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Ponzo E, Midiri A, Manno A, Pastorello M, Biondo C, Mancuso G. Insights into the epidemiology, pathogenesis, and differential diagnosis of schistosomiasis. Eur J Microbiol Immunol (Bp) 2024; 14:86-96. [PMID: 38498078 PMCID: PMC11097794 DOI: 10.1556/1886.2024.00013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2024] [Accepted: 02/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Schistosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease that is prevalent in low- and middle-income countries. There are five human pathogenic species, of which Schistosoma haematobium, Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma japonicum are the most prevalent worldwide and cause the greatest burden of disease in terms of mortality and morbidity. In addition, hybrid schistosomes have been identified through molecular analysis. Human infection occurs when cercariae, the larval form of the parasite, penetrate the skin of people while bathing in contaminated waters such as lakes and rivers. Schistosomiasis can cause both urogenital and intestinal symptoms. Urogenital symptoms include haematuria, bladder fibrosis, kidney damage, and an increased risk of bladder cancer. Intestinal symptoms may include abdominal pain, sometimes accompanied by diarrhoea and blood in the stool. Schistosomiasis affects more than 250 million people and causes approximately 70 million Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs), mainly in Africa, South America, and Asia. To control infection, it is essential to establish sensitive and specific diagnostic tests for epidemiological surveillance and morbidity reduction. This review provides an overview of schistosomiasis, with a focus on available diagnostic tools for Schistosoma spp. Current molecular detection methods and progress in the development of new diagnostics for schistosomiasis infection are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Ponzo
- Department of Human Pathology, Laboratory of Parasitology, University of Messina, 98125Messina, Italy
| | - Angelina Midiri
- Department of Human Pathology, Laboratory of Parasitology, University of Messina, 98125Messina, Italy
| | - Andrea Manno
- Department of Human Pathology, Laboratory of Parasitology, University of Messina, 98125Messina, Italy
| | - Martina Pastorello
- Department of Human Pathology, Laboratory of Parasitology, University of Messina, 98125Messina, Italy
| | - Carmelo Biondo
- Department of Human Pathology, Laboratory of Parasitology, University of Messina, 98125Messina, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Mancuso
- Department of Human Pathology, Laboratory of Parasitology, University of Messina, 98125Messina, Italy
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2
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Zumuk CP, Jones MK, Navarro S, Gray DJ, You H. Transmission-Blocking Vaccines against Schistosomiasis Japonica. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:1707. [PMID: 38338980 PMCID: PMC10855202 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25031707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 01/21/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Control of schistosomiasis japonica, endemic in Asia, including the Philippines, China, and Indonesia, is extremely challenging. Schistosoma japonicum is a highly pathogenic helminth parasite, with disease arising predominantly from an immune reaction to entrapped parasite eggs in tissues. Females of this species can generate 1000-2200 eggs per day, which is about 3- to 15-fold greater than the egg output of other schistosome species. Bovines (water buffalo and cattle) are the predominant definitive hosts and are estimated to generate up to 90% of parasite eggs released into the environment in rural endemic areas where these hosts and humans are present. Here, we highlight the necessity of developing veterinary transmission-blocking vaccines for bovines to better control the disease and review potential vaccine candidates. We also point out that the approach to producing efficacious transmission-blocking animal-based vaccines before moving on to human vaccines is crucial. This will result in effective and feasible public health outcomes in agreement with the One Health concept to achieve optimum health for people, animals, and the environment. Indeed, incorporating a veterinary-based transmission vaccine, coupled with interventions such as human mass drug administration, improved sanitation and hygiene, health education, and snail control, would be invaluable to eliminating zoonotic schistosomiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chika P. Zumuk
- Infection and Inflammation Program, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, QLD 4006, Australia; (C.P.Z.); (M.K.J.); (S.N.)
- Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD 4006, Australia
| | - Malcolm K. Jones
- Infection and Inflammation Program, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, QLD 4006, Australia; (C.P.Z.); (M.K.J.); (S.N.)
- School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD 4343, Australia
| | - Severine Navarro
- Infection and Inflammation Program, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, QLD 4006, Australia; (C.P.Z.); (M.K.J.); (S.N.)
- Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD 4006, Australia
- Centre for Childhood Nutrition Research, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia
| | - Darren J. Gray
- Population Health Program, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, QLD 4006, Australia;
| | - Hong You
- Infection and Inflammation Program, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, QLD 4006, Australia; (C.P.Z.); (M.K.J.); (S.N.)
- School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD 4343, Australia
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Suwancharoen C, Phuangsri C, Siriwechviriya P, Bunsong T, Japa O. Diversity of trematode cercariae among naturally infected lymnaeid snails from Phayao, Thailand. Parasitol Res 2023; 122:2691-2708. [PMID: 37698606 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-023-07971-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 09/13/2023]
Abstract
Lymnaeids are aquatic snails playing an important role in the transmission of many parasitic trematode species of veterinary and medical importance. In this study, we assessed the presence of cercarial flukes in naturally infected lymnaeid snails from Phayao province, Thailand, and determined the species diversity of both the intermediate snail hosts and parasite larvae. A total of 3,185 lymnaeid snails were collected from paddy fields at 31 sites in eight districts of Phayao province between October 2021 and December 2022. Larval fluke infection was assessed using the cercarial shedding method. The collected snails as well as emerging cercariae were identified at the species level via morphological and molecular methods. The sequences of snail internal transcribed spacer region 2 (ITS2) and cercarial 28S ribosomal RNA gene (28S rDNA) and cytochrome C oxidase1 (Cox1) were determined by PCR amplification and sequencing. Three species of lymnaeid snails were detected in this study, including Radix (Lymnaea) rubiginosa (Michelin, 1831), Radix (Lymnaea) swinhoei (Adams, 1866) and Austropeplea viridis (Quoy & Gaimard, 1832), of which R. rubiginosa was the most abundant, followed by A. viridis and R. swinhoei. The overall rate of trematode cercarial infection in the lymnaeid snails was 2.8% (90/3,185); the cercarial infection rate in R. rubiginosa and A. viridis was 3.5% (60/1,735) and 3.1% (30/981), respectively. No larval fluke infection was observed in the studied R. swinhoei (0/469). Nine morphotypes of cercariae were detected at 15 sites from four districts. The emerging cercariae were molecularly identified as Clinostomum sp., Aporocotylidae sp., Apharyngostrigea sp., Trichobilharzia sp., Apatemon sp., Pegosomum sp., Petasiger sp., Echinostoma revolutum and Plagiorchis sp. These findings emphasize the occurrence and diversity of trematode cercariae among naturally infected lymnaeid snails in Phayao province and could contribute to broadening our understanding of the host-parasite relationships between trematodes and their first intermediate hosts as well as developing effective interventions to control trematode parasitic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chittakun Suwancharoen
- Division of Microbiology and Parasitology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Phayao, Muang, Phayao, 56000, Thailand
| | - Chorpaka Phuangsri
- Division of Microbiology and Parasitology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Phayao, Muang, Phayao, 56000, Thailand
| | - Pannawich Siriwechviriya
- Division of Microbiology and Parasitology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Phayao, Muang, Phayao, 56000, Thailand
| | - Thanakon Bunsong
- Division of Microbiology and Parasitology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Phayao, Muang, Phayao, 56000, Thailand
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Ornampai Japa
- Division of Microbiology and Parasitology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Phayao, Muang, Phayao, 56000, Thailand.
