTA. Our results show that A. mycotoxinivorans GUM1709 efficiently degraded OTA, but it caused the accumulation of intracellular reactive oxygen species. The main aim of this study was to identify potential OTA-detoxifying enzymes and to explore the effects of OTA on A. mycotoxinivorans GMU1709. RNA-seq data revealed that 1643 and 1980 genes were significantly upregulated and downregulated, respectively, after OTA exposure. Functional enrichment analyses indicated that OTA exposure enhanced defense capability, protein transport, endocytosis, and energy metabolism; caused ribosomal stress; suppressed DNA replication and transcription; inhibited cell growth and division; and promoted cell death. The integration of secretome, gene expression, and molecular docking analyses revealed that two carboxypeptidase homologues (members of the metallocarboxypeptidase family) were most likely responsible for the detoxification of both extracellular and intracellular OTA. Superoxide dismutase and catalase were the main genes activated in response to oxidative stress. In addition, analysis of key genes associated with cell division and apoptosis showed that OTA exposure inhibited mitosis and promoted cell death. This study revealed the possible OTA response and detoxification mechanisms in A. mycotoxinivorans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Kai Yang
- Innovation centre for Advanced Interdisciplinary Medicine, Key Laboratory of Biological Targeting Diagnosis, Therapy and Rehabilitation of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China.
| | - Xue-Ling Huang
- Key Laboratory of Eutrophication and Red Tide Prevention of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Liang Peng
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
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8
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Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli and a Fresh View on Shiga Toxin-Binding Glycosphingolipids of Primary Human Kidney and Colon Epithelial Cells and Their Toxin Susceptibility. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23136884. [PMID: 35805890 PMCID: PMC9266556 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23136884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Revised: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) are the human pathogenic subset of Shiga toxin (Stx)-producing E. coli (STEC). EHEC are responsible for severe colon infections associated with life-threatening extraintestinal complications such as the hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS) and neurological disturbances. Endothelial cells in various human organs are renowned targets of Stx, whereas the role of epithelial cells of colon and kidneys in the infection process has been and is still a matter of debate. This review shortly addresses the clinical impact of EHEC infections, novel aspects of vesicular package of Stx in the intestine and the blood stream as well as Stx-mediated extraintestinal complications and therapeutic options. Here follows a compilation of the Stx-binding glycosphingolipids (GSLs), globotriaosylceramide (Gb3Cer) and globotetraosylceramide (Gb4Cer) and their various lipoforms present in primary human kidney and colon epithelial cells and their distribution in lipid raft-analog membrane preparations. The last issues are the high and extremely low susceptibility of primary renal and colonic epithelial cells, respectively, suggesting a large resilience of the intestinal epithelium against the human-pathogenic Stx1a- and Stx2a-subtypes due to the low content of the high-affinity Stx-receptor Gb3Cer in colon epithelial cells. The review closes with a brief outlook on future challenges of Stx research.
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9
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Escherichia coli 0157:H7 virulence factors and the ruminant reservoir. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2022; 35:205-214. [PMID: 35665714 PMCID: PMC9302714 DOI: 10.1097/qco.0000000000000834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This review updates recent findings about Escherichia coli O157:H7 virulence factors and its bovine reservoir. This Shiga toxin (Stx)-producing E. coli belongs to the Enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) pathotype causing hemorrhagic colitis. Its low infectious dose makes it an efficient, severe, foodborne pathogen. Although EHEC remains in the intestine, Stx can translocate systemically and is cytotoxic to microvascular endothelial cells, especially in the kidney and brain. Disease can progress to life-threatening hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) with hemolytic anemia, acute kidney failure, and thrombocytopenia. Young children, the immunocompromised, and the elderly are at the highest risk for HUS. Healthy ruminants are the major reservoir of EHEC and cattle are the primary source of human exposure. RECENT FINDINGS Advances in understanding E. coli O157:H7 pathogenesis include molecular mechanisms of virulence, bacterial adherence, type three secretion effectors, intestinal microbiome, inflammation, and reservoir maintenance. SUMMARY Many aspects of E. coli O157:H7 disease remain unclear and include the role of the human and bovine intestinal microbiomes in infection. Therapeutic strategies involve controlling inflammatory responses and/or intestinal barrier function. Finally, elimination/reduction of E. coli O157:H7 in cattle using CRISPR-engineered conjugative bacterial plasmids and/or on-farm management likely hold solutions to reduce infections and increase food safety/security.
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Sadeghi M. Investigating the entropic nature of membrane-mediated interactions driving the aggregation of peripheral proteins. SOFT MATTER 2022; 18:3917-3927. [PMID: 35543220 DOI: 10.1039/d2sm00118g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Peripheral membrane-associated proteins are known to accumulate on the surface of biomembranes as a result of membrane-mediated interactions. For a pair of rotationally-symmetric curvature-inducing proteins, membrane mechanics at the low-temperature limit predicts pure repulsion. On the other hand, temperature-dependent entropic forces arise between pairs of stiff-binding proteins suppressing membrane fluctuations. These Casimir-like interactions have thus been suggested as candidates for attractive forces leading to aggregation. With dense assemblies of peripheral proteins on the membrane, both these abstractions encounter short-range and multi-body complications. Here, we make use of a particle-based membrane model augmented with flexible peripheral proteins to quantify purely membrane-mediated interactions and investigate their underlying nature. We introduce a continuous reaction coordinate corresponding to the progression of protein aggregation. We obtain free energy and entropy landscapes for different surface concentrations along this reaction coordinate. In parallel, we investigate time-dependent estimates of membrane entropy corresponding to membrane undulations and coarse-grained director field and how they change dynamically with protein aggregation. Congruent outcomes of the two approaches point to the conclusion that for low surface concentrations, interactions with an entropic nature may drive the aggregation. But at high concentrations, enthalpic contributions due to concerted membrane deformation by protein clusters are dominant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohsen Sadeghi
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Freie Universität Berlin, Arnimallee 12, 14195 Berlin, Germany.
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11
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Socrier L, Bail C, Ackermann E, Beresowski AK, Ahadi S, Werz DB, Steinem C. The Interaction of Gb 3 Glycosphingolipids with ld and lo Phase Lipids in Lipid Monolayers Is a Function of Their Fatty Acids. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2022; 38:5874-5882. [PMID: 35439015 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.2c00497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The glycosphingolipid Gb3 is a specific receptor of the bacterial Shiga toxin (STx). Binding of STx to Gb3 is a prerequisite for its internalization into the host cells, and the ceramide's fatty acid of Gb3 has been shown to influence STx binding. In in vitro studies on liquid ordered (lo)/liquid disordered (ld) coexisting artificial membranes, Shiga toxin B (STxB) binds solely to lo domains, thus harboring Gb3 concomitant with an observed lipid redistribution process. These findings raise the question of how the molecular structure of the fatty acid of Gb3 influences the interaction of Gb3 with the different lipids preferentially either found in the lo phase, namely, sphingomyelin and cholesterol, or in the ld phase. We addressed this question by using a series of synthetically available and unlabeled Gb3 glycosphingolipids carrying different long chain C24 fatty acids (saturated, monounsaturated, and α-hydroxylated). In conjunction with surface tension experiments on Langmuir monolayers, we quantified the excess of free energy of mixing of the different Gb3 species in monolayers composed of either sphingomyelin or cholesterol or composed of a fluid phase lipid (DOPC). From a calculation of the total free energy of mixing, we conclude that mixing of the saturated Gb3 species with the ld lipid DOPC is energetically less favorable than all other combinations, while the unsaturated species mix equally well with the lo phase lipids sphingomyelin and cholesterol and the ld phase lipid DOPC. Furthermore, we found that STxB partially penetrates in mixed lipid monolayers (DOPC/sphingomyelin/cholesterol) containing the Gb3 sphingolipid with a saturated or a monounsaturated C24 fatty acid. The maximum insertion pressure, as a measure for protein insertion, is >30 mN/m for both Gb3 molecules and is not significantly different for the two Gb3 species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larissa Socrier
- Max-Planck-Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization, Am Fassberg 17, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
- Institute of Organic and Biomolecular Chemistry, Georg-August-Universität, Tammannstraße 2, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Céline Bail
- Institute of Organic and Biomolecular Chemistry, Georg-August-Universität, Tammannstraße 2, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Elena Ackermann
- Institute of Organic and Biomolecular Chemistry, Georg-August-Universität, Tammannstraße 2, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Ann-Kathrin Beresowski
- Institute of Organic and Biomolecular Chemistry, Georg-August-Universität, Tammannstraße 2, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Somayeh Ahadi
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Hagenring 30, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Daniel B Werz
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Hagenring 30, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Claudia Steinem
- Max-Planck-Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization, Am Fassberg 17, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
- Institute of Organic and Biomolecular Chemistry, Georg-August-Universität, Tammannstraße 2, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
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12
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Sterolight as imaging tool to study sterol uptake, trafficking and efflux in living cells. Sci Rep 2022; 12:6264. [PMID: 35428843 PMCID: PMC9012876 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-10134-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Information about cholesterol subcellular localization and transport pathways inside cells is essential for understanding and treatment of cholesterol-related diseases. However, there is a lack of reliable tools to monitor it. This work follows the fate of Sterolight, a BODIPY-labelled sterol, within the cell and demonstrates it as a suitable probe for visualization of sterol/lipid trafficking. Sterolight enters cells through an energy-independent process and knockdown experiments suggest caveolin-1 as its potential cellular carrier. Intracellular transport of Sterolight is a rapid process, and transfer from ER and mitochondria to lysosomes and later to lipid droplets requires the participation of active microtubules, as it can be inhibited by the microtubule disruptor nocodazole. Excess of the probe is actively exported from cells, in addition to being stored in lipid droplets, to re-establish the sterol balance. Efflux occurs through a mechanism requiring energy and may be selectively poisoned with verapamil or blocked in cells with mutated cholesterol transporter NPC1. Sterolight is efficiently transferred within and between different cell populations, making it suitable for monitoring numerous aspects of sterol biology, including the live tracking and visualization of intracellular and intercellular transport.