- Scientific Instrument and Product Standard Quality Inspection Center, University of Phayao, Phayao, Thailand.
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Díaz AV, Walker M, Webster JP. Reaching the World Health Organization elimination targets for schistosomiasis: the importance of a One Health perspective. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2023; 378:20220274. [PMID: 37598697 PMCID: PMC10440173 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2022.0274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The past three years has seen the launch of a new World Health Organization (WHO) neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) roadmap, together with revised control and elimination guidelines. Across all, there is now a clear emphasis on the need to incorporate a One Health approach, recognizing the critical links between human and animal health and the environment. Schistosomiasis, caused by Schistosoma spp. trematodes, is a NTD of global medical and veterinary importance, with over 220 million people and untold millions of livestock currently infected. Its burden remains extremely high in certain regions, particularly within sub-Saharan Africa, despite over two decades of mass preventive chemotherapy (mass drug administration), predominantly to school-aged children. In Africa, in contrast to Asia, any zoonotic component of schistosomiasis transmission and its implications for disease control has, until recently, been largely ignored. Here, we review recent epidemiological, clinical, molecular, and modelling work across both Asia and Africa. We outline the evolutionary history and transmission dynamics of Schistosoma species, and emphasize the emerging risk raised by both wildlife reservoirs and viable hybridization between human and animal schistosomes. To achieve the 2030 WHO roadmap elimination targets, a truly multi-disciplinary One Health perspective must be implemented. This article is part of the theme issue 'Challenges and opportunities in the fight against neglected tropical diseases: a decade from the London Declaration on NTDs'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana V. Díaz
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Martin Walker
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College, London W2 1PG, UK
| | - Joanne P. Webster
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College, London W2 1PG, UK
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5
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You H, Jones MK, Gordon CA, Arganda AE, Cai P, Al-Wassiti H, Pouton CW, McManus DP. The mRNA Vaccine Technology Era and the Future Control of Parasitic Infections. Clin Microbiol Rev 2023; 36:e0024121. [PMID: 36625671 PMCID: PMC10035331 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00241-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite intensive long-term efforts, with very few exceptions, the development of effective vaccines against parasitic infections has presented considerable challenges, given the complexity of parasite life cycles, the interplay between parasites and their hosts, and their capacity to escape the host immune system and to regulate host immune responses. For many parasitic diseases, conventional vaccine platforms have generally proven ill suited, considering the complex manufacturing processes involved and the costs they incur, the inability to posttranslationally modify cloned target antigens, and the absence of long-lasting protective immunity induced by these antigens. An effective antiparasite vaccine platform is required to assess the effectiveness of novel vaccine candidates at high throughput. By exploiting the approach that has recently been used successfully to produce highly protective COVID mRNA vaccines, we anticipate a new wave of research to advance the use of mRNA vaccines to prevent parasitic infections in the near future. This article considers the characteristics that are required to develop a potent antiparasite vaccine and provides a conceptual foundation to promote the development of parasite mRNA-based vaccines. We review the recent advances and challenges encountered in developing antiparasite vaccines and evaluate the potential of developing mRNA vaccines against parasites, including those causing diseases such as malaria and schistosomiasis, against which vaccines are currently suboptimal or not yet available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong You
- Department of Infection and Inflammation, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Malcolm K. Jones
- School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Catherine A. Gordon
- Department of Infection and Inflammation, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Alexa E. Arganda
- Department of Infection and Inflammation, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Pengfei Cai
- Department of Infection and Inflammation, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Harry Al-Wassiti
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Colin W. Pouton
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Donald P. McManus
- Department of Infection and Inflammation, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
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6
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Characterization and evaluation of a new triosephosphate isomerase homologue from Haemaphysalis longicornis as a candidate vaccine against tick infection. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2022; 13:101968. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2022.101968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Ogongo P, Nyakundi RK, Chege GK, Ochola L. The Road to Elimination: Current State of Schistosomiasis Research and Progress Towards the End Game. Front Immunol 2022; 13:846108. [PMID: 35592327 PMCID: PMC9112563 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.846108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The new WHO Roadmap for Neglected Tropical Diseases targets the global elimination of schistosomiasis as a public health problem. To date, control strategies have focused on effective diagnostics, mass drug administration, complementary and integrative public health interventions. Non-mammalian intermediate hosts and other vertebrates promote transmission of schistosomiasis and have been utilized as experimental model systems. Experimental animal models that recapitulate schistosomiasis immunology, disease progression, and pathology observed in humans are important in testing and validation of control interventions. We discuss the pivotal value of these models in contributing to elimination of schistosomiasis. Treatment of schistosomiasis relies heavily on mass drug administration of praziquantel whose efficacy is comprised due to re-infections and experimental systems have revealed the inability to kill juvenile schistosomes. In terms of diagnosis, nonhuman primate models have demonstrated the low sensitivity of the gold standard Kato Katz smear technique. Antibody assays are valuable tools for evaluating efficacy of candidate vaccines, and sera from graded infection experiments are useful for evaluating diagnostic sensitivity of different targets. Lastly, the presence of Schistosomes can compromise the efficacy of vaccines to other infectious diseases and its elimination will benefit control programs of the other diseases. As the focus moves towards schistosomiasis elimination, it will be critical to integrate treatment, diagnostics, novel research tools such as sequencing, improved understanding of disease pathogenesis and utilization of experimental models to assist with evaluating performance of new approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Ogongo
- Division of Experimental Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States.,Department of Tropical and Infectious Diseases, Institute of Primate Research, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Ruth K Nyakundi
- Department of Tropical and Infectious Diseases, Institute of Primate Research, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Gerald K Chege
- Primate Unit & Delft Animal Centre, South African Medical Research Council, Cape Town, South Africa.,Department of Pathology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Lucy Ochola
- Department of Tropical and Infectious Diseases, Institute of Primate Research, Nairobi, Kenya.,Department of Environmental Health, School of Behavioural and Lifestyle Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, Nelson Mandela University, Gqeberha, South Africa