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13
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Mayya C, Naveena AH, Sinha P, Wunder C, Johannes L, Bhatia D. The roles of dynein and myosin VI motor proteins in endocytosis. J Cell Sci 2022; 135:274777. [DOI: 10.1242/jcs.259387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Endocytosis is indispensable for multiple cellular processes, including signalling, cell adhesion, migration, as well as the turnover of plasma membrane lipids and proteins. The dynamic interplay and regulation of different endocytic entry routes requires multiple cytoskeletal elements, especially motor proteins that bind to membranes and transport vesicles along the actin and microtubule cytoskeletons. Dynein and kinesin motor proteins transport vesicles along microtubules, whereas myosins drive vesicles along actin filaments. Here, we present a brief overview of multiple endocytic pathways and our current understanding of the involvement of these motor proteins in the regulation of the different cellular entry routes. We particularly focus on structural and mechanistic details of the retrograde motor proteins dynein and myosin VI (also known as MYO6), along with their adaptors, which have important roles in the early events of endocytosis. We conclude by highlighting the key challenges in elucidating the involvement of motor proteins in endocytosis and intracellular membrane trafficking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaithra Mayya
- Biological Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Palaj, 382355 Gandhinagar, India
| | - A. Hema Naveena
- Biological Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Palaj, 382355 Gandhinagar, India
| | - Pankhuri Sinha
- Biological Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Palaj, 382355 Gandhinagar, India
| | - Christian Wunder
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, U1143 INSERM, UMR3666 CNRS, Cellular and Chemical Biology Unit, 26 rue d'Ulm, 75248 Paris CEDEX 05, France
| | - Ludger Johannes
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, U1143 INSERM, UMR3666 CNRS, Cellular and Chemical Biology Unit, 26 rue d'Ulm, 75248 Paris CEDEX 05, France
| | - Dhiraj Bhatia
- Biological Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Palaj, 382355 Gandhinagar, India
- Center for Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Palaj, 382355 Gandhinagar, India
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14
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STxB as an Antigen Delivery Tool for Mucosal Vaccination. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14030202. [PMID: 35324699 PMCID: PMC8948715 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14030202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Revised: 03/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunotherapy against cancer and infectious disease holds the promise of high efficacy with minor side effects. Mucosal vaccines to protect against tumors or infections disease agents that affect the upper airways or the lung are still lacking, however. One mucosal vaccine candidate is the B-subunit of Shiga toxin, STxB. In this review, we compare STxB to other immunotherapy vectors. STxB is a non-toxic protein that binds to a glycosylated lipid, termed globotriaosylceramide (Gb3), which is preferentially expressed by dendritic cells. We review the use of STxB for the cross-presentation of tumor or viral antigens in a MHC class I-restricted manner to induce humoral immunity against these antigens in addition to polyfunctional and persistent CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes capable of protecting against viral infection or tumor growth. Other literature will be summarized that documents a powerful induction of mucosal IgA and resident memory CD8+ T cells against mucosal tumors specifically when STxB-antigen conjugates are administered via the nasal route. It will also be pointed out how STxB-based vaccines have been shown in preclinical cancer models to synergize with other therapeutic modalities (immune checkpoint inhibitors, anti-angiogenic therapy, radiotherapy). Finally, we will discuss how molecular aspects such as low immunogenicity, cross-species conservation of Gb3 expression, and lack of toxicity contribute to the competitive positioning of STxB among the different DC targeting approaches. STxB thereby appears as an original and innovative tool for the development of mucosal vaccines in infectious diseases and cancer.
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15
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Ehrenfeld M, Schrade A, Flisikowska T, Perl M, Hirsch ND, Sichler A, Geyer L, Flisikowski K, Wilhelm D, Schober SJ, Johannes L, Schnieke A, Janssen KP. Tumor targeting with bacterial Shiga toxin B-subunit in genetic porcine models for colorectal cancer and osteosarcoma. Mol Cancer Ther 2022; 21:686-699. [PMID: 35086950 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-21-0445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Revised: 10/31/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
Abstract
The B-subunit of bacterial Shiga toxin (STxB) is non-toxic and has low immunogenicity. Its receptor, the glycosphingolipid Gb3/CD77, is overexpressed on the cell surface of human colorectal cancer (CRC). We tested whether genetic porcine models, closely resembling human anatomy and pathophysiology, can be used to exploit the tumor targeting potential of STxB. In accordance with findings on human CRC, the pig model APC1311 bound STxB in colorectal tumors, but not in normal colon or jejunum, except for putative enteroendocrine cells. In primary tumor cells from endoscopic biopsies, STxB was rapidly taken up along the retrograde intracellular route to the Golgi, whereas normal colon organoids did not bind or internalize STxB. Next, we tested a porcine model (TP53LSL-R167H) for osteosarcoma, a tumor entity with a dismal prognosis and insufficient treatment options, hitherto not known to express Gb3. Pig osteosarcoma strongly bound StxB and expressed the Gb3-synthase A4GALT. Primary osteosarcoma cells, but not normal osteoblasts, rapidly internalized fluorescently labelled STxB along the retrograde route to the Golgi. Importantly, six out of eight human osteosarcoma cell lines expressed A4GALT mRNA and showed prominent intracellular uptake of STxB. The physiological role of A4GALT was tested by Crispr/Cas9-mutagenesis in porcine LLC-PK1 kidney epithelial cells and RNA interference in MG-63 human osteosarcoma cells. A4GALT-deficiency or knock-down abolished STxB uptake and led to significantly reduced cell migration and proliferation, hinting towards a putative tumor-promoting role of Gb3. Thus, pig models are suitable tools for STxB-based tumor targeting, and may allow "reverse-translational" predictions on human tumor biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maximilian Ehrenfeld
- Departments of Surgery and Urology, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University München
| | - Anna Schrade
- Department of Surgery, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University München
| | - Tatiana Flisikowska
- Chair of Livestock Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich
| | - Markus Perl
- Department of Internal Medicine III, University Hospital Regensburg
| | - Noah-David Hirsch
- Department of Surgery, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University Munich
| | - Anna Sichler
- Department of Surgery, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University Munich
| | - Laura Geyer
- Department of Surgery, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University München
| | - Krzysztof Flisikowski
- Chair of Livestock Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich
| | - Dirk Wilhelm
- Department of Surgery, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich
| | - Sebastian Johannes Schober
- Department of Pediatrics and Children's Cancer Research Center, Kinderklinik München Schwabing, Technical University of Munich
| | - Ludger Johannes
- Endocytic Trafficking and Intracellular Delivery team, Institute Curie
| | | | - Klaus-Peter Janssen
- Department of Surgery, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University München
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16
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Oligosaccharide Presentation Modulates the Molecular Recognition of Glycolipids by Galectins on Membrane Surfaces. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15020145. [PMID: 35215258 PMCID: PMC8878398 DOI: 10.3390/ph15020145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Revised: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Galectins are a family of glycan binding proteins that stand out for the wide range of biological phenomena in which they are involved. Most galectin functions are associated with their glycan binding capacities, which are generally well characterized at the oligosaccharide level, but not at the glycoprotein or glycolipid level. Glycolipids form the part of cell membranes where they can act as galectin cellular receptors. In this scenario, glycan presentation as well as the membrane chemical and structural features are expected to have a strong impact in these molecular association processes. Herein, liposomes were used as membrane mimicking scaffolds for the presentation of glycosphingolipids (GSLs) and to investigate their interaction with Galectin-3 and the N-domain of Galectin-8 (Gal8N). The binding towards GM3 and GM1 and their non-silaylated GSLs was compared to the binding to the free glycans, devoid of lipid. The analysis was carried out using a combination of NMR methods, membrane perturbation studies, and molecular modeling. Our results showed a different tendency of the two galectins in their binding capacities towards the glycans, depending on whether they were free oligosaccharides or as part of GSL inserted into a lipid bilayer, highlighting the significance of GSL glycan presentation on membranes in lectin binding.
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17
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Ivashenka A, Wunder C, Chambon V, Dransart E, Johannes L, Shafaq-Zadah M. Transcytosis of Galectin-3 in Mouse Intestine. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2442:367-390. [PMID: 35320536 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2055-7_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The GlycoLipid-Lectin (GL-Lect) hypothesis provides a conceptual framework to explain how endocytic pits are built in processes of clathrin-independent endocytosis. According to this hypothesis, oligomeric cellular or pathogenic lectins interact with glycosylated plasma membrane lipids in a way such as to drive the formation of tubular endocytic pits that then detach to generate clathrin-independent endocytic carriers for the cellular uptake of cellular or pathogenic products. This process operates in a complementary manner to the conventional clathrin pathway for biological function linked to cell polarity. Up to date, the premises of the GL-Lect hypothesis have been based on model membrane and cell culture experiments. It has therefore become urgent to extend its exploration to complex organisms. In the current protocol, we describe methods to study the endocytosis and transcytosis of a key driver of the GL-Lect mechanism, the cellular galectin-3, and of one of its cargoes, lactotransferrin, in enterocytes of the intact jejunum of mice. In a step-by-step manner, we present the generation of fluorescent endocytic ligands, tissue preparation for cellular uptake measurements, binding and internalization assays, tissue fixation and preparation for sectioning, light and electron microscopical observations, and quantification of data by image processing. Pitfalls are discussed to optimize the chances of success with the described methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alena Ivashenka
- Cellular and Chemical Biology Unit, Endocytic Trafficking and Intracellular Delivery Team, U1143 INSERM, UMR3666 CNRS, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, Paris Cedex, France
| | - Christian Wunder
- Cellular and Chemical Biology Unit, Endocytic Trafficking and Intracellular Delivery Team, U1143 INSERM, UMR3666 CNRS, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, Paris Cedex, France
| | - Valerie Chambon
- Cellular and Chemical Biology Unit, Endocytic Trafficking and Intracellular Delivery Team, U1143 INSERM, UMR3666 CNRS, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, Paris Cedex, France
| | - Estelle Dransart
- Cellular and Chemical Biology Unit, Endocytic Trafficking and Intracellular Delivery Team, U1143 INSERM, UMR3666 CNRS, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, Paris Cedex, France
| | - Ludger Johannes
- Cellular and Chemical Biology Unit, Endocytic Trafficking and Intracellular Delivery Team, U1143 INSERM, UMR3666 CNRS, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, Paris Cedex, France.
| | - Massiullah Shafaq-Zadah
- Cellular and Chemical Biology Unit, Endocytic Trafficking and Intracellular Delivery Team, U1143 INSERM, UMR3666 CNRS, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, Paris Cedex, France.