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Jumawan JC, Estaño LA. Prevalence of Schistosoma japonicum in bovines and Oncomelania hupensis quadrasi from ricefields surrounding Lake Mainit, Philippines. J Parasit Dis 2021; 45:851-858. [PMID: 33746379 PMCID: PMC7957443 DOI: 10.1007/s12639-021-01372-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease caused by blood flukes of the genus Schistosoma and involves bovines and snails as a reservoir and intermediate hosts, respectively. This disease is endemic in Lake Mainit, Philippines, as early as 1947. The study was conducted to determine the prevalence of Schistosoma infection in ricefields adjacent to Lake Mainit by collecting Oncomelania hupensis quadrasi snails and bovine fecal samples which are then subjected to laboratory examination and analysis. A total of 345 O. quadrasi individuals and 32 bovine fecal samples were collected from six barangay rice field stations adjacent to Lake Mainit from February and July 2020. Among the six barangays, Alipao had the highest prevalence of Schistosoma in O. quadrasi (39.71%), followed by San Isidro (28.3%), Matin-ao (18%), Poblacion (15%), and Magpayang (2.5%). No Oncomelania snails were collected in the ricefields of Cuyago. Schistosoma japonicum had an overall prevalence of 14.71% in all the bovines sampled, where Cuyago had the highest prevalence (50.0%) followed by Alipao (33.33%). The intensity of infection of Schistosoma eggs per gram (MPEG = 0.70) among bovines is categorized as light. Bovine contamination index calculations revealed that, on average, infected bovines in Lake Mainit excrete ~ 55,000 S. japonicum eggs per day. The study confirms the important role of bovines as a reservoir host for schistosomiasis. The presence of both infected bovines and O. quadrasi in ricefields makes this agricultural venue an important nidus of S. japonicum emergence in Lake Mainit. An integrated approach of mass drug administration (MDA) of praziquantel, implementation of a bovine vaccine-directed control program, and providing farmers with mechanized farm equipment are highly recommended to minimize the risk of exposure and infection to schistosomiasis in rice fields adjacent to the lake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joycelyn C. Jumawan
- Department of Biology, College of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Caraga State University, Butuan City, Agusan Del Norte Philippines
| | - Leonardo A. Estaño
- Department of Biology, College of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Caraga State University, Butuan City, Agusan Del Norte Philippines
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McManus DP. The Search for a Schistosomiasis Vaccine: Australia's Contribution. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:vaccines9080872. [PMID: 34451997 PMCID: PMC8402410 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9080872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Revised: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Schistosomiasis, a neglected tropical disease caused by parasitic flatworms of the genus Schistosoma, results in considerable human morbidity in sub-Saharan Africa, in particular, but also parts of the Middle East, South America, and Southeast Asia. The anti-schistosome drug praziquantel is efficacious and safe against the adult parasites of all Schistosoma species infecting humans; however, it does not prevent reinfection and the development of drug resistance is a constant concern. The need to develop an effective vaccine is of great importance if the health of many in the developing world is to be improved. Indeed, vaccination, in combination with other public health measures, can provide an invaluable tool to achieve lasting control, leading to schistosomiasis elimination. Australia has played a leading role in schistosomiasis vaccine research over many years and this review presents an overview of some of the significant contributions made by Australian scientists in this important area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald P McManus
- Molecular Parasitology Laboratory, Infectious Diseases Division, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane 4006, Australia
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10
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Aula OP, McManus DP, Jones MK, Gordon CA. Schistosomiasis with a Focus on Africa. Trop Med Infect Dis 2021; 6:109. [PMID: 34206495 PMCID: PMC8293433 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed6030109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Revised: 06/03/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Schistosomiasis is a common neglected tropical disease of impoverished people and livestock in many developing countries in tropical Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Latin America. Substantial progress has been made in controlling schistosomiasis in some African countries, but the disease still prevails in most parts of sub-Saharan Africa with an estimated 800 million people at risk of infection. Current control strategies rely primarily on treatment with praziquantel, as no vaccine is available; however, treatment alone does not prevent reinfection. There has been emphasis on the use of integrated approaches in the control and elimination of the disease in recent years with the development of health infrastructure and health education. However, there is a need to evaluate the present status of African schistosomiasis, primarily caused by Schistosoma mansoni and S. haematobium, and the factors affecting the disease as the basis for developing more effective control and elimination strategies in the future. This review provides an historical perspective of schistosomiasis in Africa and discusses the current status of control efforts in those countries where the disease is endemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oyime Poise Aula
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane 4006, Australia;
- Molecular Parasitology Laboratory, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane 4006, Australia
| | - Donald P. McManus
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane 4006, Australia;
| | - Malcolm K. Jones
- School of Veterinary Sciences, University of Queensland, Gatton 4343, Australia;
| | - Catherine A. Gordon
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane 4006, Australia;
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Al-Naseri A, Al-Absi S, El Ridi R, Mahana N. A comprehensive and critical overview of schistosomiasis vaccine candidates. J Parasit Dis 2021; 45:557-580. [PMID: 33935395 PMCID: PMC8068781 DOI: 10.1007/s12639-021-01387-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
A digenetic platyhelminth Schistosoma is the causative agent of schistosomiasis, one of the neglected tropical diseases that affect humans and animals in numerous countries in the Middle East, sub-Saharan Africa, South America and China. Several control methods were used for prevention of infection or treatment of acute and chronic disease. Mass drug administration led to reduction in heavy-intensity infections and morbidity, but failed to decrease schistosomiasis prevalence and eliminate transmission, indicating the need to develop anti-schistosome vaccine to prevent infection and parasite transmission. This review summarizes the efficacy and protective capacity of available schistosomiasis vaccine candidates with some insights and future prospects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aya Al-Naseri
- Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Cairo Univesity, Giza, 12613 Egypt
| | - Samar Al-Absi
- Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Cairo Univesity, Giza, 12613 Egypt
| | - Rashika El Ridi
- Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Cairo Univesity, Giza, 12613 Egypt
| | - Noha Mahana
- Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Cairo Univesity, Giza, 12613 Egypt
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12
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You H, Jones MK, Whitworth DJ, McManus DP. Innovations and Advances in Schistosome Stem Cell Research. Front Immunol 2021; 12:599014. [PMID: 33746946 PMCID: PMC7973109 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.599014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Schistosomes infect about 250 million people globally causing the devastating and persistent disease of schistosomiasis. These blood flukes have a complicated life cycle involving alternating infection of freshwater snail intermediate and definitive mammalian hosts. To survive and flourish in these diverse environments, schistosomes transition through a number of distinct life-cycle stages as a result of which they change their body plan in order to quickly adapt to each new environment. Current research suggests that stem cells, present in adults and larvae, are key in aiding schistosomes to facilitate these changes. Given the recent advances in our understanding of schistosome stem cell biology, we review the key roles that two major classes of cells play in the different life cycle stages during intramolluscan and intramammalian development; these include the germinal cells of sporocysts involved in asexual reproduction in molluscan hosts and the neoblasts of adult worms involved in sexual reproduction in human and other mammalian hosts. These studies shed considerable new light in revealing the stem cell heterogeneity driving the propagation of the schistosome life cycle. We also consider the possibility and value of establishing stem cell lines in schistosomes to advance schistosomiasis research. The availability of such self-renewable resources will provide new platforms to study stem cell behavior and regulation, and to address fundamental aspects of schistosome biology, reproductive development and survival. In turn, such studies will create new avenues to unravel individual gene function and to optimize genome-editing processes in blood flukes, which may lead to the design of novel intervention strategies for schistosomiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong You