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18
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Shiga Toxins as Antitumor Tools. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13100690. [PMID: 34678982 PMCID: PMC8538568 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13100690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Revised: 09/12/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Shiga toxins (Stxs), also known as Shiga-like toxins (SLT) or verotoxins (VT), constitute a family of structurally and functionally related cytotoxic proteins produced by the enteric pathogens Shigella dysenteriae type 1 and Stx-producing Escherichia coli (STEC). Infection with these bacteria causes bloody diarrhea and other pathological manifestations that can lead to HUS (hemolytic and uremic syndrome). At the cellular level, Stxs bind to the cellular receptor Gb3 and inhibit protein synthesis by removing an adenine from the 28S rRNA. This triggers multiple cellular signaling pathways, including the ribotoxic stress response (RSR), unfolded protein response (UPR), autophagy and apoptosis. Stxs cause several pathologies of major public health concern, but their specific targeting of host cells and efficient delivery to the cytosol could potentially be exploited for biomedical purposes. Moreover, high levels of expression have been reported for the Stxs receptor, Gb3/CD77, in Burkitt's lymphoma (BL) cells and on various types of solid tumors. These properties have led to many attempts to develop Stxs as tools for biomedical applications, such as cancer treatment or imaging, and several engineered Stxs are currently being tested. We provide here an overview of these studies.
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19
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Kenworthy AK, Schmieder SS, Raghunathan K, Tiwari A, Wang T, Kelly CV, Lencer WI. Cholera Toxin as a Probe for Membrane Biology. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:543. [PMID: 34437414 PMCID: PMC8402489 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13080543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2021] [Revised: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Cholera toxin B-subunit (CTxB) has emerged as one of the most widely utilized tools in membrane biology and biophysics. CTxB is a homopentameric stable protein that binds tightly to up to five GM1 glycosphingolipids. This provides a robust and tractable model for exploring membrane structure and its dynamics including vesicular trafficking and nanodomain assembly. Here, we review important advances in these fields enabled by use of CTxB and its lipid receptor GM1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne K. Kenworthy
- Center for Membrane and Cell Physiology and Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA 22903, USA; (A.T.); (T.W.)
| | - Stefanie S. Schmieder
- Division of Gastroenterology, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA;
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Harvard Digestive Diseases Center, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Krishnan Raghunathan
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15224, USA;
| | - Ajit Tiwari
- Center for Membrane and Cell Physiology and Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA 22903, USA; (A.T.); (T.W.)
| | - Ting Wang
- Center for Membrane and Cell Physiology and Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA 22903, USA; (A.T.); (T.W.)
| | - Christopher V. Kelly
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
| | - Wayne I. Lencer
- Division of Gastroenterology, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA;
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Harvard Digestive Diseases Center, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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20
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Detzner J, Klein AL, Pohlentz G, Krojnewski E, Humpf HU, Mellmann A, Karch H, Müthing J. Primary Human Renal Proximal Tubular Epithelial Cells (pHRPTEpiCs): Shiga Toxin (Stx) Glycosphingolipid Receptors, Stx Susceptibility, and Interaction with Membrane Microdomains. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13080529. [PMID: 34437399 PMCID: PMC8402424 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13080529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2021] [Revised: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Tubular epithelial cells of the human kidney are considered as targets of Shiga toxins (Stxs) in the Stx-mediated pathogenesis of hemolytic–uremic syndrome (HUS) caused by Stx-releasing enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC). Analysis of Stx-binding glycosphingolipids (GSLs) of primary human renal proximal tubular epithelial cells (pHRPTEpiCs) yielded globotriaosylceramide (Gb3Cer) and globotetraosylceramide (Gb4Cer) with Cer (d18:1, C16:0), Cer (d18:1, C22:0), and Cer (d18:1, C24:1/C24:0) as the dominant lipoforms. Investigation of detergent-resistant membranes (DRMs) and nonDRMs, serving as equivalents for the liquid-ordered and liquid-disordered membrane phase, respectively, revealed the prevalence of Gb3Cer and Gb4Cer together with cholesterol and sphingomyelin in DRMs, suggesting lipid raft association. Stx1a and Stx2a exerted strong cellular damage with half-maximal cytotoxic doses (CD50) of 1.31 × 102 pg/mL and 1.66 × 103 pg/mL, respectively, indicating one order of magnitude higher cellular cytotoxicity of Stx1a. Surface acoustic wave (SAW) real-time interaction analysis using biosensor surfaces coated with DRM or nonDRM fractions gave stronger binding capability of Stx1a versus Stx2a that correlated with the lower cytotoxicity of Stx2a. Our study underlines the substantial role of proximal tubular epithelial cells of the human kidney being associated with the development of Stx-mediated HUS at least for Stx1a, while the impact of Stx2a remains somewhat ambiguous.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Detzner
- Institute of Hygiene, University of Münster, D-48149 Münster, Germany; (J.D.); (A.-L.K.); (G.P.); (E.K.); (A.M.); (H.K.)
| | - Anna-Lena Klein
- Institute of Hygiene, University of Münster, D-48149 Münster, Germany; (J.D.); (A.-L.K.); (G.P.); (E.K.); (A.M.); (H.K.)
| | - Gottfried Pohlentz
- Institute of Hygiene, University of Münster, D-48149 Münster, Germany; (J.D.); (A.-L.K.); (G.P.); (E.K.); (A.M.); (H.K.)
| | - Elisabeth Krojnewski
- Institute of Hygiene, University of Münster, D-48149 Münster, Germany; (J.D.); (A.-L.K.); (G.P.); (E.K.); (A.M.); (H.K.)
| | - Hans-Ulrich Humpf
- Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Münster, D-48149 Münster, Germany;
| | - Alexander Mellmann
- Institute of Hygiene, University of Münster, D-48149 Münster, Germany; (J.D.); (A.-L.K.); (G.P.); (E.K.); (A.M.); (H.K.)
| | - Helge Karch
- Institute of Hygiene, University of Münster, D-48149 Münster, Germany; (J.D.); (A.-L.K.); (G.P.); (E.K.); (A.M.); (H.K.)
| | - Johannes Müthing
- Institute of Hygiene, University of Münster, D-48149 Münster, Germany; (J.D.); (A.-L.K.); (G.P.); (E.K.); (A.M.); (H.K.)
- Correspondence:
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21
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Pezeshkian W, Shillcock JC, Ipsen JH. Computational Approaches to Explore Bacterial Toxin Entry into the Host Cell. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13070449. [PMID: 34203472 PMCID: PMC8309782 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13070449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Many bacteria secrete toxic protein complexes that modify and disrupt essential processes in the infected cell that can lead to cell death. To conduct their action, these toxins often need to cross the cell membrane and reach a specific substrate inside the cell. The investigation of these protein complexes is essential not only for understanding their biological functions but also for the rational design of targeted drug delivery vehicles that must navigate across the cell membrane to deliver their therapeutic payload. Despite the immense advances in experimental techniques, the investigations of the toxin entry mechanism have remained challenging. Computer simulations are robust complementary tools that allow for the exploration of biological processes in exceptional detail. In this review, we first highlight the strength of computational methods, with a special focus on all-atom molecular dynamics, coarse-grained, and mesoscopic models, for exploring different stages of the toxin protein entry mechanism. We then summarize recent developments that are significantly advancing our understanding, notably of the glycolipid–lectin (GL-Lect) endocytosis of bacterial Shiga and cholera toxins. The methods discussed here are also applicable to the design of membrane-penetrating nanoparticles and the study of the phenomenon of protein phase separation at the surface of the membrane. Finally, we discuss other likely routes for future development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weria Pezeshkian
- Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute and Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, 9712 Groningen, The Netherlands
- Correspondence:
| | - Julian C. Shillcock
- Blue Brain Project, Laboratory of Molecular and Chemical Biology of Neurodegeneration, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland;
| | - John H. Ipsen
- MEMPHYS/PhyLife, Department of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy (FKF), University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, 5230 Odense, Denmark;
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22
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Arumugam S, Schmieder S, Pezeshkian W, Becken U, Wunder C, Chinnapen D, Ipsen JH, Kenworthy AK, Lencer W, Mayor S, Johannes L. Ceramide structure dictates glycosphingolipid nanodomain assembly and function. Nat Commun 2021; 12:3675. [PMID: 34135326 PMCID: PMC8209009 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-23961-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Gangliosides in the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells are essential for many cellular functions and pathogenic interactions. How gangliosides are dynamically organized and how they respond to ligand binding is poorly understood. Using fluorescence anisotropy imaging of synthetic, fluorescently labeled GM1 gangliosides incorporated into the plasma membrane of living cells, we found that GM1 with a fully saturated C16:0 acyl chain, but not with unsaturated C16:1 acyl chain, is actively clustered into nanodomains, which depends on membrane cholesterol, phosphatidylserine and actin. The binding of cholera toxin B-subunit (CTxB) leads to enlarged membrane domains for both C16:0 and C16:1, owing to binding of multiple GM1 under a toxin, and clustering of CTxB. The structure of the ceramide acyl chain still affects these domains, as co-clustering with the glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored protein CD59 occurs only when GM1 contains the fully saturated C16:0 acyl chain, and not C16:1. Thus, different ceramide species of GM1 gangliosides dictate their assembly into nanodomains and affect nanodomain structure and function, which likely underlies many endogenous cellular processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Senthil Arumugam
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, U1143 INSERM, UMR3666 CNRS, Cellular and Chemical Biology unit, Paris, Cedex, France
- National Centre for Biological Sciences (NCBS), Bangalore, India
- Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, Clayton/Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- European Molecular Biological Laboratory Australia (EMBL Australia), Monash University, Clayton/ Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Stefanie Schmieder
- Division of Gastroenterology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Weria Pezeshkian
- Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute and Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Ulrike Becken
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, U1143 INSERM, UMR3666 CNRS, Cellular and Chemical Biology unit, Paris, Cedex, France
| | - Christian Wunder
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, U1143 INSERM, UMR3666 CNRS, Cellular and Chemical Biology unit, Paris, Cedex, France
| | - Dan Chinnapen
- Division of Gastroenterology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - John Hjort Ipsen
- MEMPHYS/PhyLife, Department of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Southern Denmark, Odense M, Denmark
| | - Anne K Kenworthy
- Center for Membrane and Cell Physiology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Wayne Lencer
- Division of Gastroenterology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Digestive Diseases Center, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Satyajit Mayor
- National Centre for Biological Sciences (NCBS), Bangalore, India.