- Department of Immunology, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Malcolm K Jones
- Department of Immunology, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.,School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, Australia
| | - Deanne J Whitworth
- School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, Australia
| | - Donald P McManus
- Department of Immunology, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
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13
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Molehin AJ, Gray SA, Turner C, Davis J, Zhang W, Khatoon S, Rattan M, Kernen R, Peterson C, Sennoune SR, Carter D, Siddiqui AA. Process Development of Sj-p80: A Low-Cost Transmission-Blocking Veterinary Vaccine for Asiatic Schistosomiasis. Front Immunol 2021; 11:578715. [PMID: 33732227 PMCID: PMC7959798 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.578715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Asiatic schistosomiasis caused by Schistosoma japonicum is a neglected tropical disease resulting in significant morbidity to both humans and animals - particularly bovines - in endemic areas. Infection with this parasite leads to less healthy herds, causing problems in communities which rely on bovines for farming, milk and meat production. Additionally, excretion of parasite eggs in feces perpetuates the life cycle and can lead to human infection. We endeavored to develop a minimally purified, inexpensive, and effective vaccine based on the 80 kDa large subunit of the calcium activated neutral protease (calpain) from S. japonicum (Sj-p80). Here we describe the production of veterinary vaccine-grade Sj-p80 at four levels of purity and demonstrate in a pilot study that minimally purified antigen provides protection against infection in mice when paired with a low-cost veterinary adjuvant, Montanide™ ISA61 VG. Preliminary data demonstrate that the vaccine is immunogenic with robust antibody titers following immunization, and vaccination resulted in a reduction of parasite eggs being deposited in the liver (23.4-51.4%) and intestines (1.9-55.1%) depending on antigen purity as well as reducing the ability of these eggs to hatch into miracidia by up to 31.6%. We therefore present Sj-p80 as a candidate vaccine antigen for Asiatic schistosomiasis which is now primed for continued development and testing in bovines in endemic areas. A successful bovine vaccine could play a major role in reducing pathogen transmission to humans by interrupting the parasitic life cycle and improving quality of life for people living in endemic countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adebayo J. Molehin
- Center for Tropical Medicine and Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, United States
- Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, United States
| | - Sean A. Gray
- PAI Life Sciences Inc, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Cheri Turner
- PAI Life Sciences Inc, Seattle, WA, United States
| | | | - Weidong Zhang
- Center for Tropical Medicine and Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, United States
- Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, United States
| | - Sabiha Khatoon
- Center for Tropical Medicine and Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, United States
- Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, United States
| | - Madison Rattan
- Center for Tropical Medicine and Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, United States
| | - Rebecca Kernen
- Center for Tropical Medicine and Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, United States
| | - Christopher Peterson
- Center for Tropical Medicine and Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, United States
| | - Souad R. Sennoune
- Center for Tropical Medicine and Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, United States
| | | | - Afzal A. Siddiqui
- Center for Tropical Medicine and Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, United States
- Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, United States
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14
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Schols R, Mudavanhu A, Carolus H, Hammoud C, Muzarabani KC, Barson M, Huyse T. Exposing the Barcoding Void: An Integrative Approach to Study Snail-Borne Parasites in a One Health Context. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:605280. [PMID: 33363243 PMCID: PMC7758321 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.605280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Trematodes are snail-borne parasites of major zoonotic importance that infect millions of people and animals worldwide and frequently hybridize with closely related species. Therefore, it is desirable to study trematodiases in a One Health framework, where human and animal trematodes are considered equally important. It is within this framework that we set out to study the snail and trematode communities in four artificial lakes and an abattoir in Zimbabwe. Trematode infections in snails were detected through multiplex PCR protocols. Subsequently, we identified snails by sequencing a partial mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) fragment, and trematodes (adults from the abattoir and larval stages detected in snails) using COI and nuclear rDNA markers. Of the 1,674 collected snails, 699 were molecularly analyzed, in which we identified 12 snail and 19 trematode species. Additionally, three parasite species were sampled from the abattoir. Merely four trematode species were identified to species level through COI-based barcoding. Moreover, identification of members of the superfamilies Opisthorchioidea and Plagiorchioidea required a phylogenetic inference using the highly conserved 18S rDNA marker, as no related COI reference sequences were present in public databases. These barcoding challenges demonstrate a severe barcoding void in the available databases, which can be attributed to the neglected status of trematodiases. Adding to this, many available sequences cannot be used as different studies use different markers. To fill this gap, more studies on African trematodes, using a standardized COI barcoding region, are desperately needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruben Schols
- Laboratory of Aquatic Biology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Kulak, Kortrijk, Belgium.,Department of Biology, Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium
| | - Aspire Mudavanhu
- Department of Biological Sciences, Bindura University of Science Education, Bindura, Zimbabwe
| | - Hans Carolus
- Laboratory of Molecular Cell Biology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven-Vlaams Instituut voor Biotechnologie Center for Microbiology, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Cyril Hammoud
- Department of Biology, Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium.,Limnology Research Unit, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | | | - Maxwell Barson
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe.,Department of Biological Sciences, University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana
| | - Tine Huyse
- Department of Biology, Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium
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15