| | - Ludger Johannes
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, U1143 INSERM, UMR3666 CNRS, Cellular and Chemical Biology unit, Paris, Cedex, France.
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23
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Johannes L. The Cellular and Chemical Biology of Endocytic Trafficking and Intracellular Delivery-The GL-Lect Hypothesis. Molecules 2021; 26:3299. [PMID: 34072622 PMCID: PMC8198588 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26113299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Lipid membranes are common to all forms of life. While being stable barriers that delimitate the cell as the fundamental organismal unit, biological membranes are highly dynamic by allowing for lateral diffusion, transbilayer passage via selective channels, and in eukaryotic cells for endocytic uptake through the formation of membrane bound vesicular or tubular carriers. Two of the most abundant fundamental fabrics of membranes-lipids and complex sugars-are produced through elaborate chains of biosynthetic enzymes, which makes it difficult to study them by conventional reverse genetics. This review illustrates how organic synthesis provides access to uncharted areas of membrane glycobiology research and its application to biomedicine. For this Special Issue on Chemical Biology Research in France, focus will be placed on synthetic approaches (i) to study endocytic functions of glycosylated proteins and lipids according to the GlycoLipid-Lectin (GL-Lect) hypothesis, notably that of Shiga toxin; (ii) to mechanistically dissect its endocytosis and intracellular trafficking with small molecule; and (iii) to devise intracellular delivery strategies for immunotherapy and tumor targeting. It will be pointed out how the chemical biologist's view on lipids, sugars, and proteins synergizes with biophysics and modeling to "look" into the membrane for atomistic scale insights on molecular rearrangements that drive the biogenesis of endocytic carriers in processes of clathrin-independent endocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludger Johannes
- Cellular and Chemical Biology Department, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, U1143 INSERM, UMR3666 CNRS, 26 rue d'Ulm, CEDEX 05, 75248 Paris, France
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24
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Lingwood C. Therapeutic Uses of Bacterial Subunit Toxins. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13060378. [PMID: 34073185 PMCID: PMC8226680 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13060378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Revised: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The B subunit pentamer verotoxin (VT aka Shiga toxin-Stx) binding to its cellular glycosphingolipid (GSL) receptor, globotriaosyl ceramide (Gb3) mediates internalization and the subsequent receptor mediated retrograde intracellular traffic of the AB5 subunit holotoxin to the endoplasmic reticulum. Subunit separation and cytosolic A subunit transit via the ER retrotranslocon as a misfolded protein mimic, then inhibits protein synthesis to kill cells, which can cause hemolytic uremic syndrome clinically. This represents one of the most studied systems of prokaryotic hijacking of eukaryotic biology. Similarly, the interaction of cholera AB5 toxin with its GSL receptor, GM1 ganglioside, is the key component of the gastrointestinal pathogenesis of cholera and follows the same retrograde transport pathway for A subunit cytosol access. Although both VT and CT are the cause of major pathology worldwide, the toxin–receptor interaction is itself being manipulated to generate new approaches to control, rather than cause, disease. This arena comprises two areas: anti neoplasia, and protein misfolding diseases. CT/CTB subunit immunomodulatory function and anti-cancer toxin immunoconjugates will not be considered here. In the verotoxin case, it is clear that Gb3 (and VT targeting) is upregulated in many human cancers and that there is a relationship between GSL expression and cancer drug resistance. While both verotoxin and cholera toxin similarly hijack the intracellular ERAD quality control system of nascent protein folding, the more widespread cell expression of GM1 makes cholera the toxin of choice as the means to more widely utilise ERAD targeting to ameliorate genetic diseases of protein misfolding. Gb3 is primarily expressed in human renal tissue. Glomerular endothelial cells are the primary VT target but Gb3 is expressed in other endothelial beds, notably brain endothelial cells which can mediate the encephalopathy primarily associated with VT2-producing E. coli infection. The Gb3 levels can be regulated by cytokines released during EHEC infection, which complicate pathogenesis. Significantly Gb3 is upregulated in the neovasculature of many tumours, irrespective of tumour Gb3 status. Gb3 is markedly increased in pancreatic, ovarian, breast, testicular, renal, astrocytic, gastric, colorectal, cervical, sarcoma and meningeal cancer relative to the normal tissue. VT has been shown to be effective in mouse xenograft models of renal, astrocytoma, ovarian, colorectal, meningioma, and breast cancer. These studies are herein reviewed. Both CT and VT (and several other bacterial toxins) access the cell cytosol via cell surface ->ER transport. Once in the ER they interface with the protein folding homeostatic quality control pathway of the cell -ERAD, (ER associated degradation), which ensures that only correctly folded nascent proteins are allowed to progress to their cellular destinations. Misfolded proteins are translocated through the ER membrane and degraded by cytosolic proteosome. VT and CT A subunits have a C terminal misfolded protein mimic sequence to hijack this transporter to enter the cytosol. This interface between exogenous toxin and genetically encoded endogenous mutant misfolded proteins, provides a new therapeutic basis for the treatment of such genetic diseases, e.g., Cystic fibrosis, Gaucher disease, Krabbe disease, Fabry disease, Tay-Sachs disease and many more. Studies showing the efficacy of this approach in animal models of such diseases are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clifford Lingwood
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Research Institute, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada;
- Departments of Laboratory Medicine & Pathobiology, and Biochemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
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The Protein Toxins Ricin and Shiga Toxin as Tools to Explore Cellular Mechanisms of Internalization and Intracellular Transport. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13060377. [PMID: 34070659 PMCID: PMC8227415 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13060377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Revised: 05/12/2021] [Accepted: 05/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein toxins secreted by bacteria and found in plants can be threats to human health. However, their extreme toxicity can also be exploited in different ways, e.g., to produce hybrid toxins directed against cancer cells and to study transport mechanisms in cells. Investigations during the last decades have shown how powerful these molecules are as tools in cell biological research. Here, we first present a partly historical overview, with emphasis on Shiga toxin and ricin, of how such toxins have been used to characterize processes and proteins of importance for their trafficking. In the second half of the article, we describe how one can now use toxins to investigate the role of lipid classes for intracellular transport. In recent years, it has become possible to quantify hundreds of lipid species using mass spectrometry analysis. Thus, it is also now possible to explore the importance of lipid species in intracellular transport. The detailed analyses of changes in lipids seen under conditions of inhibited toxin transport reveal previously unknown connections between syntheses of lipid classes and demonstrate the ability of cells to compensate under given conditions.
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Detzner J, Krojnewski E, Pohlentz G, Steil D, Humpf HU, Mellmann A, Karch H, Müthing J. Shiga Toxin (Stx)-Binding Glycosphingolipids of Primary Human Renal Cortical Epithelial Cells (pHRCEpiCs) and Stx-Mediated Cytotoxicity. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13020139. [PMID: 33673393 PMCID: PMC7918848 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Revised: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Human kidney epithelial cells are supposed to be directly involved in the pathogenesis of the hemolytic–uremic syndrome (HUS) caused by Shiga toxin (Stx)-producing enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC). The characterization of the major and minor Stx-binding glycosphingolipids (GSLs) globotriaosylceramide (Gb3Cer) and globotetraosylceramide (Gb4Cer), respectively, of primary human renal cortical epithelial cells (pHRCEpiCs) revealed GSLs with Cer (d18:1, C16:0), Cer (d18:1, C22:0), and Cer (d18:1, C24:1/C24:0) as the dominant lipoforms. Using detergent-resistant membranes (DRMs) and non-DRMs, Gb3Cer and Gb4Cer prevailed in the DRM fractions, suggesting their association with microdomains in the liquid-ordered membrane phase. A preference of Gb3Cer and Gb4Cer endowed with C24:0 fatty acid accompanied by minor monounsaturated C24:1-harboring counterparts was observed in DRMs, whereas the C24:1 fatty acid increased in relation to the saturated equivalents in non-DRMs. A shift of the dominant phospholipid phosphatidylcholine with saturated fatty acids in the DRM to unsaturated species in the non-DRM fractions correlated with the GSL distribution. Cytotoxicity assays gave a moderate susceptibility of pHRCEpiCs to the Stx1a and Stx2a subtypes when compared to highly sensitive Vero-B4 cells. The results indicate that presence of Stx-binding GSLs per se and preferred occurrence in microdomains do not necessarily lead to a high cellular susceptibility towards Stx.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Detzner
- Institute of Hygiene, University of Münster, D-48149 Münster, Germany; (J.D.); (E.K.); (G.P.); (D.S.); (A.M.); (H.K.)
| | - Elisabeth Krojnewski
- Institute of Hygiene, University of Münster, D-48149 Münster, Germany; (J.D.); (E.K.); (G.P.); (D.S.); (A.M.); (H.K.)
| | - Gottfried Pohlentz
- Institute of Hygiene, University of Münster, D-48149 Münster, Germany; (J.D.); (E.K.); (G.P.); (D.S.); (A.M.); (H.K.)
| | - Daniel Steil
- Institute of Hygiene, University of Münster, D-48149 Münster, Germany; (J.D.); (E.K.); (G.P.); (D.S.); (A.M.); (H.K.)
| | - Hans-Ulrich Humpf
- Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Münster, D-48149 Münster, Germany;
| | - Alexander Mellmann
- Institute of Hygiene, University of Münster, D-48149 Münster, Germany; (J.D.); (E.K.); (G.P.); (D.S.); (A.M.); (H.K.)
| | - Helge Karch
- Institute of Hygiene, University of Münster, D-48149 Münster, Germany; (J.D.); (E.K.); (G.P.); (D.S.); (A.M.); (H.K.)
| | - Johannes Müthing
- Institute of Hygiene, University of Münster, D-48149 Münster, Germany; (J.D.); (E.K.); (G.P.); (D.S.); (A.M.); (H.K.)
- Correspondence:
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Ivashenka A, Wunder C, Chambon V, Sandhoff R, Jennemann R, Dransart E, Podsypanina K, Lombard B, Loew D, Lamaze C, Poirier F, Gröne HJ, Johannes L, Shafaq-Zadah M. Glycolipid-dependent and lectin-driven transcytosis in mouse enterocytes. Commun Biol 2021; 4:173. [PMID: 33564097 PMCID: PMC7873212 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-021-01693-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2019] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Glycoproteins and glycolipids at the plasma membrane contribute to a range of functions from growth factor signaling to cell adhesion and migration. Glycoconjugates undergo endocytic trafficking. According to the glycolipid-lectin (GL-Lect) hypothesis, the construction of tubular endocytic pits is driven in a glycosphingolipid-dependent manner by sugar-binding proteins of the galectin family. Here, we provide evidence for a function of the GL-Lect mechanism in transcytosis across enterocytes in the mouse intestine. We show that galectin-3 (Gal3) and its newly identified binding partner lactotransferrin are transported in a glycosphingolipid-dependent manner from the apical to the basolateral membrane. Transcytosis of lactotransferrin is perturbed in Gal3 knockout mice and can be rescued by exogenous Gal3. Inside enterocytes, Gal3 is localized to hallmark structures of the GL-Lect mechanism, termed clathrin-independent carriers. These data pioneer the existence of GL-Lect endocytosis in vivo and strongly suggest that polarized trafficking across the intestinal barrier relies on this mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alena Ivashenka
- Institut Curie, Université PSL, U1143 INSERM, UMR3666 CNRS, Cellular and Chemical Biology Unit, Endocytic Trafficking and Intracellular Delivery Team, Paris, France
| | - Christian Wunder
- Institut Curie, Université PSL, U1143 INSERM, UMR3666 CNRS, Cellular and Chemical Biology Unit, Endocytic Trafficking and Intracellular Delivery Team, Paris, France
| | - Valerie Chambon
- Institut Curie, Université PSL, U1143 INSERM, UMR3666 CNRS, Cellular and Chemical Biology Unit, Endocytic Trafficking and Intracellular Delivery Team, Paris, France
| | - Roger Sandhoff
- Lipid Pathobiochemistry Group, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Richard Jennemann
- Lipid Pathobiochemistry Group, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Estelle Dransart
- Institut Curie, Université PSL, U1143 INSERM, UMR3666 CNRS, Cellular and Chemical Biology Unit, Endocytic Trafficking and Intracellular Delivery Team, Paris, France
| | - Katrina Podsypanina
- Institut Curie, Université PSL, UMR144 CNRS, Cell Biology and Cancer, Paris, France
| | - Bérangère Lombard
- Institut Curie, Université PSL, Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics Facility, Paris, France
| | - Damarys Loew
- Institut Curie, Université PSL, Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics Facility, Paris, France
| | - Christophe Lamaze
- Institut Curie, Université PSL, U1143 INSERM, UMR3666 CNRS, Cellular and Chemical Biology Unit, Membrane Dynamics and Mechanics of Intracellular Signaling Team, Paris, France
| | - Francoise Poirier
- Institut Jacques Monod, UMR 7592 CNRS - Université Paris Diderot, 15 rue Hélène Brion, Paris, France
| | | | - Ludger Johannes
- Institut Curie, Université PSL, U1143 INSERM, UMR3666 CNRS, Cellular and Chemical Biology Unit, Endocytic Trafficking and Intracellular Delivery Team, Paris, France.
| | - Massiullah Shafaq-Zadah
- Institut Curie, Université PSL, U1143 INSERM, UMR3666 CNRS, Cellular and Chemical Biology Unit, Endocytic Trafficking and Intracellular Delivery Team, Paris, France.
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Abstract
Changes in glycosylation on proteins or lipids are one of the hallmarks of tumorigenesis. In many cases, it is still not understood how glycan information is translated into biological function. In this review, we discuss at the example of specific cancer-related glycoproteins how their endocytic uptake into eukaryotic cells is tuned by carbohydrate modifications. For this, we not only focus on overall uptake rates, but also illustrate how different uptake processes-dependent or not on the conventional clathrin machinery-are used under given glycosylation conditions. Furthermore, we discuss the role of certain sugar-binding proteins, termed galectins, to tune glycoprotein uptake by inducing their crosslinking into lattices, or by co-clustering them with glycolipids into raft-type membrane nanodomains from which the so-called clathrin-independent carriers (CLICs) are formed for glycoprotein internalization into cells. The latter process has been termed glycolipid-lectin (GL-Lect) hypothesis, which operates in a complementary manner to the clathrin pathway and galectin lattices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludger Johannes
- Cellular and Chemical Biology Unit, INSERM U1143, CNRS UMR3666, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, 26 rue d'Ulm, 75248, Paris Cedex 05, France.
| | - Anne Billet
- Cellular and Chemical Biology Unit, INSERM U1143, CNRS UMR3666, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, 26 rue d'Ulm, 75248, Paris Cedex 05, France.,Université de Paris, F-75005, Paris, France
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29
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Chemically synthesized Gb 3 glycosphingolipids: tools to access their function in lipid membranes. EUROPEAN BIOPHYSICS JOURNAL: EBJ 2020; 50:109-126. [PMID: 32948883 PMCID: PMC8071800 DOI: 10.1007/s00249-020-01461-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Revised: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Gb3 glycosphingolipids are the specific receptors for bacterial Shiga toxin. Whereas the trisaccharidic head group of Gb3 defines the specificity of Shiga toxin binding, the lipophilic part composed of sphingosine and different fatty acids is suggested to determine its localization within membranes impacting membrane organisation and protein binding eventually leading to protein internalisation. While most studies use Gb3 extracts, chemical synthesis provides a unique tool to access different tailor-made Gb3 glycosphingolipids. In this review, strategies to synthesize these complex glycosphingolipids are presented. Special emphasis is put on the preparation of Gb3 molecules differing only in their fatty acid part (saturated, unsaturated, α-hydroxylated and both, unsaturated and α-hydroxylated). With these molecules in hand, it became possible to investigate the phase behaviour of liquid ordered/liquid disordered supported membranes doped with the Gb3 species by means of fluorescence and atomic force microscopy. The results clearly highlight the influence of the different fatty acids of the Gb3 sphingolipids on the phase behaviour and the binding properties of Shiga toxin B subunits, even though the membranes were only doped with 5 mol% of the receptor lipid. To obtain fluorescent Gb3 derivatives, either fatty acid labelled Gb3 molecules or head group labelled ones were synthesized. These molecules enabled us to address the question, where the Gb3 sphingolipids are localized prior protein binding by means of fluorescence microscopy on giant unilamellar vesicles. The results again demonstrate that the fatty acid of Gb3 plays a pivotal role for the overall membrane organisation.