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Kouadio JN, Giovanoli Evack J, Achi LY, Fritsche D, Ouattara M, Silué KD, Bonfoh B, Hattendorf J, Utzinger J, Zinsstag J, Balmer O, N'Goran EK. Prevalence and distribution of livestock schistosomiasis and fascioliasis in Côte d'Ivoire: results from a cross-sectional survey. BMC Vet Res 2020; 16:446. [PMID: 33203412 PMCID: PMC7672978 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-020-02667-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Schistosoma and Fasciola are zoonotic parasites of public health and veterinary importance. However, while the epidemiology of schistosomiasis in humans is well studied, little is known about fascioliasis and schistosomiasis in livestock in Côte d'Ivoire. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and the distribution of livestock schistosomiasis and fascioliasis across Côte d'Ivoire. In 2018, we conducted a cross-sectional survey in abattoirs and farms in 13 departments of Côte d'Ivoire. In abattoirs, the mesenteric veins and livers of slaughtered cattle, sheep and goats were examined for adult Schistosoma and Fasciola flukes. Faeces from live cattle, goats and sheep were collected and examined for Schistosoma and Fasciola eggs using a sedimentation technique. RESULTS A total of 386 cattle, 174 goats and 151 sheep from abattoirs and 435 cattle, 22 goats and 176 sheep from farms were sampled. The observed prevalence of schistosomiasis was higher in slaughtered animals. Fascioliasis was more prevalent in farm animals. The prevalence of schistosomiasis in slaughtered cattle varied between 5.9% (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.7-19.7%) and 53.3% (95% CI: 37.9-68.3%) with the highest prevalence observed in Ouangolodougou in the North. Cattle from farms had a relatively low prevalence of schistosomiasis, with the highest prevalence found in Ouangolodougou (2.4%, 95% CI: 0.7-6.1%). The prevalence of fascioliasis varied considerably from one department to another, ranging from nil (95% CI: 0.0-18.5%) to 50.8% (95% CI: 43.4-58.2%), with the highest prevalence found in farm cattle in Dikodougou in the North. Sheep and goats had a lower prevalence of schistosomiasis and fascioliasis than cattle. In slaughtered animals, cattle aged 4 years and older were at highest risk for schistosomiasis (odds ratio (OR): 2.4; 95% CI: 1.0-5.6) and fascioliasis (OR: 2.1; 95% CI: 1.1-3.9). In farm animals, male cattle had higher odds of being infected with Schistosoma (OR: 4.3; 95% CI: 0.7-26.9) than females. CONCLUSIONS Our study confirms that schistosomiasis and fascioliasis are endemic in livestock across Côte d'Ivoire. A strategic control programme should be considered, especially for cattle, including providing drinking water in troughs to reduce faecal contamination of water sources by cattle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jules N Kouadio
- Unité de Formation et de Recherche Biosciences, Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny, 22 BP 770 Abidjan 22, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire. .,Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques en Côte d'Ivoire, 01 BP 1303 Abidjan 01, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire. .,Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, P.O. Box CH-4002, Basel, Switzerland. .,University of Basel, P.O. Box CH-4001, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Jennifer Giovanoli Evack
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, P.O. Box CH-4002, Basel, Switzerland.,University of Basel, P.O. Box CH-4001, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Louise Y Achi
- Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques en Côte d'Ivoire, 01 BP 1303 Abidjan 01, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire.,Ecole de Spécialisation en Elevage et des Métiers de la Viande de Bingerville, BP 58 Bingerville, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire
| | - Dominik Fritsche
- University of Zurich, Ramistrasse 71, P.O. Box CH-8006, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Mamadou Ouattara
- Unité de Formation et de Recherche Biosciences, Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny, 22 BP 770 Abidjan 22, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire.,Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques en Côte d'Ivoire, 01 BP 1303 Abidjan 01, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire
| | - Kigbafori D Silué
- Unité de Formation et de Recherche Biosciences, Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny, 22 BP 770 Abidjan 22, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire.,Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques en Côte d'Ivoire, 01 BP 1303 Abidjan 01, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire
| | - Bassirou Bonfoh
- Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques en Côte d'Ivoire, 01 BP 1303 Abidjan 01, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire
| | - Jan Hattendorf
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, P.O. Box CH-4002, Basel, Switzerland.,University of Basel, P.O. Box CH-4001, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jürg Utzinger
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, P.O. Box CH-4002, Basel, Switzerland.,University of Basel, P.O. Box CH-4001, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jakob Zinsstag
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, P.O. Box CH-4002, Basel, Switzerland.,University of Basel, P.O. Box CH-4001, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Oliver Balmer
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, P.O. Box CH-4002, Basel, Switzerland.,University of Basel, P.O. Box CH-4001, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Eliézer K N'Goran
- Unité de Formation et de Recherche Biosciences, Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny, 22 BP 770 Abidjan 22, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire.,Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques en Côte d'Ivoire, 01 BP 1303 Abidjan 01, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire
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16
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Therapeutic Effect of Diminazene Aceturate on Parasitic Blood Fluke Schistosoma mansoni Infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2020; 64:AAC.01372-20. [PMID: 32816737 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01372-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Praziquantel is currently the only drug available to treat schistosomiasis, a disease of enormous public health significance caused by a blood fluke of the genus Schistosoma Diminazene, a drug approved by the FDA, has been successfully used to treat diseases caused by blood protozoan parasites. In this study, we evaluated the antiparasitic properties of diminazene against Schistosoma mansoni ex vivo and in mice harboring either chronic or early S. mansoni infections. In vitro, we monitored phenotypic and tegumental changes as well as the effects of the drug on pairing and egg production. In mice infected with either adult (chronic infection) or immature (early infection) worms, diminazene was administered intraperitoneally (10 to 100 mg/kg of body weight) or by oral gavage (100 to 400 mg/kg), and we studied the influence of the drug on worm burden and egg production. Liver and spleen pathologies and serum aminotransferase levels were also analyzed. In vitro, 50% effective concentrations (EC50) and EC90 revealed that diminazene is able to kill both immature and adult parasites, and its effect was time and concentration dependent. In addition, confocal laser scanning microscopy showed morphological alterations in the teguments of schistosomes. In an animal model, the influence of the drug on worm burden, egg production, hepatomegaly, and splenomegaly depended on the dosing regimen applied and the route of administration. Diminazene also caused a significant reduction in aminotransferase levels. Comparatively, diminazene treatment was more effective in chronic infection than in early infection. In tandem, our study revealed that diminazene possesses anthelmintic properties and inhibits liver injury caused by Schistosoma eggs.
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17
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Recent Progress in the Development of Liver Fluke and Blood Fluke Vaccines. Vaccines (Basel) 2020; 8:vaccines8030553. [PMID: 32971734 PMCID: PMC7564142 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines8030553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2020] [Revised: 09/18/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Liver flukes (Fasciola spp., Opisthorchis spp., Clonorchis sinensis) and blood flukes (Schistosoma spp.) are parasitic helminths causing neglected tropical diseases that result in substantial morbidity afflicting millions globally. Affecting the world’s poorest people, fasciolosis, opisthorchiasis, clonorchiasis and schistosomiasis cause severe disability; hinder growth, productivity and cognitive development; and can end in death. Children are often disproportionately affected. F. hepatica and F. gigantica are also the most important trematode flukes parasitising ruminants and cause substantial economic losses annually. Mass drug administration (MDA) programs for the control of these liver and blood fluke infections are in place in a number of countries but treatment coverage is often low, re-infection rates are high and drug compliance and effectiveness can vary. Furthermore, the spectre of drug resistance is ever-present, so MDA is not effective or sustainable long term. Vaccination would provide an invaluable tool to achieve lasting control leading to elimination. This review summarises the status currently of vaccine development, identifies some of the major scientific targets for progression and briefly discusses future innovations that may provide effective protective immunity against these helminth parasites and the diseases they cause.