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Casamento A, Boucrot E. Molecular mechanism of Fast Endophilin-Mediated Endocytosis. Biochem J 2020; 477:2327-2345. [PMID: 32589750 PMCID: PMC7319585 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20190342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2020] [Revised: 05/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Endocytosis mediates the cellular uptake of micronutrients and cell surface proteins. Clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) is the housekeeping pathway in resting cells but additional Clathrin-independent endocytic (CIE) routes, including Fast Endophilin-Mediated Endocytosis (FEME), internalize specific cargoes and support diverse cellular functions. FEME is part of the Dynamin-dependent subgroup of CIE pathways. Here, we review our current understanding of the molecular mechanism of FEME. Key steps are: (i) priming, (ii) cargo selection, (iii) membrane curvature and carrier formation, (iv) membrane scission and (v) cytosolic transport. All steps are controlled by regulatory mechanisms mediated by phosphoinositides and by kinases such as Src, LRRK2, Cdk5 and GSK3β. A key feature of FEME is that it is not constitutively active but triggered upon the stimulation of selected cell surface receptors by their ligands. In resting cells, there is a priming cycle that concentrates Endophilin into clusters on discrete locations of the plasma membrane. In the absence of receptor activation, the patches quickly abort and new cycles are initiated nearby, constantly priming the plasma membrane for FEME. Upon activation, receptors are swiftly sorted into pre-existing Endophilin clusters, which then bud to form FEME carriers within 10 s. We summarize the hallmarks of FEME and the techniques and assays required to identify it. Next, we review similarities and differences with other CIE pathways and proposed cargoes that may use FEME to enter cells. Finally, we submit pending questions and future milestones and discuss the exciting perspectives that targeting FEME may boost treatments against cancer and neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Casamento
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, U.K
| | - Emmanuel Boucrot
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, U.K
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck College, Malet Street, London WC1E 7HX, U.K
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31
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Mercatelli D, Bortolotti M, Giorgi FM. Transcriptional network inference and master regulator analysis of the response to ribosome-inactivating proteins in leukemia cells. Toxicology 2020; 441:152531. [PMID: 32593706 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2020.152531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Revised: 06/20/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Gene-regulatory networks reconstruction has become a very popular approach in applied biology to infer and dissect functional interactions of Transcription Factors (TFs) driving a defined phenotypic state, termed as Master Regulators (MRs). In the present work, cutting-edge bioinformatic methods were applied to re-analyze experimental data on leukemia cells (human myelogenous leukemia cell line THP-1 and acute myeloid leukemia MOLM-13 cells) treated for 6 h with two different Ribosome-Inactivating Proteins (RIPs), namely Shiga toxin type 1 (400 ng/mL) produced by Escherichia coli strains and the plant toxin stenodactylin (60 ng/mL), purified from the caudex of Adenia stenodactyla Harms. This analysis allowed us to identify the common early transcriptional response to 28S rRNA damage based on gene-regulatory network inference and Master Regulator Analysis (MRA). Both toxins induce a common response at 6 h which involves inflammatory mediators triggered by AP-1 family transcriptional factors and ATF3 in leukemia cells. We describe for the first time the involvement of MAFF, KLF2 and KLF6 in regulating RIP-induced apoptotic cell death, while receptor-mediated downstream signaling through ANXA1 and TLR4 is suggested for both toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Mercatelli
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, Italy.
| | - Massimo Bortolotti
- Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine-DIMES, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, Italy.
| | - Federico M Giorgi
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, Italy.
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Mobilizing Toxins for Cancer Treatment: Historical Perspectives and Current Strategies. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12060416. [PMID: 32585926 PMCID: PMC7354444 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12060416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
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Structured clustering of the glycosphingolipid GM1 is required for membrane curvature induced by cholera toxin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:14978-14986. [PMID: 32554490 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2001119117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
AB5 bacterial toxins and polyomaviruses induce membrane curvature as a mechanism to facilitate their entry into host cells. How membrane bending is accomplished is not yet fully understood but has been linked to the simultaneous binding of the pentameric B subunit to multiple copies of glycosphingolipid receptors. Here, we probe the toxin membrane binding and internalization mechanisms by using a combination of superresolution and polarized localization microscopy. We show that cholera toxin subunit B (CTxB) can induce membrane curvature only when bound to multiple copies of its glycosphingolipid receptor, GM1, and the ceramide structure of GM1 is likely not a determinant of this activity as assessed in model membranes. A mutant CTxB capable of binding only a single GM1 fails to generate curvature either in model membranes or in cells, and clustering the mutant CTxB-single-GM1 complexes by antibody cross-linking does not rescue the membrane curvature phenotype. We conclude that both the multiplicity and specific geometry of GM1 binding sites are necessary for the induction of membrane curvature. We expect this to be a general rule of membrane behavior for all AB5 toxins and polyomaviruses that bind glycosphingolipids to invade host cells.
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Valid Presumption of Shiga Toxin-Mediated Damage of Developing Erythrocytes in EHEC-Associated Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12060373. [PMID: 32512916 PMCID: PMC7354503 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12060373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Revised: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 06/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The global emergence of clinical diseases caused by enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) is an issue of great concern. EHEC release Shiga toxins (Stxs) as their key virulence factors, and investigations on the cell-damaging mechanisms toward target cells are inevitable for the development of novel mitigation strategies. Stx-mediated hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), characterized by the triad of microangiopathic hemolytic anemia, thrombocytopenia, and acute renal injury, is the most severe outcome of an EHEC infection. Hemolytic anemia during HUS is defined as the loss of erythrocytes by mechanical disruption when passing through narrowed microvessels. The formation of thrombi in the microvasculature is considered an indirect effect of Stx-mediated injury mainly of the renal microvascular endothelial cells, resulting in obstructions of vessels. In this review, we summarize and discuss recent data providing evidence that HUS-associated hemolytic anemia may arise not only from intravascular rupture of erythrocytes, but also from the extravascular impairment of erythropoiesis, the development of red blood cells in the bone marrow, via direct Stx-mediated damage of maturing erythrocytes, leading to “non-hemolytic” anemia.
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Molecular Biology of Escherichia Coli Shiga Toxins' Effects on Mammalian Cells. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12050345. [PMID: 32456125 PMCID: PMC7290813 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12050345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Revised: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Shiga toxins (Stxs), syn. Vero(cyto)toxins, are potent bacterial exotoxins and the principal virulence factor of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC), a subset of Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC). EHEC strains, e.g., strains of serovars O157:H7 and O104:H4, may cause individual cases as well as large outbreaks of life-threatening diseases in humans. Stxs primarily exert a ribotoxic activity in the eukaryotic target cells of the mammalian host resulting in rapid protein synthesis inhibition and cell death. Damage of endothelial cells in the kidneys and the central nervous system by Stxs is central in the pathogenesis of hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) in humans and edema disease in pigs. Probably even more important, the toxins also are capable of modulating a plethora of essential cellular functions, which eventually disturb intercellular communication. The review aims at providing a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge of the time course and the consecutive steps of Stx/cell interactions at the molecular level. Intervention measures deduced from an in-depth understanding of this molecular interplay may foster our basic understanding of cellular biology and microbial pathogenesis and pave the way to the creation of host-directed active compounds to mitigate the pathological conditions of STEC infections in the mammalian body.
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Verotoxin-1-Induced ER Stress Triggers Apoptotic or Survival Pathways in Burkitt Lymphoma Cells. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12050316. [PMID: 32403276 PMCID: PMC7291219 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12050316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Shiga toxins (Stxs) expressed by the enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli and enteric Shigella dysenteriae 1 pathogens are protein synthesis inhibitors. Stxs have been shown to induce apoptosis via the activation of extrinsic and intrinsic pathways in many cell types (epithelial, endothelial, and B cells) but the link between the protein synthesis inhibition and caspase activation is still unclear. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress induced by the inhibition of protein synthesis may be this missing link. Here, we show that the treatment of Burkitt lymphoma (BL) cells with verotoxin-1 (VT-1 or Stx1) consistently induced the ER stress response by activation of IRE1 and ATF6-two ER stress sensors-followed by increased expression of the transcription factor C/REB homologous protein (CHOP). However, our data suggest that, although ER stress is systematically induced by VT-1 in BL cells, its role in cell death appears to be cell specific and can be the opposite: ER stress may enhance VT-1-induced apoptosis through CHOP or play a protective role through ER-phagy, depending on the cell line. Several engineered Stxs are currently under investigation as potential anti-cancer agents. Our results suggest that a better understanding of the signaling pathways induced by Stxs is needed before using them in the clinic.
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Endophilin-A3 and Galectin-8 control the clathrin-independent endocytosis of CD166. Nat Commun 2020; 11:1457. [PMID: 32193381 PMCID: PMC7081352 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-15303-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2019] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
While several clathrin-independent endocytic processes have been described so far, their biological relevance often remains elusive, especially in pathophysiological contexts such as cancer. In this study, we find that the tumor marker CD166/ALCAM (Activated Leukocyte Cell Adhesion Molecule) is a clathrin-independent cargo. We show that endophilin-A3—but neither A1 nor A2 isoforms—functionally associates with CD166-containing early endocytic carriers and physically interacts with the cargo. Our data further demonstrates that the three endophilin-A isoforms control the uptake of distinct subsets of cargoes. In addition, we provide strong evidence that the construction of endocytic sites from which CD166 is taken up in an endophilin-A3-dependent manner is driven by extracellular galectin-8. Taken together, our data reveal the existence of a previously uncharacterized clathrin-independent endocytic modality, that modulates the abundance of CD166 at the cell surface, and regulates adhesive and migratory properties of cancer cells. How and which cell surface molecules are taken up by clathrin-independent endocytosis is an ongoing area of research. Here, the authors show that the tumor marker CD166 is a clathrin-independent cargo that is taken up by endophilin-A3 and galectin-8, which regulates cancer cell migration.
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RAB5A and TRAPPC6B are novel targets for Shiga toxin 2a inactivation in kidney epithelial cells. Sci Rep 2020; 10:4945. [PMID: 32188865 PMCID: PMC7080763 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-59694-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2019] [Accepted: 01/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The cardinal virulence factor of human-pathogenic enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) is Shiga toxin (Stx), which causes severe extraintestinal complications including kidney failure by damaging renal endothelial cells. In EHEC pathogenesis, the disturbance of the kidney epithelium by Stx becomes increasingly recognised, but how this exactly occurs is unknown. To explore this molecularly, we investigated the Stx receptor content and transcriptomic profile of two human renal epithelial cell lines: highly Stx-sensitive ACHN cells and largely Stx-insensitive Caki-2 cells. Though both lines exhibited the Stx receptor globotriaosylceramide, RNAseq revealed strikingly different transcriptomic responses to an Stx challenge. Using RNAi to silence factors involved in ACHN cells’ Stx response, the greatest protection occurred when silencing RAB5A and TRAPPC6B, two host factors that we newly link to Stx trafficking. Silencing these factors alongside YKT6 fully prevented the cytotoxic Stx effect. Overall, our approach reveals novel subcellular targets for potential therapies against Stx-mediated kidney failure.
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Berg Klenow M, Camillus Jeppesen J, Simonsen AC. Membrane rolling induced by bacterial toxins. SOFT MATTER 2020; 16:1614-1626. [PMID: 31957755 DOI: 10.1039/c9sm01913h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Membrane curvature effects are important in numerous cellular processes and many membrane interacting proteins induce spontaneous curvature upon membrane binding. Shiga and cholera toxins both belong to the AB5 family of toxins and consist of a toxic A subunit and a membrane-binding pentameric B subunit. Shiga and cholera toxins induce tubular membrane invaginations in cells and GUVs due to curvature effects and the toxins are known from MD simulations to induce curvature. Membrane invaginations have been linked to uptake of the toxins into cells. As a novel model system to experimentally characterize curvature-inducing proteins, we study the morphology induced in planar membrane patches. It was previously shown that annexins induce distinct morphologies in membrane patches including membrane rolling. In this study we show that the B subunits of Shiga and cholera toxins (STxB, CTxB) both induce roll-up of cell-sized membrane patches. Rolling starts from the free membrane edges of the patch and is completed within a few seconds. We characterize the branched roll morphology and find experimental estimates for the spontaneous curvature of the toxins based on the topography of rolls. The estimates are in agreement with previous MD simulations. We quantify the dynamics of rolling as induced by the toxins and demonstrate agreement with a theoretical model of the rolling dynamics. The model solves the equation of motion for a membrane roll and includes viscous drag and adhesion to the support. The results suggest that membrane rolling may be a general phenomenon displayed by many proteins that induce negative curvature in membranes with free edges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Berg Klenow
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, 5230 Odense M, Denmark.
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Berdasco C, Duhalde Vega M, Rosato-Siri MV, Goldstein J. Environmental Cues Modulate Microglial Cell Behavior Upon Shiga Toxin 2 From Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli Exposure. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 9:442. [PMID: 31970091 PMCID: PMC6960108 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2019.00442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2019] [Accepted: 12/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Shiga toxin (Stx) produced by enterohemorrhagic E. coli produces hemolytic uremic syndrome and encephalopathies in patients, which can lead to either reversible or permanent neurological abnormalities, or even fatal cases depending on the degree of intoxication. It has been observed that the inflammatory component plays a decisive role in the severity of the disease. Therefore, the objective of this work was to evaluate the behavior of microglial cell primary cultures upon Stx2 exposure and heat shock or lipopolysaccharide challenges, as cues which modulate cellular environments, mimicking fever and inflammation states, respectively. In these contexts, activated microglial cells incorporated Stx2, increased their metabolism, phagocytic capacity, and pro-inflammatory profile. Stx2 uptake was associated to receptor globotriaosylceramide (Gb3)-pathway. Gb3 had three clearly distinguishable distribution patterns which varied according to different contexts. In addition, toxin uptake exhibited both a Gb3-dependent and a Gb3-independent binding depending on those contexts. Altogether, these results suggest a fundamental role for microglial cells in pro-inflammatory processes in encephalopathies due to Stx2 intoxication and highlight the impact of environmental cues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara Berdasco
- Laboratorio de Neurofisiopatología, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Fisiología y Biofísica "Houssay", Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Maite Duhalde Vega
- Instituto de Química y Fisicoquímica Biológicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María Victoria Rosato-Siri
- Instituto de Química y Fisicoquímica Biológicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Jorge Goldstein
- Laboratorio de Neurofisiopatología, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Fisiología y Biofísica "Houssay", Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Jones S, King PJ, Antonescu CN, Sugiyama MG, Bhamra A, Surinova S, Angelopoulos N, Kragh M, Pedersen MW, Hartley JA, Futter CE, Hochhauser D. Targeting of EGFR by a combination of antibodies mediates unconventional EGFR trafficking and degradation. Sci Rep 2020; 10:663. [PMID: 31959764 PMCID: PMC6970994 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-57153-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Antibody combinations targeting cell surface receptors are a new modality of cancer therapy. The trafficking and signalling mechanisms regulated by such therapeutics are not fully understood but could underlie differential tumour responses. We explored EGFR trafficking upon treatment with the antibody combination Sym004 which has shown promise clinically. Sym004 promoted EGFR endocytosis distinctly from EGF: it was asynchronous, not accompanied by canonical signalling events and involved EGFR clustering within detergent-insoluble plasma mebrane-associated tubules. Sym004 induced lysosomal degradation independently of EGFR ubiquitylation but dependent upon Hrs/Tsg101 that are required for the formation of intraluminal vesicles (ILVs) within late endosomes. We propose Sym004 cross-links EGFR physically triggering EGFR endocytosis and incorporation onto ILVs and so Sym004 sensitivity correlates with EGFR numbers available for binding, rather than specific signalling events. Consistently Sym004 efficacy and potentiation of cisplatin responses correlated with EGFR surface expression in head and neck cancer cells. These findings will have implications in understanding the mode of action of this new class of cancer therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylwia Jones
- Cancer Research UK Drug-DNA Interactions Research Group, UCL Cancer Institute, Paul O'Gorman Building, University College London, London, WC1E 6DD, UK
| | - Peter J King
- Cancer Research UK Drug-DNA Interactions Research Group, UCL Cancer Institute, Paul O'Gorman Building, University College London, London, WC1E 6DD, UK
| | | | | | - Amandeep Bhamra
- Proteomics Research Core Facility, UCL Cancer Institute, University College London, London, UK
| | - Silvia Surinova
- Proteomics Research Core Facility, UCL Cancer Institute, University College London, London, UK
| | - Nicos Angelopoulos
- Proteomics Research Core Facility, UCL Cancer Institute, University College London, London, UK
| | | | | | - John A Hartley
- Cancer Research UK Drug-DNA Interactions Research Group, UCL Cancer Institute, Paul O'Gorman Building, University College London, London, WC1E 6DD, UK
| | - Clare E Futter
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, 11-43 Bath Street, London, EC1V 9EL, UK
| | - Daniel Hochhauser
- Cancer Research UK Drug-DNA Interactions Research Group, UCL Cancer Institute, Paul O'Gorman Building, University College London, London, WC1E 6DD, UK.
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Binding of Gold(III) Porphyrin by the Pro-metastatic Regulatory Protein Human Galectin-3. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24244561. [PMID: 31842510 PMCID: PMC6943629 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24244561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2019] [Revised: 12/09/2019] [Accepted: 12/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Gold(III) porphyrin presents an attractive alternative to the use of, for example, cisplatin in chemotherapy. However, approaches that allow to selectively target cancer cells are highly sought. Many plant and mammalian lectins have been shown to bind oligosaccharide sequences of the aberrant glycosylation pattern found on cancerous tumors. For example human galectin-3, of the galectin family specific for β-galactoside, is overexpressed in the extracellular matrix of tumorigenous and metastatic tissues. We searched for non-carbohydrate ligands for galectin-3 that can guide a cytotoxic drug to the cancer cells by maintaining its affinity for tumor associated carbohydrate antigens. Previous findings showed that zinc tetrasulfonatophenylporphyrin can bind galectin-3 with sub-micromolar affinity without disturbing lactose binding. Gold(III) porphyrin is not only cytotoxic to cancer cells, it knows also a potential application as photosensitiser in photodynamic therapy. We investigated the binding of gold(III) porphyrin to galectin-3 using different biophysical interaction techniques and demonstrated a low micromolar affinity of human galectin-3 for the cytotoxic compound. Co-crystallization attempts in order to understand the binding mode of gold porphyrin to galectin-3 failed, but molecular docking emphasized a highly populated secondary binding site that does not hinder lactose or Thomsen Friendenreich disaccharide binding. This suggests that gold(III) porphyrin might significantly enhance its concentration and delivery to cancer cells by binding to human galectin-3 that keeps its orientation towards tumor associated carbohydrate antigens.
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Platnich JM, Chung H, Lau A, Sandall CF, Bondzi-Simpson A, Chen HM, Komada T, Trotman-Grant AC, Brandelli JR, Chun J, Beck PL, Philpott DJ, Girardin SE, Ho M, Johnson RP, MacDonald JA, Armstrong GD, Muruve DA. Shiga Toxin/Lipopolysaccharide Activates Caspase-4 and Gasdermin D to Trigger Mitochondrial Reactive Oxygen Species Upstream of the NLRP3 Inflammasome. Cell Rep 2019; 25:1525-1536.e7. [PMID: 30404007 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2018.09.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2017] [Revised: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 09/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The non-canonical caspase-4 and canonical NLRP3 inflammasomes are both activated by intracellular lipopolysaccharide (LPS), but the crosstalk between these two pathways remains unclear. Shiga toxin 2 (Stx2)/LPS complex, from pathogenic enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli, activates caspase-4, gasdermin D (GSDMD), and the NLRP3 inflammasome in human THP-1 macrophages, but not mouse macrophages that lack the Stx receptor CD77. Stx2/LPS-mediated IL-1β secretion and pyroptosis are dependent on mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) downstream of the non-canonical caspase-4 inflammasome and cleaved GSDMD, which is enriched at the mitochondria. Blockade of caspase-4 activation and ROS generation as well as GSDMD deficiency significantly reduces Stx2/LPS-induced IL-1β production and pyroptosis. The NLRP3 inflammasome plays a significant role in amplifying Stx2/LPS-induced GSDMD cleavage and pyroptosis, with significant reduction of these responses in NLRP3-deficient THP-1 cells. Together, these data show that Stx2/LPS complex activates the non-canonical inflammasome and mitochondrial ROS upstream of the NLRP3 inflammasome to promote cytokine maturation and pyroptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaye M Platnich
- Department of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada; Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Hyunjae Chung
- Department of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada; Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Arthur Lau
- Department of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada; Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Christina F Sandall
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Adom Bondzi-Simpson
- Department of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada; Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Huey-Miin Chen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Takanori Komada
- Department of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada; Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | | | - Jeremy R Brandelli
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada; Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Justin Chun
- Department of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada; Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Paul L Beck
- Department of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada; Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Dana J Philpott
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Stephen E Girardin
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - May Ho
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada; Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Roger P Johnson
- Public Health Agency of Canada, National Microbiology Laboratory, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Justin A MacDonald
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Glen D Armstrong
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada; Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Daniel A Muruve
- Department of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada; Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.