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18
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Schols R, Carolus H, Hammoud C, Mulero S, Mudavanhu A, Huyse T. A rapid diagnostic multiplex PCR approach for xenomonitoring of human and animal schistosomiasis in a 'One Health' context. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2020; 113:722-729. [PMID: 31369105 DOI: 10.1093/trstmh/trz067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2019] [Revised: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 07/23/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Studying the epidemiology of schistosomiasis-the most prevalent gastropod-borne human disease and an economic burden for the livestock industry-relies on adequate monitoring tools. Here we describe a molecular assay for detecting human and animal African schistosome species in their planorbid gastropod host (xenomonitoring) using a two-step approach. First, schistosome infections are detected and discriminated from other trematode infections using a multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) that includes a trematode-specific marker (in 18S rDNA), a Schistosoma genus-specific marker (in internal transcribed spacer 2 [ITS2]) and a general gastropod marker (in 18S rDNA) as an internal control. Upon Schistosoma sp. detection, a second multiplex PCR is performed to discriminate among Schistosoma haematobium, Schistosoma mansoni, Schistosoma mattheei and Schistosoma bovis/Schistosoma curassoni/Schistosoma guineensis using markers of differential lengths in the cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (COX1) gene. The specificity of these assays was validated with adult worms, naturally infected gastropods and human urine and stool samples. Sensitivity was tested on experimentally infected snail specimens that were sacrificed 10 and 40 days post-infection in order to mimic a natural prepatent and mature infection, respectively. The assay provides a diagnostic tool to support the xenomonitoring of planorbid gastropods for trematode infections in a One Health context, with a focus on the transmission monitoring of schistosomiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruben Schols
- Laboratory of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Genomics, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Hans Carolus
- Laboratory of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Genomics, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Cyril Hammoud
- Department of Biology, Royal Museum for Central Africa, Leuvensesteenweg 13, Tervuren, Belgium.,Limnology Research Unit, Ghent University, K. L. Ledeganckstraat 35, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Stephen Mulero
- Laboratory of Host-Pathogen-Environment Interactions, IHPE UMR 5244, CNRS, University of Perpignan Via Domitia, Perpignan, France
| | - Aspire Mudavanhu
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Tine Huyse
- Laboratory of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Genomics, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Biology, Royal Museum for Central Africa, Leuvensesteenweg 13, Tervuren, Belgium
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19
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Molecular Markers for Detecting Schistosoma Species by Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification. DISEASE MARKERS 2020; 2020:8042705. [PMID: 32774514 PMCID: PMC7396120 DOI: 10.1155/2020/8042705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Revised: 06/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Schistosomiasis is considered a neglected parasitic disease. Around 280,000 people die from it annually, and more than 779 million people are at risk of getting infected. The schistosome species which infect human beings are Schistosoma mansoni, Schistosoma haematobium, Schistosoma intercalatum, Schistosoma japonicum, Schistosoma guineensis, and Schistosoma mekongi. This disease is also of veterinary significance; the most important species being Schistosoma bovis since it causes the disease in around 160 million livestock in Africa and Asia. This work was aimed at designing and developing a genus-specific loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) method for detecting the most important schistosome species affecting humans and for the species-specific detection of S. bovis. Bioinformatics tools were used for primer design, and the LAMP method was standardised for detecting the ITS-1 region from S. intercalatum, S. haematobium, S. mansoni, S. japonicum, and S. bovis DNA (generic test) and the NADH 1 gene for specifically detecting S. bovis (at different DNA concentrations). Detection limits achieved were 1 pg DNA for S. mansoni, 0.1 pg for S. haematobium, 1 pg for S. intercalatum, and 10 pg for S. bovis. No amplification for S. japonicum DNA was obtained. The LAMP designed for the amplification of S. bovis NADH-1 worked specifically for this species, and no other DNA from other schistosome species included in the study was amplified. Two highly sensitive LAMP methods for detecting different Schistosoma species important for human and veterinary health were standardised. These methods could be very useful for the diagnosis and surveillance of schistosome infections.
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20
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Schistosomiasis-from immunopathology to vaccines. Semin Immunopathol 2020; 42:355-371. [PMID: 32076812 PMCID: PMC7223304 DOI: 10.1007/s00281-020-00789-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2019] [Accepted: 02/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Schistosomiasis (bilharzia) is a neglected tropical disease caused by trematode worms of the genus Schistosoma. The transmission cycle involves human (or other mammalian) water contact with surface water contaminated by faeces or urine, as well as specific freshwater snails acting as intermediate hosts. The main disease-causing species are S. haematobium, S. mansoni and S. japonicum. According to the World Health Organisation, over 250 million people are infected worldwide, leading to considerable morbidity and the estimated loss of 1.9 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), a likely underestimated figure. Schistosomiasis is characterised by focal epidemiology and an over-dispersed population distribution, with higher infection rates in children. Complex immune mechanisms lead to the slow acquisition of immune resistance, but innate factors also play a part. Acute schistosomiasis, a feverish syndrome, is most evident in travellers following a primary infection. Chronic schistosomiasis affects mainly individuals with long-standing infections residing in poor rural areas. Immunopathological reactions against schistosome eggs trapped in host tissues lead to inflammatory and obstructive disease in the urinary system (S. haematobium) or intestinal disease, hepatosplenic inflammation and liver fibrosis (S. mansoni and S. japonicum). An effective drug—praziquantel—is available for treatment but, despite intensive efforts, no schistosomiasis vaccines have yet been accepted for public use. In this review, we briefly introduce the schistosome parasites and the immunopathogenic manifestations resulting from schistosomiasis. We then explore aspects of the immunology and host-parasite interplay in schistosome infections paying special attention to the current status of schistosomiasis vaccine development highlighting the advancement of a new controlled human challenge infection model for testing schistosomiasis vaccines.
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21
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Jimenez-Sandoval P, Castro-Torres E, González-González R, Díaz-Quezada C, Gurrola M, Camacho-Manriquez LD, Leyva-Navarro L, Brieba LG. Crystal structures of Triosephosphate Isomerases from Taenia solium and Schistosoma mansoni provide insights for vaccine rationale and drug design against helminth parasites. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0007815. [PMID: 31923219 PMCID: PMC6980832 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2019] [Revised: 01/23/2020] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Triosephosphate isomerases (TPIs) from Taenia solium (TsTPI) and
Schistosoma mansoni (SmTPI) are potential vaccine and drug
targets against cysticercosis and schistosomiasis, respectively. This is due to
the dependence of parasitic helminths on glycolysis and because those proteins
elicit an immune response, presumably due to their surface localization. Here we
report the crystal structures of TsTPI and SmTPI in complex with
2-phosphoglyceric acid (2-PGA). Both TPIs fold into a dimeric (β-α)8
barrel in which the dimer interface consists of α-helices 2, 3, and 4, and
swapping of loop 3. TPIs from parasitic helminths harbor a region of three amino
acids knows as the SXD/E insert (S155 to E157 and S157 to D159 in TsTPI and
SmTPI, respectively). This insert is located between α5 and β6 and is proposed
to be the main TPI epitope. This region is part of a solvent-exposed
310–helix that folds into a hook-like structure. The crystal
structures of TsTPI and SmTPI predicted conformational epitopes that could be
used for vaccine design. Surprisingly, the epitopes corresponding to the SXD/E
inserts are not the ones with the greatest immunological potential. SmTPI, but
not TsTPI, habors a sole solvent exposed cysteine (SmTPI-S230) and alterations
in this residue decrease catalysis. The latter suggests that thiol-conjugating
agents could be used to target SmTPI. In sum, the crystal structures of SmTPI
and TsTPI are a blueprint for targeted schistosomiasis and cysticercosis drug
and vaccine development. Because of the worldwide prevalence of schistosomiasis and cysticercosis, it is
critical to develop drugs and vaccines against their causative agents. The
glycolytic enzyme triosephosphate isomerase (TPI) is a dual-edged sword against
diseases caused by parasitic helminths. This is because helminths heavily depend
on glycolysis for energy and because the surface localization exhibited by TPIs
that elicits an immune response against those organisms. Here we provide the
crystal structures TPIs from Taenia solium and
Schistosoma mansoni as a first step for vaccine and drug
design. As a proof of concept we found that modifications in the single solvent
exposed cysteine of TPI from S. mansoni
decreases catalysis, making this enzyme a novel target against
schistosomiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Jimenez-Sandoval
- Laboratorio Nacional de Genómica para la Biodiversidad,
Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN, Irapuato, Guanajuato,
México
| | - Eduardo Castro-Torres
- Laboratorio Nacional de Genómica para la Biodiversidad,
Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN, Irapuato, Guanajuato,
México
| | - Rogelio González-González
- Laboratorio Nacional de Genómica para la Biodiversidad,
Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN, Irapuato, Guanajuato,
México
| | - Corina Díaz-Quezada
- Laboratorio Nacional de Genómica para la Biodiversidad,
Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN, Irapuato, Guanajuato,
México
| | - Misraim Gurrola
- Laboratorio Nacional de Genómica para la Biodiversidad,
Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN, Irapuato, Guanajuato,
México
| | - Laura D. Camacho-Manriquez
- Laboratorio Nacional de Genómica para la Biodiversidad,
Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN, Irapuato, Guanajuato,
México
| | - Lucia Leyva-Navarro
- Laboratorio Nacional de Genómica para la Biodiversidad,
Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN, Irapuato, Guanajuato,
México
| | - Luis G. Brieba
- Laboratorio Nacional de Genómica para la Biodiversidad,
Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN, Irapuato, Guanajuato,
México
- * E-mail:
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Ma L, Zhao W, Hou X, Liu M, Li Y, Shen L, Xu X. Identification of linear epitopes in SjSP-13 of Schistosoma japonicum using a GST-peptide fusion protein microplate array. Parasit Vectors 2019; 12:507. [PMID: 31666115 PMCID: PMC6822365 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-019-3767-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2019] [Accepted: 10/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The identification and characterization of epitopes facilitate the discovery and development of new therapeutics, vaccines and diagnostics for infectious diseases. In this study, we developed a glutathione S-transferase (GST)-peptide fusion protein microplate array for the identification of linear B-cell epitopes and applied this novel method to the identification of linear B-cell epitopes of SjSP-13, an immunodiagnostic biomarker of schistosomiasis japonica. Methods SjSP-13 was divided into 17 overlapped peptides (p1-17), and the coding sequence of each peptide was obtained by annealing two complementary oligonucleotides. SjSP-13 peptides were expressed by fusion with an N-terminal GST tag and a C-terminal 6xHis tag. The GST-peptide-His fusion protein was specifically bound to the Immobilizer Glutathione MicroWell 96-well plates without purification. SjSP-13 peptides and core epitopes that could be recognized by sera from schistosomiasis patients were identified by ELISA and confirmed by Western blot analysis. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis was performed to determine the diagnostic validity of the identified peptide. Results Full-length GST-peptide-His fusion proteins were successfully expressed and specifically bound to the Immobilizer Glutathione MicroWell 96-well plates. Two adjacent peptides (p7 and p8) were found to be highly immunogenic in humans. The core epitope of p7 and p8 is an 11-aa peptide (80KCLDVTDNLPE90) and an 8-aa peptide (90EKIIQFAE97), respectively. The area under the ROC curve (AUC) value of the peptide which contains the two identified epitopes is 0.947 ± 0.019. The diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of the peptide is 76.7% (95% CI: 68.8–84.5%) and 100%, respectively. Conclusions 90EKIIQFAE97 and 80KCLDVTDNLPE90 are the two linear epitopes of SjSP-13 recognized by patient sera, and could be potential serological markers for schistosomiasis japonica.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Ma
- Research Center for Translational Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenrong Zhao
- Research Center for Translational Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xunya Hou
- Hunan Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Yueyang, China
| | - Mengmeng Liu
- Research Center for Translational Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yanna Li
- Research Center for Translational Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Li Shen
- Research Center for Translational Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xindong Xu
- Research Center for Translational Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
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Bergquist R, Gray DJ. Schistosomiasis Elimination: Beginning of the End or a Continued March on a Trodden Path. Trop Med Infect Dis 2019; 4:tropicalmed4020076. [PMID: 31060317 PMCID: PMC6630800 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed4020076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2019] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In spite of spectacular progress towards the goal of elimination of schistosomiasis, particularly in China but also in other areas, research gaps and outstanding issues remain. Although expectations of achieving elimination of this disease have never been greater, all constraints have not been swept aside. Indeed, there are some formidable obstacles, such as insufficient amounts of drugs to treat everybody and still limited use of high-sensitive diagnostic techniques, both for the definitive and the intermediate hosts, which indicate that prevalence is considerably underrated in well-controlled areas. Elimination will be difficult to achieve without a broad approach, including a stronger focus on transmission, better diagnostics and the establishment of a reliable survey system activating a rapid response when called for. Importantly, awareness of the crucial importance of transmission has been revived resulting in renewed interest in snail control together with more emphasis on health education and sanitation. The papers collected in this special issue entitled ‘Prospects for Schistosomiasis Elimination’ reflect these issues and we are particularly pleased to note that some also discuss the crucial question when to declare a country free of schistosomiasis and present techniques that together create an approach that can show unequivocally when interruption of transmission has been achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Darren J Gray
- Research School of Population Health, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia.
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24
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Lago EM, Silva MP, Queiroz TG, Mazloum SF, Rodrigues VC, Carnaúba PU, Pinto PL, Rocha JA, Ferreira LLG, Andricopulo AD, de Moraes J. Phenotypic screening of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs identified mefenamic acid as a drug for the treatment of schistosomiasis. EBioMedicine 2019; 43:370-379. [PMID: 31027918 PMCID: PMC6557910 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2019.04.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2019] [Revised: 04/04/2019] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Treatment and control of schistosomiasis, one of the most insidious and serious parasitic diseases, depend almost entirely on a single drug, praziquantel. Since the funding for drug development for poverty-associated diseases is very limited, drug repurposing is a promising strategy. In this study, 73 nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) commonly used in medical and veterinary fields were evaluated for their anti-schistosomal properties. Methods The efficacy of NSAIDs was first tested against adult Schistosoma mansoni ex vivo using phenotypic screening strategy, effective drugs were further tested in a murine model of schistosomiasis. The disease parameters measured were worm and egg burden, hepato- and splenomegaly. Findings From 73 NSAIDs, five (mefenamic acid, tolfenamic acid, meclofenamic acid, celecoxib, and diclofenac) were identified to effectively kill schistosomes. These results were further supported by scanning electron microscopy analysis. In addition, the octanol-water partition coefficient, both for neutral and ionized species, revealed to be a critical property for the ex vivo activity profile. Compounds were then tested in vivo using both patent and a prepatent S. mansoni infection in a mouse model. The most effective NSAID was mefenamic acid, which highly reduced worm burden, egg production, and hepato- and splenomegaly. Interpretation The treatment regimen used in this study is within the range for which mefenamic acid has been used in clinical practice, thus, it is demonstrated the capacity of mefenamic acid to act as a potent anti-schistosomal agent suitable for clinical repurposing in the treatment of schistosomiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eloi M Lago
- Research Center for Neglected Diseases, University of Guarulhos, Praça Tereza Cristina, 229, Centro, 07023-070, Guarulhos, SP, Brazil
| | - Marcos P Silva
- Research Center for Neglected Diseases, University of Guarulhos, Praça Tereza Cristina, 229, Centro, 07023-070, Guarulhos, SP, Brazil
| | - Talita G Queiroz
- Research Center for Neglected Diseases, University of Guarulhos, Praça Tereza Cristina, 229, Centro, 07023-070, Guarulhos, SP, Brazil
| | - Susana F Mazloum
- Research Center for Neglected Diseases, University of Guarulhos, Praça Tereza Cristina, 229, Centro, 07023-070, Guarulhos, SP, Brazil
| | - Vinícius C Rodrigues
- Research Center for Neglected Diseases, University of Guarulhos, Praça Tereza Cristina, 229, Centro, 07023-070, Guarulhos, SP, Brazil
| | - Paulo U Carnaúba
- Research Center for Neglected Diseases, University of Guarulhos, Praça Tereza Cristina, 229, Centro, 07023-070, Guarulhos, SP, Brazil
| | - Pedro L Pinto
- Center for Research in Parasitology, Adolfo Lutz Institute, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Jefferson A Rocha
- Research Group of Natural Science and Biotechnology, Federal University of Maranhão, Grajaú, MA, Brazil
| | - Leonardo L G Ferreira
- Laboratory of Medicinal and Computational Chemistry, Center for Research and Innovation in Biodiversity and Drug Discovery, Physics Institute of Sao Carlos, University of Sao Paulo, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Adriano D Andricopulo
- Laboratory of Medicinal and Computational Chemistry, Center for Research and Innovation in Biodiversity and Drug Discovery, Physics Institute of Sao Carlos, University of Sao Paulo, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Josué de Moraes
- Research Center for Neglected Diseases, University of Guarulhos, Praça Tereza Cristina, 229, Centro, 07023-070, Guarulhos, SP, Brazil.