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Detzner J, Gloerfeld C, Pohlentz G, Legros N, Humpf HU, Mellmann A, Karch H, Müthing J. Structural Insights into Escherichia coli Shiga Toxin (Stx) Glycosphingolipid Receptors of Porcine Renal Epithelial Cells and Inhibition of Stx-Mediated Cellular Injury Using Neoglycolipid-Spiked Glycovesicles. Microorganisms 2019; 7:microorganisms7110582. [PMID: 31752441 PMCID: PMC6920957 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7110582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Revised: 11/15/2019] [Accepted: 11/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Shiga toxin (Stx) producing Escherichia coli (STEC) cause the edema disease in pigs by releasing the swine-pathogenic Stx2e subtype as the key virulence factor. Stx2e targets endothelial cells of animal organs including the kidney harboring the Stx receptor glycosphingolipids (GSLs) globotriaosylceramide (Gb3Cer, Galα1-4Galβ1-4Glcβ1-1Cer) and globotetraosylceramide (Gb4Cer, GalNAcβ1-3Galα1-4Galβ1-4Glcβ1-1Cer). Since the involvement of renal epithelial cells in the edema disease is unknown, in this study, we analyzed the porcine kidney epithelial cell lines, LLC-PK1 and PK-15, regarding the presence of Stx-binding GSLs, their sensitivity towards Stx2e, and the inhibitory potential of Gb3- and Gb4-neoglycolipids, carrying phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) as the lipid anchor, towards Stx2e. Immunochemical and mass spectrometric analysis revealed various Gb3Cer and Gb4Cer lipoforms as the dominant Stx-binding GSLs in both LLC-PK1 and PK-15 cells. A dihexosylceramide with proposed Galα1-4Gal-sequence (Gal2Cer) was detected in PK-15 cells, whereas LLC-PK1 cells lacked this compound. Both cell lines were susceptible towards Stx2e with LLC-PK1 representing an extremely Stx2e-sensitive cell line. Gb3-PE and Gb4-PE applied as glycovesicles significantly reduced the cytotoxic activity of Stx2e towards LLC-PK1 cells, whereas only Gb4-PE exhibited some protection against Stx2e for PK-15 cells. This is the first report identifying Stx2e receptors of porcine kidney epithelial cells and providing first data on their Stx2e-mediated damage suggesting possible involvement in the edema disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Detzner
- Institute for Hygiene, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany; (J.D.); (C.G.); (G.P.); (N.L.); (A.M.); (H.K.)
| | - Caroline Gloerfeld
- Institute for Hygiene, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany; (J.D.); (C.G.); (G.P.); (N.L.); (A.M.); (H.K.)
| | - Gottfried Pohlentz
- Institute for Hygiene, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany; (J.D.); (C.G.); (G.P.); (N.L.); (A.M.); (H.K.)
| | - Nadine Legros
- Institute for Hygiene, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany; (J.D.); (C.G.); (G.P.); (N.L.); (A.M.); (H.K.)
| | - Hans-Ulrich Humpf
- Institute for Food Chemistry, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany;
| | - Alexander Mellmann
- Institute for Hygiene, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany; (J.D.); (C.G.); (G.P.); (N.L.); (A.M.); (H.K.)
| | - Helge Karch
- Institute for Hygiene, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany; (J.D.); (C.G.); (G.P.); (N.L.); (A.M.); (H.K.)
| | - Johannes Müthing
- Institute for Hygiene, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany; (J.D.); (C.G.); (G.P.); (N.L.); (A.M.); (H.K.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-(0)251-8355192
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Pohlentz G, Steil D, Rubin D, Mellmann A, Karch H, Müthing J. Pectin-derived neoglycolipids: Tools for differentiation of Shiga toxin subtypes and inhibitors of Shiga toxin-mediated cellular injury. Carbohydr Polym 2019; 212:323-333. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2019.02.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2018] [Revised: 02/04/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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46
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Lee MS, Tesh VL. Roles of Shiga Toxins in Immunopathology. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E212. [PMID: 30970547 PMCID: PMC6521259 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11040212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2019] [Revised: 04/04/2019] [Accepted: 04/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Shigella species and Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) are agents of bloody diarrhea that may progress to potentially lethal complications such as diarrhea-associated hemolytic uremic syndrome (D+HUS) and neurological disorders. The bacteria share the ability to produce virulence factors called Shiga toxins (Stxs). Research over the past two decades has identified Stxs as multifunctional toxins capable of inducing cell stress responses in addition to their canonical ribotoxic function inhibiting protein synthesis. Notably, Stxs are not only potent inducers of cell death, but also activate innate immune responses that may lead to inflammation, and these effects may increase the severity of organ injury in patients infected with Stx-producing bacteria. In the intestines, kidneys, and central nervous system, excessive or uncontrolled host innate and cellular immune responses triggered by Stxs may result in sensitization of cells to toxin mediated damage, leading to immunopathology and increased morbidity and mortality in animal models (including primates) and human patients. Here, we review studies describing Stx-induced innate immune responses that may be associated with tissue damage, inflammation, and complement activation. We speculate on how these processes may contribute to immunopathological responses to the toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moo-Seung Lee
- Environmental Diseases Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, 125 Gwahak-ro, Daejeon 34141, Korea.
- Department of Biomolecular Science, KRIBB School of Bioscience, Korea University of Science and Technology (UST), 127 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34113, Korea.
| | - Vernon L Tesh
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, Bryan, TX 77807, USA.
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Abstract
Endocytic pathways are broadly classified into clathrin dependent and independent on the basis of the requirement for the coat protein, clathrin. The molecular pathways and mechanisms underlying the formation of clathrin-independent pathways are still being explored, and this review summarizes recent advances and emerging functional roles of these diverse pathways. In particular, this review will discuss the growing consensus on the role of BAR domain proteins and the actin machinery in different clathrin-independent pathways and its significance to the functions fulfilled by these endocytic pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anupama Hemalatha
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA.,National Centre for Biological Sciences (NCBS-TIFR), Bangalore, Karnataka, 560065, India
| | - Satyajit Mayor
- National Centre for Biological Sciences (NCBS-TIFR), Bangalore, Karnataka, 560065, India
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Parashuraman S, D’Angelo G. Visualizing sphingolipid biosynthesis in cells. Chem Phys Lipids 2019; 218:103-111. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2018.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2018] [Revised: 11/11/2018] [Accepted: 11/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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49
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Carpenter TS, López CA, Neale C, Montour C, Ingólfsson HI, Di Natale F, Lightstone FC, Gnanakaran S. Capturing Phase Behavior of Ternary Lipid Mixtures with a Refined Martini Coarse-Grained Force Field. J Chem Theory Comput 2018; 14:6050-6062. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jctc.8b00496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Timothy S. Carpenter
- Biosciences and Biotechnology Division, Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94550, United States
| | | | | | - Cameron Montour
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Department, Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20057, United States
| | - Helgi I. Ingólfsson
- Biosciences and Biotechnology Division, Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94550, United States
| | - Francesco Di Natale
- Applications, Simulations, and Quality Division, Computation Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94550, United States
| | - Felice C. Lightstone
- Biosciences and Biotechnology Division, Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94550, United States
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Legros N, Pohlentz G, Steil D, Müthing J. Shiga toxin-glycosphingolipid interaction: Status quo of research with focus on primary human brain and kidney endothelial cells. Int J Med Microbiol 2018; 308:1073-1084. [PMID: 30224239 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2018.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Revised: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Shiga toxin (Stx)-mediated injury of the kidneys and the brain represent the major extraintestinal complications in humans upon infection by enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC). Damage of renal and cerebral endothelial cells is the key event in the pathogenesis of the life-threatening hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS). Stxs are AB5 toxins and the B-pentamers of the two clinically important Stx subtypes Stx1a and Stx2a preferentially bind to the glycosphingolipid globotriaosylceramide (Gb3Cer, Galα4Galβ4Glcβ1Cer) and to less extent to globotetraosylceramide (Gb4Cer, GalNAcβ3Galα4Galβ4Glcβ1), which are expected to reside in lipid rafts in the plasma membrane of the human endothelium. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the Stx glycosphingolipid receptors and their lipid membrane ensemble in primary human brain microvascular endothelial cells (pHBMECs) and primary human renal glomerular endothelial cells (pHRGECs). Increasing knowledge on the precise initial molecular mechanisms by which Stxs interact with cellular targets will help to develop specific therapeutics and/or preventive measures to combat EHEC-caused diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadine Legros
- Institute for Hygiene, University of Münster, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | | | - Daniel Steil
- Institute for Hygiene, University of Münster, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Johannes Müthing
- Institute for Hygiene, University of Münster, D-48149 Münster, Germany; Interdisciplinary Center for Clinical Research (IZKF), University of Münster, D-48149 Münster, Germany.
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