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25
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Yu J, Yu Y, Li Q, Chen M, Shen H, Zhang R, Song M, Hu W. Comprehensive analysis of miRNA profiles reveals the role of Schistosoma japonicum miRNAs at different developmental stages. Vet Res 2019; 50:23. [PMID: 30947738 PMCID: PMC6449929 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-019-0642-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2018] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Schistosomiasis is an important zoonotic disease affecting up to 40 kinds of animals and 250 million people. It has been reported that the miRNAs play a role in the metabolism, differentiation, development and reproduction in many organisms. However, the roles of miRNAs regulating the development, maturation and production in schistosome in both females and males remains unclear. Here we present the dynamic transcriptome analysis of all 79 known Schistosoma japonicum miRNAs from pairing to production, including 14 days post-infection (dpi), 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28 dpi female and male, by small RNA sequencing. The miRNA expression profiles showed time-related characteristics in male and female from paring to production, which could be clustered into three patterns, characterized by pairing stage highly expressed (cluster 1), maturating stage highly expressed (cluster 2), and egg producing stage highly expressed (cluster 3). The enrichment of miRNA cluster targeted genes in female and male were distinctly different. Network analysis of miRNAs and their target regulation showed that cluster 1 had 15 miRNAs involved in the regulation of interaction, communication, immune response in female–male and parasite–host. The other 11 miRNAs were involved in gender differentiation and the meiotic cell cycle process. In cluster 2, 11 miRNAs were involved in development and sexual maturation. In cluster 3, 45 miRNAs possibly regulate metabolism and synthesis of the substance for egg production. Analysis of the miRNA regulation network would contribute to understanding the molecular mechanism in S. japonicum development and egg production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Yu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, China.,State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Contemporary Anthropology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Genetics and Development, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, China
| | - Ying Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Contemporary Anthropology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Genetics and Development, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, China
| | - Qing Li
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Contemporary Anthropology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Genetics and Development, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, China
| | - Muxin Chen
- Joint Research Laboratory of Genetics and Ecology on Parasite-host Interaction, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention & Fudan University, WHO Collaborating Centre for Tropical Diseases, National Center for International Research on Tropical Diseases, Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology Ministry of Health, National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Haimo Shen
- Joint Research Laboratory of Genetics and Ecology on Parasite-host Interaction, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention & Fudan University, WHO Collaborating Centre for Tropical Diseases, National Center for International Research on Tropical Diseases, Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology Ministry of Health, National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - RuiXiang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Contemporary Anthropology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Genetics and Development, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, China
| | - Mingxin Song
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, China. .,Heilongjiang Key Laboratory for Zoonosis, Harbin, 150030, China.
| | - Wei Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Contemporary Anthropology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Genetics and Development, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, China. .,Joint Research Laboratory of Genetics and Ecology on Parasite-host Interaction, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention & Fudan University, WHO Collaborating Centre for Tropical Diseases, National Center for International Research on Tropical Diseases, Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology Ministry of Health, National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Shanghai, 200025, China.
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26
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You H, Harvie M, Du X, Rivera V, Zhang P, McManus DP. Protective Immune Responses Generated in a Murine Model Following Immunization with Recombinant Schistosoma japonicum Insulin Receptor. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19103088. [PMID: 30304851 PMCID: PMC6213549 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19103088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Revised: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 10/05/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
There is a pressing need to develop vaccines for schistosomiasis given the current heavy dependency on praziquantel as the only available drug for treatment. We previously showed the ligand domain of the Schistosoma japonicum insulin receptor 1 and 2 (rSjLD1 and 2) fusion proteins conferred solid protection in mice against challenge infection with S. japonicum. To improve vaccine efficacy, we compared the immunogenicity and protective efficacy of rSjLD1 on its own and in combination with S. japonicum triose-phosphate isomerase (SjTPI), formulated with either of two adjuvants (QuilA and montanide ISA 720VG) in murine vaccine trials against S. japonicum challenge. The level of protection was higher in mice vaccinated only with rSjLD1 formulated with either adjuvant; rSjTPI or the rSjTPI-rSjLD1 combination resulted in a lower level of protection. Mirroring our previous results, there were significant reductions in the number of female worms (30–44%), faecal eggs (61–68%), liver eggs (44–56%), intestinal eggs (46–48%) and mature intestinal eggs (58–63%) in the rSjLD1-vaccinated mice compared with the adjuvant only groups. At 6-weeks post-cercarial challenge, a significantly increased production of interferon gamma (IFNγ) in rSjLD1-stimulated splenic CD4+ T cells was observed in the rSjLD1-vaccinated mice suggesting a Th1-type response is associated with the generated level of protective efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong You
- Molecular Parasitology Laboratory, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane QLD4006, Queensland, Australia.
| | - Marina Harvie
- Molecular Parasitology Laboratory, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane QLD4006, Queensland, Australia.
| | - Xiaofeng Du
- Molecular Parasitology Laboratory, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane QLD4006, Queensland, Australia.
| | - Vanessa Rivera
- Molecular Parasitology Laboratory, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane QLD4006, Queensland, Australia.
| | - Ping Zhang
- Translational Cancer Immunotherapy Laboratory, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane QLD4006, Queensland, Australia.
| | - Donald P McManus
- Molecular Parasitology Laboratory, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane QLD4006, Queensland, Australia.
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